College of Engineering, Architecture & Technology

Laoag City, Ilocos Norte

Unit 4
EARTH PROCESSES
4.1 WEATHERING

The wide range of conditions found in different parts of the globe at present reflect the
variety of natural processes that operate to shape the surface of the Earth
Land areas are continually being reduced and their shape modified by weathering and erosion,
and the general term for this is denudation. Rocks exposed to the atmosphere undergo
weathering from atmospheric agents such as rain and frost.

4.1.1 CHEMICAL WEATHERING (DECOMPOSITION)

- It is the break-down of minerals into new compounds by the action of chemical agents; acids
in the air, in rain and in river water, although they act slowly, produce noticeable effects
especially in soluble rocks.

MOST COMMONL PROCESSES INVOLVED IN CHEMICAL WEATHERING

SOLUTION OXIDATION
Dissociation of minerals into ions, The combination of oxygen with a
greatly aided by the presence of mineral to form oxides and
CO2 in the soil profile, which forms hydroxides or any other reaction in
carbonic acid (H2CO3) with which the oxidation number of the
percolating rainwater. oxidized elements is increased.

REDUCTION HYDRATION

Dissociation of minerals into ions, Absorption of water molecules into

greatly aided by the presence of the mineral structure. Note: this
CO2 in the soil profile, which forms normally results in expansion, some
carbonic acid (H2CO3) with clays expand as much as 60%, and
percolating rainwater. by admitting water hasten the
processes of solution, oxidation,
HYDROLYSIS reduction and hydrolysis.

Hydrogen ions in percolating water

replace mineral cations: no
oxidation-reduction occurs

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LEACHING CATION EXCHANGE

The migration of ions produced by Absorption onto the surface of

the above processes. Note: the negatively charged clay of positively
mobility of ions depends upon their charged cations in solution,
ionic potential: Ca, Mg, Na, K are especially Ca, H, K, Mg.
easily leached by moving water, Fe
is more resistant, Si is difficult to
leach and Al is almost immobile.

4.1.2 MECHANICAL WEATHERING (DISINTEGRATION)

- breaks down rocks into small particles by the action of temperature, by impact from raindrops
and by abrasion from mineral particles carried in the wind. In very hot and very cold climates
changes of temperature produce flaking of exposed rock surfaces. In areas of intense rainfall
soil particles may be dislodged and the surface of the soil weakened by raindrops. In arid areas
landforms are shaped by sand blasted against them during storms.

MECHANICAL UNLOADING MECHANICAL LOADING

Vertical expansion due to the Impact on rock, and abrasion, by

reduction of vertical load by sand and silt size windborne
erosion. This will open existing particles in deserts. Impact on soil
fractures and may permit the and weak rocks by rain drops during
creation of new fractures. intense rainfall storms.

THERMAL LOADING WETTING AND DRYING

Expansion by the freezing of water Expansion and contraction

in pores and fractures in cold associated with the repeated
regions, or by the heating of rocks absorption and loss of water
in hot regions. Contraction by the molecules from mineral surfaces
cooling of rocks and soils in cold and structures.
regions.

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CRYSTALLIZATION PNEUMATIC LOADING

Expansion of pores and fissures by The repeated loading by waves of

crystallization within them of air trapped at the head of fractures
minerals that were originally in exposed in the wave zone of a sea
solution. Note: expansion is only cliff.
severe when crystallization occurs
within a confined space.

4.1.3 BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

- Describes those mechanical and chemical changes of the ground that are directly associated
with the activities of animals and plants. When present, microbial activity can change the
chemistry of the ground close to ground level. Burrowing animals and the roots of plants
penetrate the ground and roots produce gasses which increase the acidity of percolating rain
water.

4.2 GEOLOGICAL WORK BY RIVER

During the life while flowing from head to mouth, the rivers are capable of exerting greatly
modifying influence over the topography of the region through which they flow.

The geological work by river may be broadly divided into three well-defined phases:
1. Erosion
2. Transport
3. Deposition

4.2.1 METHOD OF RIVER EROSION

Erosion means disintegration and decomposition of the rocks and soil material by a natural
agent through mechanical, chemical, and other physiological processes accompanied by
removal of the disintegrated or decomposed product to far off places by the same agent.

Streams and rivers are the most powerful sub aerial agents or erosion. Others are wind and ice.

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4.2.2 FEATURE OF STREAM/RIVER EROSION

Prolonged erosion by a river and the associated streams produces many interesting and
important surface features along their channels directly and in the drainage basin in an indirect
manner some of these features develop with the passage of time to major geomorphological
landforms.

1. POTHOLES

These are various shaped depressions of different

dimensions that are developed in the river bed by
excessive localized erosion by the streams. The
pot holes are generally cylindrical or bowl
shaped in outline. These are commonly formed
in the softer rocks occurring at critical location in
the bedrock of a stream.

The formation process for a pothole may be

initiated by a simple plucking out of a
protruding or outstanding rock projection at the
river bed by hydraulic action.

Figure 1. Bourke`s Luck Potholes in South Africa - Raging waters have

created a strange geological site. This natural water feature marks the
beginning of the Blyde River Canyon

2. RIVER VALLEYS

A valley may be defined as a low land

surrounded on sides by inclined hill slopes and
mountain. Every major river is associated with
a valley of its own. In fact, rivers are
responsible for the origin, development and
modification of their valleys through well
understood process of river erosion.

Figure 2. Kaali river passing through a valley

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2A. VALLEY DEEPENING

It is achieved by cooperative action of all the processes involved in erosion. Deepening

is obviously due to cutting down of the river bed.

2B. LENGTHENING OF RIVER VALLEY

A peculiar type of process called headword erosion is generally held responsible for
lengthening of river valleys.

Headward erosion is erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin
to move back away from the direction of the stream flow, lengthening the stream
channel.

2C. RIVER CAPTURE

Stream capture, river capture, river piracy or stream piracy is a geomorphological

phenomenon occurring when a stream or river drainage system or watershed is
diverted from its own bed, and flows instead down the bed of a neighboring stream.

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2D. STREAM ACHIEVED VALLEY WIDENING

The stream cut down their channels and also removing away the loose soil and rocks
from the banks thereby widening the valley directly.

3. GORGE & CANYONS

The process of valley deepening often gives rise to magnificent surface features known as
Gorge and Canyons.

A gorge is a narrow valley with steep, rocky walls located between hills or mountains.

A Canyon is a specific type of gorge where the layers curt down by a river are essentially
stratified and horizontal in attitude.

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4. WATERFALLS

These are defined as magnificent jumps made by stream or river water at certain specific
parts of their course where there is a sudden and considerable drop in the gradient of the
channel.

5. STREAM TERRACES

These are bench like ledges or flat surfaces that occur on the sides of many river valley. From
a distance they may appear as successions of several steps of a big natural staircase rising up
the riverbed.

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4.2.2 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT BY RIVERS

Sediment –
refers to the conglomerate of materials, organic and inorganic, that can be carried away by
water, wind or ice. While the term is often used to indicate soil-based, mineral matter (e.g. clay,
silt and sand), decomposing organic substances and inorganic biogenic material are also
considered sediment. Most mineral sediment comes from erosion and weathering, while
organic sediment is typically detritus and decomposing material such as algae.

Sediment Transport –
It is the movement of organic and inorganic particles by water. In general, the greater the flow,
the more sediment that will be conveyed. Water flow can be strong enough to suspend particles
in the water column as they move downstream, or simply push them along the bottom of a
waterway. Transported sediment may include mineral matter, chemicals and pollutants, and
organic material.

Another name for sediment transport is sediment load. The total load includes all particles
moving as bedload, suspended load, and wash load

1. Bedload –
the portion of sediment transport that rolls, slides or bounces along the bottom of a waterway.
This sediment is not truly suspended, as it sustains intermittent contact with the streambed, and
the movement is neither uniform nor continuous 11. Bedload occurs when the force of the
water flow is strong enough to overcome the weight and cohesion of the sediment 12. While
the particles are pushed along, they typically do not move as fast as the water around them, as
the flow rate is not great enough to fully suspend them

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2. Suspended Load –
It is the amount of sediment carried downstream within the water column by the water flow.
Suspended loads require moving water, as the water flow creates small upward currents
(turbulence) that keep the particles above the bed. The size of the particles that can be carried
as suspended load is dependent on the flow rate. Larger particles are more likely to fall through
the upward currents to the bottom, unless the flow rate increases, increasing the turbulence at
the streambed. In addition, suspended sediment will not necessarily remain suspended if the
flow rate slows.

3. Wash Load –
The wash load is a subset of the
suspended load. This load is comprised
of the finest suspended sediment
(typically less than 0.00195 mm in
diameter). The wash load is
differentiated from the suspended load
because it will not settle to the bottom
of a waterway during a low or no flow
period. Instead, these particles remain
in permanent suspension as they are
small enough to bounce off water
molecules and stay afloat. However,
during flow periods, the wash load and
suspended load are indistinguishable.

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SOURCES:

https://www.dreamstime.com/bourke-s-luck-potholes-south-africa-raging-waters-have-created-
strange-geological-site-natural-water-feature-marks-image122234543
https://www.trekearth.com/gallery/Asia/India/North/Uttarakhand/Mangti_Nullah/photo484068.ht
m
https://www.macmillandictionary.com/dictionary/british/gorge_1
https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/gorge/
https://www.fondriest.com/environmental-measurements/parameters/hydrology/sediment-
transport-deposition/
Geology for Civil Engineers (Second Edition) A.C. MacLean, C.D. Gribble

PREPARED BY:
Engr. Dexter C. Pinto
Instructor

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