Note: The formulas are derived from experimentation and the basic formulas in fluids

and/or hydraulics.
HEAD LOSS ON NOZZLE

𝑽𝒏𝟐 𝟏
𝒉𝒏 = −𝟏
𝟐𝒈 𝑪𝒗 𝟐

HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
IN THE JET

𝑸𝜸𝒘𝑬
𝑯𝑷 =
𝟕𝟒𝟔
 HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
IN PUMP

𝑸𝜸𝒘𝑯. 𝑨.
𝑯𝑷 = (𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒑) H.A. = Head added
𝟕𝟒𝟔

HORSEPOWER AVAILABLE
IN A MOTOR OR TURBINE

𝑸𝜸𝒘𝑯. 𝑬.
H.E. = Head extracted 𝑯𝑷 = (𝒊𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒑)
𝟕𝟒𝟔
EFFICIENCY

𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒑
𝑬𝒇𝒇𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒚 =
𝑰𝒏𝒑𝒖𝒕 𝒉𝒑
Example:
A wrought iron pipe is required to convey oil (s.g. = 0.90) with an
absolute viscosity of 0.00384 Pa.s from one tank to another at a
rate of 0.0283 m3/s if the pipe is 915 meters long and the
difference in elevation of the free liquid surface is 12 m. Friction
factor is 0.038. Determine the following:
a) diameter of the pipe
b) the number of times the flow rate will increase if the diameter
is doubled with the flow being laminar.
c) the number of times the flow rate will increase if the diameter
is doubled with the flow being turbulent.

Solution:

a) Diameter of pipe
𝑈𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔:
𝑕𝑓 = 12 𝑚 𝑓𝐿𝑉2
𝑕𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷
 (0.038)(915)𝑉2
12 = 𝐷5 = 0.000192
2(9.81)𝐷
𝐷 = 0.18 m
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑫 =180 mm
𝜋𝐷2
𝑄 = 𝑉
4 b) No. of times the flow will increase
if the flow is laminar.
𝜋𝐷2
0.0283 = 𝑉
4 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑎 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑕𝑒𝑎𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
0.036 32𝑣𝐿𝑉
𝑉 = 𝑕𝑓 =
𝐷2 𝑔𝑑2
0.001298 𝐾𝑉
𝑉2 = 𝑕𝑓 = 2
𝐷4 𝑑

(0.038)(915)(0.001298) 𝑕𝑓𝑑2
12 = 𝑉=
2(9.81)𝐷(𝐷4) 𝐾
 𝑕𝑓𝑑2 c) No. of times the flow will increase
𝑉=
𝐾 if the flow is turbulent.
𝑓𝐿𝑉2
𝑉= 𝐶𝑑2 𝑕𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝐾𝑉2
𝑕𝑓 =
𝜋𝑑2 𝑑
𝑄= 𝐶𝑑2
4
𝑕𝑓𝑑
𝑉2 =
𝑄 = 𝐶1𝑑4 𝐾

𝑄2 = 𝐶1(2𝑑)4 𝑉2 = 𝐶1𝑑
/2
𝑉 = 𝐶2𝑑1
𝑄2 = 𝐶1 16𝑑4
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑸 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍
𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟏𝟔 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝜋𝑑2 /
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒍𝒂𝒎𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒓 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝑄= 𝐶2𝑑1 2
4
 /2
𝑄 = 𝐶2𝑑5
/2
𝑄 = 𝐶2(2𝑑)5
/2
𝑄 = 𝐶2 5.66 𝑑5

𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑸 𝒘𝒊𝒍𝒍

𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒆 = 𝟓. 𝟔𝟔 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒇𝒍𝒐𝒘
Example:
A 0.60-m diameter pipeline 30 m long carries 0.40 m3/sec. of water.
Determine the head loss using the following formula:
a) Darcy Weisback with f = 0.014
b) Manning’s formula with n = 0.012
c) Hazen Williams with C = 120

Solution:

a) By Darcy Weisback

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄2
𝑕𝑓 =
𝐷5

0.0826(0.014)(30)(0.4)2
𝑕𝑓 =
(0.60)5

𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎
b) By Manning’s Formula:

1 23 1 2 𝑅 = 0.15
𝑉 = 𝑅 𝑆
𝑛
1 2 3 1 2
0.4 1.414 = (0.15) 𝑆
𝑉 = 0.012
𝐴
𝑆 = 0.0036
0.4
𝑉 =𝜋
(0.60)2 𝑕𝑓
4 𝑆=
𝐿
𝑉 = 1.414 𝑚/𝑠
𝑕𝑓 = (0.0036)(30)
𝐷
𝑅= 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝐦
4
0.60
𝑅=
4
b) By Hazen William’s Formula with 𝐶 = 120:
. 𝟔𝟑 0.54 . 𝟔𝟑 0.54
𝑉 = 0.8492 𝐶 𝑅𝟎 𝑆 1.414 = 0.8492(120)(0.15)𝟎 𝑆

𝑄 . 𝟓𝟒
𝑉 = 𝑆𝟎 = 0.04572
𝐴
𝑆 = 0.0033
0.4
𝑉 =𝜋 𝑕𝑓
(0.60)2 𝑆=
4 𝐿
𝑉 = 1.414 𝑚/𝑠 𝑕𝑓 = (0.0033)(30)
𝐷
𝑅= 𝒉𝒇 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟗𝟗 𝐦
4
0.60
𝑅=
4

𝑅 = 0.15
MINOR HEAD LOSSES
Minor losses are caused by the changes in the direction or velocity
of flow due to:
 Sudden contraction
 Sudden enlargemen
 Valves
 Bends
 Any other pipe fittings

All minor losses are expressed in terms of the kinetic energy and
Generally written as

𝑽𝟐
h= K
𝟐𝒈

Where K is the coefficient of minor loss.

1. The loss of head, hc, caused by a reduction in the cross-
sectional area of the stream which results to an increase in
the velocity of flow.

𝑉2
hc = Kc
2𝑔

where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe.

Value of K from tank to pipe (entrance loss):

Flush connection …………………….0.50
Projecting connection……………. 1.00
Rounded connection …………….. 0.05
2. The loss of head, he, caused by an increase in the cross-
sectional area of the stream which results to a decrease in
the velocity of flow.

𝑉2
he = Ke
2𝑔

where V is the velocity in the smaller pipe.

Value of K from pipe to tank (exit loss) is taken as 1.0

3. The loss of head, ho, caused by obstructions such as gates,

valves, and any other pipe fittings which produce a change
in cross-sectional area in the pipe or in the direction of flow.

𝑉2
ho = Ko
2𝑔
4. The loss of head, hb, due to bends or curves in the pipe,
which produce a change in the direction of flow.

𝑉2
hb = Kb
2𝑔

Some values of K:
45o bend ………………………………0.35 to 0.45
90o bend ……………………………..0.50 to 0.75
Tees ……………………………………..1.50 to 2.00
Gates valves (open)……………….about 0.25
Check valves (open) ……………..about 3.0

5. The loss through a nozzle, Venturi meters, and orifices, hn,

is given by the formula
Cv = coef of velocity
1 𝑉𝑛2
hn = ( 2 − 1) Vn = velocity at the
𝐶𝑣 2𝑔 nozzle tip
PIPE DISCHARGING FROM A RESERVOIR
The figure below shows a condition of flow in a pipe of uniform diameter
discharging from a reservoir into open air. The velocity head and
pressure head in the liquid surface of the reservoir is zero. If there will
be no head lost, the velocity head could have been equal to 𝐻, which is
the distance between the water surface in the tank and the exit end of
the pipe and the velocity of flow would be 𝑉 = 2𝑔𝐻
The EGL (Energy Grade Line) is also plotted as shown in the figure
as well as the HGL (Hydraulic Grade Line).

Energy Grade line – A line that represents the elevation of energy

head (in feet or meters) of water flowing in a pipe, conduit or
channel.
Energy gradient – the slope of the specific energy line (i.e., the
sum of the potential and velocity heads). It is the graphical
representation of the total energy of flow.

Hydraulic Grade Line – It is the locus of elevations to which the

water would rise if open to atmospheric pressure. In pipes, it is the
graphical representation of the total potential energy of flow.
Hydraulic gradient – it is the slope of the water table or
potentiometric surface, that is, the change in water level per unit of
distance along the direction of maximum head decrease.
PIPE CONNECTING TWO RESERVOIRS
When one or more pipes connects two reservoirs, the total head
lost in all the pipes is equal to the difference in elevation of the
liquid surfaces of the reservoir.

HL = H = hminor + hf
hentrance


hf HL


Q hexit
Example: (with minor losses considered)
A wood stave pipe 120 m long is to carry 3400 liters/sec of water across
a ravine. Water enters one end of the pipe from an open flume, and
discharges at the other end into another flume. If the difference in
elevation between the water surfaces in the flume is to be 1 m,
determine:
a) The necessary diameter of pipe assuming well design transition
(kc= 0.1, ke= 0.2) and neglecting the effect of velocity in the
flumes. Use 𝑓 = 0.013

Diameter of pipe

𝐾𝑐𝑉2 𝐾𝑒𝑉2 4.329

𝐻𝐿 = + 𝑕𝑓 + 𝑉 =
2𝑔 2𝑔 𝐷2

0.1𝑉2 0.013 120 𝑉2 0.2𝑉2 0.3(4.329)2 1.56(4.329)2

1 = + + 1 = +
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔𝐷5 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷2

0.3𝑉2 1.56𝑉2 0.286552 1.49

1 = + 1 = + 5
2𝑔 𝐷 2𝑔 𝐷4 𝐷

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉 𝐷5 = 0.28655𝐷 + 1.49
𝜋 2
3.4 = 𝐷 𝑉 𝑫 = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟑 𝒎
4
b) Determine the velocity of water in the pipe.
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑉
𝜋
3.4 = (1.13)2𝑉
4
𝑽 = 𝟑. 𝟑𝟗 𝒎/𝒔

c) Solve for the minor losses.

𝑕𝑚 = 𝑕𝑐 + 𝑕𝑒 𝑕𝑚 = 0.0586 + 0.117
𝐾𝑐𝑉2 𝐾𝑒𝑉2
𝑕𝑚 = + 𝒉𝒎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟔 𝒎
2𝑔 2𝑔
0.10𝑉2 0.20𝑉2
𝑕𝑚 = +
2𝑔 2𝑔
0.10(3.39)2 0.20(3.39)2
𝑕𝑚 = +
2(9.81) 2(9.81
RESERVOIR PROBLEMS
Two Cases for this problem:

CASE 1:
Given the discharge in one of the pipes, find the elevation
of the other reservoir or may be the diameter or length of the
one of the pipes. By
Procedure in Solving this type of problem:
1. Given the flow in one pipe leading to or flowing out from a
reservoir of known elevation, solve for its head lost hf.
2. Determine the elevation of the energy grade line at the
junction of the pipes (J) by adding or subtracting the head
lost in the pipe from the elevation of the water surface in
the reservoir.
 El. 100
Figure:
El. 80
A
B
1

2
J
3

El. 50
C

3. Draw a line from J to the surface of the other reservoir.

These lines represents the EGL’s of each pipe. The difference
in elevation between J and the surface of the reservoir is the
head lost in the pipe.
4. Solve for the required variable.
CASE 2:
Given all the pipe properties and elevation of all reservoirs,
find the flow in each pipe, which can be solved by trial and
error.
Procedure in Solving this type of problem:
1. Given all elevation and pipe properties, determine the direction of flow
in each pipe, the highest reservoir always have an outflow and the
lowest always have an inflow.
El. 100
Figure:
El. 80
A
B
1
Q1
2
J
3
Q3
El. 50
C
2. The flow in the second pipe (pipe 2) can be determined by assuming that
𝑄𝟐 is 0. With this assumption, hf2 = 0, hf1 = 20, and hf3 = 30. Solve for
the flow in pipes 1 and 3. If 𝑄𝟑 > 𝑄𝟏 then the flow is away from
reservoir B and J is below reservoir B. If 𝑄𝟏 > 𝑄𝟑, the flow is towards
reservoir B and J is above reservoir B.

El. 100
Figure:
El. 80
A hf1 = 20
B
1
Q2= 0
Q1
2
hf3 = 30
J
3
Q3
El. 50
C
3. After determining the direction of Q2 (say towards reservoir B), express
all the head lost in terms of the other, say 𝑕𝑓1.
El. 100
Figure:
A P’ hf1 = 𝒙
El. 80 hf2 = 20 - 𝒙
1 B
Q1 Q2
2
Q 1 = Q2 + Q 3 J hf3 = 50 - 𝒙
Q 1 - Q2 - Q3 = 0 3
Q3
El. 50
C

With all head lost 𝑕𝑓 expressed in terms of 𝑥, all flow 𝑄 can also be
expressed in terms of 𝑥 (usually in the form of a 𝑥 + 𝑏

4. Substitute these 𝑄’s in 𝑄1 – 𝑄2 – 𝑄3 = 0, and solve for 𝑥 by trial

and error, (or use Shift Solve) for the flow 𝑄.
Example:
Determine the flow in each pipe in the three reservoirs shown.

El. 80
Figure:
El. 50
A
B
1

2
J
3

El. 10
C

Pipe 1 Pipe 2 Pipe 3

1800 m 2000 m 4000 m
400 mm 500 mm 800 mm
f = 0.02 f = 0.025 f = 0.03
Solution:

1. Solve for 𝑕𝑓 of each pipe using

0.0826𝑓𝐿𝑄𝟐
hf =
𝐷𝟓

Coming up with three equations in the unknown of Q

𝑕𝑓1 = 290.4 𝑄12

𝑕𝑓2 = 132.2 𝑄22

𝑕𝑓3 = 30.25 𝑄32

2. Determine the direction of flows by assuming Q2 = 0 and in order to

attain that place a piezometer at the junction with its water level in
line with reservoir B’s. Make equations out of these assumptions using
the resulting analysis.
 Figure: El. 80

A El. 50 hf1 = 30
B
1
Q2= 0
Q1
2
hf3 = 40
J
3
Q3
El. 10
C

hf1 = 30 = 290.4 Q12 Q1 = 0.321 m3/s

hf3 = 40 = 30.25 Q32 Q3 = 1.15 m3/s

Since 𝑸𝟑 > 𝑄1, this means that the supply from reservoir A is not enough to
supply pipe 3. The flow 𝑄2 is therefore away from reservoir B and P’ is below B.
𝑸𝟏 + 𝑸𝟐 = 𝑸𝟑
3. With the new position of P’, make equations.

Figure: El. 80

A El. 50
hf1 = x
P‘ B hf2 = x - 30
1
2
Q1
Q2
J hf3 = 70 - x
3
Q3
El. 10
C

𝑄𝟏 + 𝑄𝟐 = 𝑄𝟑 Eqn 1

hf1 = 290.4 Q12 = x Q1 = 0.0587 𝑥

hf2 = 132.2 Q22 = x -30 Q2 = 0.087 𝑥 − 30
hf3 = 30.25 Q32 = 70 - x Q3 = 0.182 70 − 𝑥
In Equation 1

𝑄𝟏 + 𝑄𝟐 − 𝑄𝟑 = 0
0.0587 𝑥 + 0.087 𝑥 − 30 − 0.182 70 − 𝑥 = 0

𝒙 = 𝟓𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓 𝒎

Then
𝑸𝟏 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟏𝟔 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

𝑸𝟐 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟗𝟐 𝒎𝟑/𝒔
𝑸𝟑 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟎𝟖 𝒎𝟑/𝒔

Check if:

𝑄𝟏 + 𝑄𝟐 = 𝑄𝟑
A. SERIES

B C D
A

1 2 3

1. Total head loss = hf1 + hf2 + hf3

2. Q1 = Q2 = Q3

B. SERIES and PARALLEL

 1. Total head loss = hf1 + hf3 + hf5
2. Q1 = Q5
3. Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4
4. hf2 = hf3 = hf4

C. SERIES and PARALLEL

1. Total head loss = hf1 + hf2 + hf5

2. Q1 = Q5 5. hf2 = hf3 + hf4
3. Q1 = Q2 + Q3
4. Q 3 = Q4
D. SERIES and PARALLEL

1. Total head loss = hf1 + hf3 + hf5 + hf6

2. Q1 = Q6
3. Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4
4. hf3 = hf4
5. hf2 = hf3 + hf5

6. Q5 + Q 2 = Q6
7. Q5 = Q 3 + Q4
Do not rely on my notes alone. Grab some books nearby
or from e-library for reference. Be it a textbook or a
review material. Any book related to our course. You also
have the internet sources.