Optics

Interference  The modification of average intensity due to superposition

of two or more coherent light waves having definite phase
relationship between them.

Coherent waves  Waves having same frequency and a constant

phase difference.

Path difference  The difference between optical paths of two rays

travelling in different directions.

Phase difference  difference in phase angle between two sinusoids

and depends on optical path difference.

2π
δ= ×L
λ

Where 
δ = phase difference
λ = wavelength
 L = path difference
Condition for sustained interference of light waves

 Coherent sources of light are needed.

 Amplitudes and intensities must be nearly equal to produce sufficient

contrast between maxima and minima.

 The source must be small enough that it can be considered as a

point source of light.

 Two sources emitting set of interfering beams must be placed very

close to each other so that wavelength interact at very small angles.

 The sources must emit light in the same state of polarization.

 The sources must be monochromatic.

Condition of maxima
 observed at a point where the phase difference between the two
waves reaching the point is a whole number multiple of 2π

 Δ = 0, λ, 2λ, 3λ, ………..nλ [ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……]

Condition of minima
 Minimum intensity of light is observed at a point where the phase
difference between the two waves reaching the point is an odd
number multiple of π
  Δ = λ/2, 3λ/2, 5λ/2, ………..(n+1)λ [ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ……]

Generation of coherent waves

1) Division of wavefront 

 The wavefront originating from a source of light is divided into two parts
which serves the purpose of coherent sources.

 These two parts of the same wavefront travel unequal distances and reunite
at some angle to produce
interference bands.

 E.g.  Young’s double slit

expt.
Fresnel biprism.

 Path difference  Δ = xd/D

Fringe width  ß = λD/d

2) Division of amplitude 

 The amplitude of the beam is divided into two parts by partial reflection or
refraction methods.

 The waves corresponding to the divided

parts travel different paths and hence
produce interference.

 E.g. Interference due to thin films, wedge

shaped film interference, Newton’s rings.

 The path difference, Δ = 2μtcosr

Thin film interference
 The varied colours observed when white light is incident on thin films
of soap or oil on surface of water result from the interference of
waves reflected from the opposite surfaces of thin film.

 When light impinges on the first surface of a transparent film, a

portion of the incident wave is partially reflected and partially
transmitted.

 The transmitted portion is then reflected from a second surface and

emerges back out of the film.

Optical path difference 

 A ray PA is incident on the upper surface of a thin transparent film

of thickness t and refractive index µ

 The ray is partly reflected along AR1 and partly refracted along AB
 Optical path difference → ∆=μ ( AB+ BC ) −AN

sin i AN / AC AN
μ= = = AN =μCM
sin r CM / AC CM

∆=μ ( AB+ BC ) −μCM

∆=μ ( AB+ BC −CM )

∆=μ ( QB+ BC −CM )

∆=μQM

QM
¿ triangle AQM → cos r=
AQ

QM =AQ cos r =2t cos r

∆=2 μt cos r

Since the ray suffer a reflection at A, there is a phase change of π

which is equal to path difference of λ/2

∆=2 μt cos r ± λ/2

For constructive interference 
2 μt cos r ± λ/2=nλ

( 12 ) λ
2 μt cos r = n+

For destructive interference 

( 12 ) λ
2 μt cos r ± λ/2= n+

2 μt cos r =nλ

Where 

µ = refractive index
t = thickness
r = refracted angle
λ = wavelength
n = order number = 0,1,2,3,4, ……

Wedged shaped thin film

 Optical path difference → ∆=μ ( QS+Sl )−QM

sin i QM /QL QM
μ= = = QM=μQN
sin r QN /QL QN

∆=μ ( QS+SL ) −μQN

∆=μ ( QS+SL−QN )

∆=μ ( QS+ S T 3 −QN )

∆=μN T 3

NT 3
¿ triangle NL T 3 → cos ( r +α )=
LT 3

∆=2 μt cos(r +α )

Since the ray suffer a reflection at Q, there is a phase change of π

which is equal to path difference of λ/2

∆=2 μt cos(r +α )± λ/2

For constructive interference 
2 μt cos( r+ α )± λ /2=nλ

( 12 ) λ
2 μt cos( r+ α )= n+

For destructive interference 

2 μt cos(r+ α ) ± λ /2= n+( 12 ) λ

2 μt cos( r+ α )=nλ

Fringe spacing 

λ
β=
2 μ tan θ

Where 
µ = refractive index
t = thickness
r = refracted angle
λ = wavelength
n = order number = 0,1,2,3,4, ……
α = extra phase angle travelled by wave

Newton’s Ring
S  monochromatic light source

M  microscope

L  plano-convex lens

P and G  Plano glass plate

 An air film if formed between plano-convex lens and plane glass

plate .
 The thickness of air film at point of contact is zero and increases
outwards
 When light normally falls on this combination, alternative dark and
bright rings are formed.
 2 2 2
OH =IH +OI
2 2 2
R =r + ( R−t )
2 2 2 2
R =r + R −2 Rt +t

As t is small therefore t2 can be ignored

2
r =2 Rt
2 2
r Dn
t= =
2R 8 R

Where 
R = Radius of plano-convex lens
r = radius of rings
t = thickness of air film

Diameter for nth rings

Dark rings Bright rings
 2 μtcos r =nλ 2 μtcos r =(n+ 1/ 2) λ

for normal incidence r =0 For normal incidence r = 0

2 μt=nλ 2 μt=(n+1/2) λ

D 2n nλ D 2n (n+1/2) λ
= =
4R μ 4R μ

2 4 Rnλ 4 Rλ(n−1/2)
D n= 2
D n=
μ μ

To determine wavelength using newton’s ring experiment

4 Rnλ 2 4 Rλ(n+m)
D 2n= D(n +m)=
μ μ

4 Rλ ( n+m ) 4 Rnλ
D 2(n +m) −D 2n= −
μ μ

µ = 1 as light is in air
2 2
D (n +m) −D n=4 Rλm

2 2
D(n+ m)−D n
λ=
4 Rm
To determine refractive index (µ) of a liquid
2 4 Rnλ 2 4 Rλ ( n+ m )
D n= D( n +m)=
μ μ

4 Rλ ( n+m ) 4 Rnλ
D 2(n +m) −D 2n= −
μ μ

In air medium 

D 2(n +m) −D 2n=4 Rλm

In liquid medium 

2 2 4 Rλm
d (n+m) −d n=
μ

2 2
D (n+m) −D n
μ=
d 2(n+m) −d 2n
Anti-reflection coating

 If the substrate is coated with a thin film, and if the reflection from

air/film interface and from film/substrate interface are equal in

amplitude and have a phase difference of 1800 then the reflected

waves will cancel each other out by destructive interference, and the

intensity of the transmitted beam will approach the intensity of

incident beam .

 Such type of coating is anti-reflection coating

For refractive index →n f =√ ng

λ
Condition for minimum thickenss→
4 nf
Diffraction  The bending of light waves around the edge of any
obstacle/aperture whose size is comparable to the
wavelength of light.

To watch a good diffraction patterns size of aperture

(slit) should be in order of wavelength of the incident
Light.

Difference between Interference and Diffraction

Interference Diffraction

 The interaction takes place  The interaction takes place between

between two separate wave fronts the secondary waveform originating
arising from two coherent sources. from different points of the exposed
parts of the same wave front.

 In interference pattern the regions

of minimum intensity are perfectly  In diffraction pattern the regions of
dark. minimum intensity are not perfectly
dark.

 The interference fringes are equally

spaced.  The diffraction fringes are never
equally spaced.

 In interference pattern all bright

fringes are of equal intensity.  In diffraction pattern only first
maximum has maximum intensity
after that intensity decreases fast as
the order number increases.
Different types of Diffraction

I. Fresnel’s Diffraction 
 The source and the screen are placed at finite distances from the

aperture of the obstacle having sharp edges

 The incident wavefronts are either spherical or cylindrical

II. Fraunhofer’s Diffraction 

 The source and the screen are placed at infinity or optically at

infinity

 The incident wavefronts are plane.

Fraunhofer Diffraction at single slit

Condition for minima 

sin β=0∨β=mπ

Condition for maxima 

Root of equation → tan β=β

Where 
I0 = intensity at θ = 0o

β =

m = order number

Fraunhofer Diffraction at double slit

 [ ]
2
sin β
Intensity distribution → I =4 I 0 ¿¿
β

Path difference → ∆=b sin θ

Condition for maxima 

b sin θ=nλ

Condition for minima 

b sin θ=(n−1/ 2)λ

Where 
I0 = intensity at θ = 0o

β = γ=

m = order number
Fraunhofer Diffraction at n- slits
 [ ][ ]
2 2
sin β sin Nγ
Intensity distribution → I=I 0
β sin γ

Condition for maxima 

d sin θ=m λ

Condition for minima 

b sin θ=mλ

Where 
I0 = intensity at θ = 0o

β = γ=

m = order number
Diffraction Grating
  A periodic array of diffracting elements, either aperture or obstacles,

which has the effect of alternating the phase and/or the amplitude of

an emergent wave

 Grating spectrum 

 For N-slit diffraction pattern maxima is given by bsinθ = nλ

 The zeroth principal maximum occurs at θ = 0 irrespective

of the wavelength

 If we are using a polychromatic source (white light) then

the central maximum will be of the same color as the

source itself.

 For m other than zero the angles of diffraction are different

for different wavelengths and therefore, various spectral

components appear at different positions.

 Thus by measuring the angles of diffraction for various

colours one can determine the values of the wavelengths.

Dispersive power of a grating

 dθ
 Ratio of the variation angle of diffraction with wavelength dλ .

Equation for maxima 

d sin θ=nλ

Differentiating 
d cos θ dθ=n dλ

dθ n
Dispersive power → =
dλ d cos θ

Resolving power of a grating

λ
  measure of its ability to spatially separate two wavelengths dλ

 Resolving power =order of spectrum×total number of lines ∈grating

λ
Resolving power → =nλ
dλ

Application of Diffraction grating

 useful whenever light needs to be separated into its separate frequencies (or

wavelengths), for example in spectroscopy.

 Diffraction gratings can be used to produce monochromatic light of a required

wavelength

 Another use is “wavelength tuning” in lasers. The laser output can be varied

using a diffraction grating.