International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology

ISSN: 1612-197X (Print) 1557-251X (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rijs20

Relationships among perceived motivational

climate, motivational regulations, enjoyment, and
PA participation among Finnish physical education
students

Timo Jaakkola, Sami Yli-Piipari, Vassilis Barkoukis & Jarmo Liukkonen

To cite this article: Timo Jaakkola, Sami Yli-Piipari, Vassilis Barkoukis & Jarmo Liukkonen (2015):
Relationships among perceived motivational climate, motivational regulations, enjoyment, and
PA participation among Finnish physical education students, International Journal of Sport and
Exercise Psychology, DOI: 10.1080/1612197X.2015.1100209

To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2015.1100209

Published online: 15 Oct 2015.

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 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2015
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2015.1100209

Relationships among perceived motivational climate, motivational

regulations, enjoyment, and PA participation among Finnish physical
education students
Timo Jaakkolaa*, Sami Yli-Piiparib, Vassilis Barkoukisc and Jarmo Liukkonena
a
Department of Sport Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; bDepartment of Health and
Sport Sciences, University of Memphis, Memphis, TN, USA; cSchool of Physical Education and Sport
Science, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
(Received 10 February 2014; accepted 23 August 2015)
Downloaded by [UNSW Library] at 21:18 22 April 2016

The influence of teacher-initiated motivational climate on cognitive, affective, and behavioural

student outcomes has been highlighted as an area of future research. This study, grounded in
self-determination and achievement goal theories, examined how teacher-initiated
motivational climate can increase student motivation and positive affective responses in
physical education (PE) along with their physical activity (PA) participation, and whether
motivational climate has a longitudinal effect across middle school. In addition, we aimed to
examine the role of positive affect in explaining the relationship between motivation in PE
and out-of-school PA participation. Our sample comprised 540 adolescents (277 boys, 263
girls, median age 13) and they responded to self-report questionnaires measuring their
perception of motivational climate in PE classes (Motivation Climate in Physical Education
Questionnaire), motivational regulations (Physical Education Motivation Scale), enjoyment
(Sport Enjoyment Scale), and PA participation (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children
Research Protocol) twice at both Grades 7 and 9. Structural equation model analyses
produced three main findings. First, the study showed that intrinsic motivation was the vital
component of motivation that transferred the effect of learning-oriented climate to long-
lasting enjoyment in PE context. Second, performance-oriented climate had a long-lasting
effect on introjected and extrinsic regulations and amotivation. Finally, the study showed
enjoyable experiences in PE to transfer intrinsic motivation into PA participation. The
findings of the study extend our understanding on how teacher-initiated motivational climate
in PE can lead to an increase in PA participation during middle school.
Keywords: motivation; motivational climate; enjoyment; physical activity

Physical inactivity has been one of the leading determinants of the doubling of the worldwide
prevalence of obesity since 1980 (World Health Organization, 2013). It has been argued that
schools and physical education (PE) are the most cost-effective channels to affect public health
because of schools’ potential to reach the whole age cohort of children and adolescents (Sallis
et al., 2012). However, due to limited amount of weekly PE classes, physical educators’ resources
to engage their students in recommended daily 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous physical
activity (PA) (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008) are inadequate. Thus,
the examination of the pathways through which motivational and positive PE experiences transfer
into physically active lifestyle is well warranted. In addition, the examination of the role of

*Corresponding author. Email: timo.jaakkola@jyu.fi

© 2015 International Society of Sport Psychology

 2 T. Jaakkola et al.

motivational climate in children and adolescent PA has been suggested as one of the top ten
research questions in PE domain (Chen, 2013). Thus, evolving from the current state of affairs
and grounded in self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and achievement goal
theory (AGT; Nicholls, 1989), this study had two-fold purposes. First, we aimed to examine
how teacher-initiated motivational climate can influence student motivation and affect in PE
along with their PA participation, and whether motivational climate has a longitudinal effect
across middle school. Second, we aimed to examine the role of positive affect in explaining
the relationship between motivation in PE and out-of-school PA participation.

Self-determination theory
SDT is a prominent theory used to understand human motivation in PA settings. The theory offers
an explanatory framework for the understanding of the quality of motivation behind volitional and
satisfying behaviours (Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2000; Deci, Ryan, & Guay, 2013). SDT identifies three
major types of motivational regulations existing in any life context: intrinsic motivation, extrinsic
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motivation and amotivation1 (Deci & Ryan, 2000). Intrinsic motivation represents engagement in
an activity for the pleasure and excitement, whereas extrinsic motivation has been typically
divided into three motivational regulations corresponding to different levels of autonomy (Deci
& Ryan, 2000). In the most autonomous regulation, which is labelled identified regulation, par-
ticipation in the activity is a result of the individual’s choice as he or she acknowledges the value
and importance of the activity for the self. Introjected regulation describes behaviours which have
been only slightly internalised and which are performed out of feelings of guilt or shame. The
least autonomous regulation of extrinsic motivation is external regulation which describes invol-
vement in an activity due to external demands and contingencies, such as obtaining rewards,
avoiding punishment, or any other activity due to external pressure. In addition, amotivation,
which reflects a lack of either intrinsic or extrinsic motivation, is a construct similar to learned
helplessness and it corresponds to an absence of reasoning and intention to carry out behaviour
(Deci & Ryan, 1985, 2012). In this study the term autonomous motivational regulations refers to
intrinsic motivation and identified regulation whereas the term less autonomous motivational
regulations refers to introjected and extrinsic regulation. SDT has been extensively studied in
PE and evidence has consistently shown that autonomous motivation is associated with positive
cognitive (e.g. concentration), affective (e.g. enjoyment), and behavioural (e.g. effort, PA partici-
pation) responses during lesson participation as compared to less autonomous motivation (see
Vallerand, 1997, 2007).

Achievement goal theory

AGT is a theoretical approach that has been used to understand the students’ behaviour in PE
(Roberts, 2012). The focal tenet of AGT is that there are two conceptions of defining competence
and success in activity, namely learning and performance orientation2 (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts,
2012). Learning orientation corresponds to attributing success to self-referenced criteria, such as
effort. The focus of activity involvement is mastering the tasks at hand and improvement. Per-
formance-oriented individuals ascribe success to other-reference criteria such as ability, and the
main objective of engagement in an activity is to demonstrate competence and outperform
others (Nicholls, 1989; Roberts, 2012).
These two conceptions of competence and success have been also used to describe the situa-
tional goal structure, namely perceived motivational climate, which reflects people’s perceptions
of the emphasis placed by social agents on developing (i.e. learning-oriented climate) or demon-
strating competence (i.e. performance-oriented climate; Ames, 1992). According to AGT,
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 3

perceptions of learning-oriented climate promote mastery of skills and personal improvement and
perceptions of performance-oriented climate advance social comparison and focus on obtaining
performance attainments (Duda & Balaguer, 2007).
Perceptions of learning-oriented climate, as postulated in AGT, result in positive conse-
quences as compared to perceptions of a performance-oriented climate (Braithwaite, Spray, &
Warburton, 2011). Empirical evidence has shown that learning-oriented climate relates positively
to enjoyment (Barkoukis, Ntoumanis, & Thøgersen-Ntoumani, 2010; Liukkonen, Barkoukis,
Watt, & Jaakkola, 2010) and out-of-school PA participation (Barkoukis & Hagger, 2013),
whereas research evidence has indicated that perceptions of performance-oriented climate
display a neutral or negative effect on these outcomes (Barkoukis & Hagger, 2013). Studies
have also demonstrated that learning-oriented climate is positively associated with autonomous
motivation (Ommundsen & Kvalø, 2007; Standage, Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2003). In the same
studies performance-oriented climate has been found to be unrelated or negatively related with
less autonomous motivation but insignificantly associated with amotivation (Ommundsen &
Kvalø, 2007; Standage et al., 2003).
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Enjoyment
Based on the conceptualisation of Scanlan and Simons (1992), we operationalised enjoyment as a
positive affective response to a certain activity that corresponds to states experienced during PE
participation and described as “enjoy”, “happy”, “like”, and “fun”. In this sense, enjoyment
differs from the SDT postulated intrinsic motivation and it should be viewed as a broader and
more inclusive construct (Fairclough, 2003; Scanlan & Lewthwaite, 1986). Whereas intrinsic
motivation refers to internal locus of causality in participation (participation is due to totally
intrinsic reasons, such as stimulation, pleasure, excitement), enjoyment corresponds to experi-
enced affective outcome of the participation (enjoyment, happiness).
Previous studies have shown that students’ perceptions of learning-oriented climate have a
direct positive association with PE enjoyment (perceptions of performance-oriented climate have
a negative relation) (Barkoukis, Hagger, Labropoulos, & Tsorbatzoudis, 2010). In addition, stu-
dents’ enjoyment in PE has been found to be an important affective variable linked with increased
PA participation (Garcia Bengoechea, Sabiston, Ahmed, & Farnous, 2010; Papaioannou, Bebetsos,
Theodorakis, Christodoulidis, & Kouli, 2006; Wang, Chatzisarantis, Spray, & Biddle, 2002) and it
has been found to mediate the effectiveness of a school-based PA intervention (Dishman et al.,
2005). In fact, previous studies have suggested enjoyment in PE to be a missing link between motiv-
ation in school PE and PA participation (e.g. Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). The basic premise of
this assumption is that if school PE increases students’ positive affect, such as enjoyment, these
affective outcomes will transfer into motivation to adopt a physically active lifestyle in other con-
texts (Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). This assumption is based on theory and empirical findings
suggesting that the experience of enjoyment is a critical factor in determining one’s motivation
for and continued participation in exercise settings (Kremer, Trew, & Ogle, 1997).

This study
The general purpose of the study was to examine how students’ perception of teacher-initiated
motivational climate can influence students’ motivational regulations and enjoyment in PE
along with their PA participation. This study tested Vallerand’s (2007; see also Deci & Ryan,
2012) model in which motivational regulations are hypothesised to mediate the relationship
between students’ perception of social environment (learning-oriented climate should have a posi-
tive relationship; performance-oriented climate should have a negative relationship) and
 4 T. Jaakkola et al.

enjoyment. Empirical evidence has partly supported this postulation, showing a positive relation-
ship between PE students’ perceptions of learning-oriented climate, enjoyment, and PA partici-
pation whereas the relationship between performance-oriented climate and the outcomes has
been mixed (Barkoukis & Hagger, 2013). A systematic review of SDT-related studies in exercise
and PA domains (Teixeira, Carraça, Markland, Silva, & Ryan, 2012) concluded that both intrinsic
and extrinsic motivation can lead to positive outcomes in PA participation, but only intrinsic
motivation leads to long-term PA participation and maintenance because it is more rewarding
and enjoyable. In addition, by applying a longitudinal cross-lagged approach we were able to
test whether learning-oriented climate and autonomous motivational regulations in comparison
to performance-oriented climate and less autonomous motivational regulations have a more
lasting effect on PA participation across middle school years. By applying a longitudinal
approach, we are able to take into account such processes as they unfold during middle school
years, as well as to estimate relations taking into account the temporal ordering of these processes,
an important prerequisite to causality.
Second, to enhance adolescents’ participation in daily 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous PA
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(U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008), the examination of pathways through
which positive motivational and affective experiences in PE transfer into increased out-of-school
PA participation has gained continued interest (Chen, 2013). Although learning-oriented PE
climate, autonomous motivational regulations, and enjoyment have found to be related positively
to PA participation (Braithwaite et al., 2011), there is a lack of studies examining the pathways
through which teacher-initiated motivational climate in PE can impact students’ PA participation.
It is important to recognise that PE motivation and overall PA motivation are conceptually different
hence they occur in different contexts. In other words, a student may have high PE motivation but
low motivation to be physically active during leisure-time. Thus, this study was to examine the argu-
ment suggesting that PE enjoyment is a “missing link” to explain the transfer of PE motivation on PA
participation (Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). This study views PE enjoyment as a possible mediator
of the effect of motivational climate and motivational regulations in PE on PA participation.
We tested the following research hypotheses.

H1a: We hypothesised that perceptions of learning-oriented climate relate to higher intrinsic motiv-
ation and identified regulation, lower amotivation, higher enjoyment, and higher PA participation
across both grade levels (Barkoukis & Hagger, 2013; Standage et al., 2003). In contrast, perceived
performance-oriented climate was assumed to relate to maladaptive pattern, such as lower levels of
intrinsic motivation and identified regulation, higher amotivation and lower enjoyment, and lower
levels of PA participation.
H1b: We hypothesised that learning-oriented climate at Grade 7 predicts not only learning-oriented
climate but also intrinsic motivation and identified regulation at Grade 9. In contrast, we hypothesised
that performance-oriented climate at Grade 7 predicts not only performance-oriented climate but also
introjected and extrinsic regulation and amotivation at Grade 9 (Barkoukis & Hagger, 2013).
H2: We hypothesised that enjoyment is a significant mediator between motivational regulations and
PA participation. Specifically, we hypothesised that enjoyment mediates between motivation in PE
and PA participation, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation relating to higher PE enjoyment
and PA participation (Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004).

Method
Participants
A total of 540 adolescents (277 boys, 263 girls; 95% Caucasian) enrolled in five urban middle
schools were examined during Grade 7 (7th grade fall) and Grade 9 (9th grade fall). At the begin-
ning of the study, the median age of the students was 13 (age range 12–14). The study comprised
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 5

nine Caucasian PE teachers (Mage 45.3 [7.18]), with an average of 18 years of teaching experi-
ence. There were no remarkable differences in PE facilities and equipment between study
schools. The research protocol was approved by the ethical committee of the local university.
Children and teachers were recruited through a direct contact with schools in consultation with
the school principal. All the middle school children were invited to participate and parental con-
sents and child assents were obtained. Participation was completely voluntary and participants
had the right to withdraw from the study at any time. All the measurements were carried out
by a trained team of researchers and took place during PE lessons.

Research context
This study was conducted in Finland, the northernmost country of the European Union. PE is
mandated as a part of the Finland’s comprehensive school curriculum (detailed description of
the Finland’s PE curriculum can be found in Yli-Piipari, 2014). The Finnish National Board of
Education designs the core curriculum goals and content for PE at all school levels. Health is a
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critical aspect of the Finnish PE curriculum supported by continuing attention to the skills and
knowledge associated with lifelong engagement in PA. Additionally, Finnish PE aims are more
related to cooperation, socialisation, and team effort than physiology, competitions, and perform-
ance outcomes. In middle school (grades 7–9), students are taught by a specialist (five-year master
degree in PE pedagogy) PE teacher and they have seven obligatory PE units (a unit is 38 hours),
that is two or three 45-minute PE lessons weekly. In addition, students have a possibility to select
a maximum of three PE units from a set of elective units that are developed according to the local
school curriculum. In Finland, PE is typically organised around multi-activity programmes in a
series of units (Heikinaro-Johansson & Telama, 2005) and it has been found to be similar to
that in other Western countries (Annerstedt, 2008) and in the USA (Yli-Piipari, 2014).

Measures
A pilot study (N = 230) to test reliability and validity of the scales and to reduce the number of
factor indicators was conducted prior to this study. A detailed description of the pilot study can be
provided by the first author on request. To avoid survey fatigue, the number of factor indicators
of the original scales was reduced (task climate 6 → 4; ego climate 6 → 4; intrinsic motivation
12 → 9; and identified, introjected, external regulation, and amotivation 4 → 3).

Motivational climate
Perceptions of motivational climate in PE were measured using the Finnish version of Motivation
Climate in Physical Education Questionnaire (MCPEQ; Soini, Liukkonen, Watt, Yli-Piipari, &
Jaakkola, 2014), which consists of two subscales representing learning- and performance-oriented
climates. The individual item stem used in the measure was “In my PE class … ”. Both the learn-
ing-oriented dimension (e.g. “It is important for students to try their best in PE lessons”) and the
performance-oriented dimension (e.g. “It is important for students to succeed better than others in
PE lessons”) consisted of four items. Responses were indicated on a five-point Likert scale
ranging from strongly disagree (1) to strongly agree (5). Factorial validity and internal consist-
ency of the MCPEQ have been found to be satisfactory (Soini, Liukkonen, Watt, et al., 2014).

Motivational regulations
Motivational regulations in PE were assessed with the Finnish version of the Physical Education
Motivation Scale (PEMS; Jaakkola, 2002), which is a modified version of the Sport Motivation
 6 T. Jaakkola et al.

Scale (Pelletier, Fortier, Vallerand, Tuson, & Briere, 1995). The Physical Education Motivation
Scale consists of five subscales comprising nine items of intrinsic motivation and three items
of identified, introjected, and external regulation, and amotivation. Each item was rated on a
five-point Likert scale (1 = does not correspond at all … 5 = corresponds exactly). The scale
used in this study had the individual item stem, “I’m currently participating in physical education,
because … ”. Construct validity and internal consistency of the PEMS have been found to be sat-
isfactory (Jaakkola, 2002).

Enjoyment
The Finnish version of the Sport Enjoyment Scale (Scanlan, Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, &
Keeler, 1993) was used to assess enjoyment in PE lessons (Soini, Liukkonen, Jaakkola, Leskinen,
& Rantanen, 2007). The scale measures one dimension of enjoyment with four items. The items
of the original version were modified to measure enjoyment during PE lessons (example item, “I
have fun during PE lessons”). Participants responded on a five-point Likert scale with a range
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from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much). Construct validity and internal consistency of the Sport
Enjoyment Scale have been found to be satisfactory (Soini, Liukkonen, Jaakkola, et al., 2007).

Physical activity
To assess adolescents’ self-report PA participation, the Health Behavior in School-aged Children
Research Protocol was used (Currie, Samdal, Boyce, & Smith, 2002). The scale was to measure
how many days in the week students are meeting a 60-minute moderate-to-vigorous PA rec-
ommendation (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2008). The scale consisted of
two items and was rated on an eight-point response scale (0–7 days of the week). The introduction
for the scale was:

In the next two questions PA means all activities which raise your heart rate or momentarily gets you
out of breath, for ex-ample, in doing exercise, playing with your friends, going to school, or in school
PE. PA also includes for example jogging, intensive walking, roller skating, cycling, dancing, skating,
skiing, soccer, basketball and baseball.

The items were: (a) “Think about your typical week. How many days did you exercise for at
least 60 min. during which you got out of breath” and (b) “Think about your last 7 days. How
many days did you exercise for at least 60 min during which you get out of breath?” A sum
scale of PA participation was formulated by adding the response scores for the two items to
assess students’ self-report participation in moderate-to-vigorous PA. Prochaska, Sallis, and
Long (2001) reported adequate factorial validity and reliability of these two PA participation
within adolescence population.

Statistical analyses
Preliminary analyses were initiated by calculating descriptive statistics, such as means, standard
deviations, and Pearson’s correlation coefficients of the research variables. Missing data com-
prised 1.7% of all cases and were handled under the assumption that the data were missing at
random (Collins, Schafer, & Kam, 2001). To test hypothesis H1a, a structural equation model
(SEM) was conducted separately for Grades 7 (T0) and 9 (T1). A SEM encompasses two com-
ponents: a measurement model (essentially the confirmatory factor analysis; CFA) and a structural
model. A measurement model is a multivariate regression model that describes the relationship
between a set of observed (factor indicators) and latent (factors) variables. A structural model
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 7

allows the simultaneous estimation of several dependent latent constructs. To test hypothesis H1b,
Time 1 variables were regressed by estimating regression coefficients from the subsequent Time 0
variables (i.e. PAT0 to PAT1). In addition, cross-lagged paths from the most proximal and theory-
supported determinants (T0) to outcome variables (T1) were estimated [paths from learning- and
performance-oriented climate (T0) to intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic regulations
and amotivation (T1); from intrinsic, identified, introjected, and extrinsic regulations along
with amotivation (T0) to enjoyment (T1); from enjoyment (T0) to PA participation (T1)]. To
test the second hypothesis (H2), the role of enjoyment as a possible mediator was tested by
using the MODEL INDIRECT command.
All analyses were performed using the Mplus statistical package (Version 6.1; Muthén &
Muthén, 1998–2013). A COMPLEX option was used to correct a possible nonindependence of
the observations based on students being nested within their PE classes (Asparouhov, 2005). A
SEM fits the data well when the p value associated with the chi-square test is non-significant.
Additionally, if the values of the Bentler comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index
(TLI) are above .95 and the values of the Root Mean Squared Error of Approximation
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(RMSEA) are below .06, a good fit between the hypothesised model and the observed data
exists (Hu & Bentler, 1999). To determine the statistical significance of possible mediation or
indirect effects, bootstrapped asymmetric confidence intervals were calculated based on 5000
bootstrapped samples (i.e. Hayes, 2009). A mediation or indirect effect is supported if the confi-
dence interval (CI) does not contain 0, which suggests that the independent variable significantly
influences the mediator, which in turn influences the dependent variable.

Results
Preliminary analyses
Table 1 presents Pearson’s correlation coefficients, means, standard deviations, Cronbach’s
alphas, and the values of the Pearson’s first coefficient of skewness for all the variables
studied. Cronbach’s alpha values showed acceptable internal consistency of the scales (α > .70)
and Pearson’s first coefficient of skewness indicated that the distribution of the data was in accep-
table limits. Perceptions of learning-oriented climate had a moderate-to-strong correlation with
autonomous motivational regulations and enjoyment, a weak-to-moderate correlation with less
autonomous motivational regulations and participation in PA, and a negative correlation with
amotivation. In addition, perceptions of performance-oriented climate had a positive and weak-
to-moderate correlation with autonomous motivational regulations and a moderate correlation
with less autonomous motivational regulations and amotivation, and no relation with enjoyment
and participation in PA. Enjoyment in PE had a positive and moderate relationship with partici-
pation in PA.

Structural equation models

A SEM was conducted to test hypothesis H1a separately at Grades 7 and 9 (Figure 1). The fit
indices showed that the model that included all factor indicators and structural pathways from per-
ceptions of learning and performance-oriented climates via motivational regulations to enjoyment
and PA fitted the data acceptably across both time points: Model T0 χ2(528) = 803.013, p < .001,
CFI = .95, TLI = .94, and RMSEA = .052, 90% CI[.05, .07]; Model T1 χ2(528) = 782.778, p
< .001, CFI = .95, TLI = .94, and RMSEA = .054 , 90% CI[.05, .07]. However, the residual var-
iance of the latent intrinsic motivation factors for both models was negative. Inspection of modi-
fication indices showed that both models would be improved if an alternative path from
 8
Table 1. Summary of intercorrelations, means, standard deviations, and Cronbach’s alpha coefficients for all latent factors.

Variable list 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

T. Jaakkola et al.
1 Learning- –
oriented (T0)
2 Learning- .39** –
oriented (T1)
3 Performance- .19* .08 –
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oriented (T0)
4 Performance- .06 .02 .32** –
oriented (T1)
5 Intrinsic (T0) .85** .33** .19* .06 –
6 Intrinsic (T1) .46** .72** .15 .19* .46** –
7 Identified (T0) .85** .33** .23** .07 .73** .40** –
8 Identified (T1) .44** .58** .18* .29** .38** .50** .46** –
9 Introjected (T0) .66** .26** .30** .10 .56** .31** .57** .31** –
10 Introjected (T1) .41** .67** .21** .32** .36** .56** .36** .51** .43** –
11 Extrinsic (T0) .55** .22** .45** .15* .48** .27** .49** .30** .43** .28** –
12 Extrinsic (T1) .26** .22** .30** .52** .23** .28** .23** .30** .21** .33** .41** –
13 Amotivation −.33** −.13* .23** .08 −.27** −.13* −.26** −.12* −.16* −.10 −.08 −.01 –
(T0)
14 Amotivation −.16** −.31** .11* .27** −.13* −.18* −.13* −.12* −.08 −.13* −.04 .07 .25** –
(T1)
15 Enjoyment (T0) .68** .27** .09 .03 .66** .33** .69** .33** .42** .27** .39** .17* −.46** −.16* –
16 Enjoyment (T1) .51** .64** .11 .10 .47** .68** .46** .52** .37** .61** .28** .20** −.25** −.43** .48** –
17 Physical .26** .10 .04 .01 .26** .13* .27** .13* .16* .11 .15* .07 −.18* −.06 .39** .18* –
activity (T0)
18 Physical .24** .19* .04 .03 .22** .22** .23** .18* .16* .19** .13* .08 −.14* −.13* .28** .32** .47** –
activity (T1)
M 3.80b 3.52 2.99 3.09 3.23 3.24 3.08 3.11 3.44b 3.37 2.67 2.87b 2.18 2.40b 3.75b 3.53 3.96b 3.64
SD .78 .80 .89 .82 .87 .79 .88 .84 .88 .79 .89 .84 .95 .97 .93 1.05 1.99 1.76
Α .80 .85 .86 .86 .92 .93 .73 .80 .69 .70 .71 .78 .77 .83 .93 .94 .90a .92a
Skewness −.49 .18 .08 −.03 −.32 −.25 −.08 −.15 −.16 .01 .08 −.20 .11 −.48 −.65 −.28 −.28 .08
a
Instead of Cronbach’s alpha values, Pearson’s correlation coefficient between two items are presented.
b
t test value higher in statistically significant level of p < .001 (between tests at T0 and T1).
*p < .05.
**p < .001.
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 9

perception of learning-oriented climate directly to enjoyment was estimated. This modification is

empirically justified, considering that learning-oriented climate has been found to be related
directly to both autonomous motivational regulations and to enjoyment (Braithwaite et al.,
2011). The data fitted to new models acceptably: Model T0 χ2(527) = 779.054, p < .001, CFI
= .96, TLI = .95, and RMSEA = .049 , 90% CI[.046, .053]; Model T1 χ2(527) = 752.917, p
< .001, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, and RMSEA = .047 , 90% CI[.044, .051]. Table 2 presents fit
indices and all factor loadings of the final models.
Table 3 presents the results of the regressions analyses. The analyses showed that perceptions
of learning-oriented climate positively related to autonomous motivational regulations (T0:
βint = .65, βid = .56; T1: βint = .63, βid = .45) and less autonomous motivational regulations
(T0: βintr = .44, βex = .38; T1: βintr = .50), and negatively to amotivation (T0: βam = −.36; T1:
βam = −.28). Autonomous motivational regulations associated positively with enjoyment (T0:
int → enj β = .28, id → enj β = .48; T1: β = .32), whereas less autonomous motivational regu-
lations did not. On the contrary, perceptions of performance-oriented climate positively related
to less autonomous motivational regulations (T0: βintro = .20, βex = .37; T1: βintr = .27; βex = .49)
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and amotivation (T0: βam = .28; T1: βam = .28). In addition, amotivation was negatively associated
with enjoyment (T0: βenj = −.23; T1: β = −.32), enjoyment related positively to PA participation
(T0: βpa = .38; T1: β = .31), and intrinsic motivation had positive but indirect relationship with PA
participation via enjoyment (β = .18). The sizes of the effects were weak to strong explaining the
10–70% of the variances of the dependent variables: R2: intrinsic motivation = .45(.05)/.47(.06);
identified regulation = .33(.06)/32(.05); introjected regulation = .26(.05)/.41(.05); external regu-
lation = .26(.05)/.27(.05); amotivation = .18(.04)/.15(.04); enjoyment = .64(.05)/.70(.05); PA
= .15(.03)/10(.03) (presented as T0/T1) [the standard errors are presented in the parentheses].

Figure 1. The proposed theoretical framework hypothesised to underlie human motivation and physical
activity. Note: Factor indicators have been omitted from the figure for presentation purposes. Solid
arrows represent the positive relationships, whereas dashed arrows represent the negative.
 10 T. Jaakkola et al.

Table 2. Factor indicator loadings and errors along with model fit indices for both estimated models.
Regression model T(0) Regression model T(1)
Estimates
of Unstandardised Unstandardised
parameters Standardised values values Standardised values Values
Learning-oriented climate
Item 1 .63(.05) 1 .76(.03) 1
Item 2 .70(.05) 1.03(.06) .82(.03) 1.02(.05)
Item 3 .78(.03) 1.19(.08) .84(.02) 1.02(.06)
Item 4 .60(.05) .87(.06) .73(.03) .81(.05)
Performance-oriented climate
Item 5 .73(.03) 1 .73(.03) 1
Item 6 .71(.04) .94(.08) .75(.03) .98(.07)
Item 7 .85(.02) 1.12(.07) .84(.03) 1.08(.05)
Item 8 .81(.03) 1.07(.08) .81(.03) 1.05(.06)
Intrinsic
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Item 9 .75(.02) 1 .77(.03) 1

Item 10 .82(.02) 1.10(.04) .84(.02) 1.08(.03)
Item 11 .76(.03) .94(.05) .76(.03) .92(.05)
Item 12 .76(.03) 1.04(.06) .78(.03) 1.00(.06)
Item 13 .74(.03) 1.03(06) .76(.03) .94(06)
Item 14 .64(.03) .90(.06) .68(.03) .87(.05)
Item 15 .76(.02) 1.05(.06) .80(.02) 1.05(.05)
Item 16 .78(.02) 1.07(.06) .81(.02) 1.00(.06)
Item 17 .68(.03) .88(.05) .69(.03) .85(.05)
Identified
Item 18 .72(.05) 1 .77(.03) 1
Item 19 .67(.04) .90(.07) .86(.03) 1.08(.06)
Item 20 .64(.04) .94(.06) .65(.05) .91(.08)
Introjected
Item 21 .53(.05) 1 .63(.05) 1
Item 22 .72(.04) 1.56(.19) .52(.06) .85(.15)
Item 23 .67(.04) 1.04(.17) .71(.06) 1.10(.15)
Extrinsic
Item 24 .67(.04) 1 .72(.04) 1
Item 25 .59(.04) .92(.09) .67(.05) .87(.07)
Item 26 .76(.03) 1.15(.10) .81(.03) 1.15(.09)
Amotivation
Item 27 .70(.04) 1 .76(.03) 1
Item 28 .79(.04) 1.21(.11) .79(.03) 1.07(.07)
Item 29 .70(.04) .96(.08) .81(.03) .99(.05)
Enjoyment
Item 30 .88(.01) 1 .77(.02) 1
Item 31 .88(.02) .98(.03) .78(.03) .96(.05)
Item 32 .90(.02) 1.06(.04) .82(.03) .98(.06)
Item 33 .87(.02) 1.03(.04) .88(.02) 1.08(.05)
Physical activity
Item 35 .96(.04) 1 .96(.05) 1
Item 36 .85(.04) .93(.07) .88(.04) .98(.10)
Fit of the χ2(527) = 779.054 χ2(527) = 752.917
model
p < .001 p < .001
CFI = .96 CFI = .96
TLI = .95 TLI = .95

(Continued)
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 11

Table 3. Regression coefficients for the cross-sectional structural equation models.

Model T0 Model T1
Parameter estimates
Standardised Unstandardised Standardised Unstandardised
values (β) values (B) values (β) values (B)
Learning-oriented climate → intrinsic .65(.04)** .63(.06)** .62(.04)** .58(.06)**
motivation
Learning-oriented climate → .56(.05)** .55(.06)** .45(.06)** .42(.06)**
identified regulation
Learning-oriented climate → .44(.05)** .28(.05)** .50(.06)** .37 (.06)**
introjected regulation
Learning-oriented climate → .38(.06)** .25(.05)** .07(.06) .07(.06)
extrinsic motivation
Learning-oriented climate → −.36(.05)** −.35(.06)** −.28(.06)** −.41(.08)**
amotivation
Performance-oriented climate → .06(.04) .06(.04) .14(.06)* .13(.06)*
intrinsic motivation
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Performance-Oriented climate → .09(.05) .09(.05) .23(.06)** .23(.06)**

identified regulation
Performance-oriented climate → .20(.06)** .12(.04)** .27(.06)** .21(.06)**
introjected regulation
Performance-oriented climate → .38(.06)** .32(.05)** .49(.06)** .48(.07)**
extrinsic motivation
Performance climate → amotivation .28(.05)** .27(.05)** .28(.07)** .32(.08)**
Intrinsic motivation → enjoyment .28(.13)** .31(.14)** .31(.11)** .36(.12)**
Identified regulation → enjoyment .48(.23)* .60(.29)* .03(.18) .03(.20)
Introjected regulation → enjoyment −.17(.10) −.33(.20) −.02(.11) .02(.16)
Extrinsic motivation → enjoyment .04(.11) .07(.16) .19(.20) .22(.19)
Amotivation → enjoyment −.23(.06)** −.30(.08)** −.32(.05)** −.31(.05)**
Learning-oriented climate → .41(.07)** .51(.09)** .40(.07)** .43(.08)**
enjoyment
Enjoyment → physical activity .38(.05)** .63(.08)** .31(.05)** .61(.09)**
*p < 05.
**p < .001.

To test hypothesis H1b, regression coefficients from T0 variables to T1 variables were

implemented to test possible longitudinal effects between research variables. The fit of this
model was acceptable: χ2(1403) = 23128.809, p < .001, CFI = .95, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .031,
90% CI[.028, .034]. Similarly to the previously estimated cross-sectional models, the residual var-
iance of the latent intrinsic motivation factor was negative. Therefore, additional direct paths from
learning-oriented climate to enjoyment (both T0 and T1) were estimated. The new model fit was
acceptable: χ2(1400) = 2099.257, p < .001, CFI = .95, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .030, 90% CI[.028,
.033]. The results of the significant relationships are presented in Table 4. The results showed
that students’ perceptions of their motivational climate, motivational regulations, enjoyment,
and PA participation were relatively stable across time with standardised regression coefficients
ranging from .28 to 46. In addition, only performance-oriented climate had a cross-lagged effect
predicting introjected regulation (β = .18), extrinsic motivation (β = .24), and amotivation
(β = .17) that were measured at the 9th grade.
To test the second hypothesis, the possible mediating role of enjoyment was examined based on
5000 bootstrapped samples. The study showed a statistically significant indirect relationship from
intrinsic motivation via PE enjoyment to PA participation in both 7th (95% asymmetric CI ranged
from .01 to .37) and 9th (95% asymmetric CI ranged from .02 to .17) grades (Table 5). In addition, a
 12 T. Jaakkola et al.

Table 4. Statistically significant regression coefficients for the longitudinal SEMs.

Standardised Unstandardised
Parameter estimates values (β) values (B)
Longitudinal relationships
Learning-oriented climate T0 → learning-oriented .39(.05)** .44(.06)**
climate T1
Performance-oriented climate T0 → performance- .33(.06)** .30(.05)**
oriented climate T1
Intrinsic motivation T0 → intrinsic motivation T1 .32(.06)** .29(.05)**
Identified regulation T0 → identified regulation T1 .46(.07)** .48(.08)**
Introjected regulation T0 → introjected .42(.08)** .29(.06)**
regulation T1
Extrinsic motivation T0 → extrinsic motivation T1 .42(.06)** .46(.08)**
Amotivation T0 → amotivation T1 .28(.06)** .31(.07)**
Enjoyment T0 → enjoyment T1 .38(.04)** .32(.06)**
Physical activity T0 → physical activity T1 .41(.05)** .44(.05)**
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Cross-lagged relationships
Performance-oriented climate T0 → introjected .18(.08)** .16(.07)**
regulation T1
Performance-oriented climate T0 → extrinsic .24(.07)** .23(.07)**
regulation T1
Performance-oriented climate T0 → amotivation T1 .17(.07)** .19(.07)**
**p < .001.

longitudinal indirect relationship from enjoyment at T0 via enjoyment at T1 to PA at T1 was estab-

lished (95% asymmetric CI ranged from .06 to .21). Considering the found direct relationship
between learning-oriented climate and enjoyment, we expanded our analyses and investigated
the possible mediating role of intrinsic motivation. The study showed that intrinsic motivation in
PE mediated the relationships between learning-oriented PE climate and enjoyment in both 7th
(95% asymmetric CI ranged from .04 to .53) and 9th (95% asymmetric CI ranged from .09 to
.32) grades (Table 5). Furthermore, a longitudinal indirect relationship from learning-oriented

Table 5. Summary of significant indirect or mediation effects.

Standardised Standard
Variables estimate error p CI 95%
Time 0
Learning-oriented climate → intrinsic .268 .13 =.046 [.04, .53]
motivation → enjoyment
Intrinsic motivation → enjoyment → physical .184 .09 =.049 [.01, .37]
activity
Time 1
Learning-oriented climate → intrinsic .205 .07 =.001 [.09, .32]
motivation → enjoyment
Intrinsic motivation → enjoyment → physical .096 .09 =.011 [.02, .17]
activity
Temporal models
Enjoyment T0 → enjoyment T1 → physical .131 .04 =.002 [.06, .21]
activity T1
Learning-oriented climate T0 → intrinsic .085 .03 =.001 [.02, .15]
motivation T1 → enjoyment T1
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 13

climate at T0 to enjoyment at T1 via intrinsic motivation at T1 (95% asymmetric CI ranged from .02
to .15) and learning-oriented climate at T0 to enjoyment at T1 via enjoyment at T0 (95% asym-
metric CI ranged from .09 to .25) emerged.

Discussion
The aim of the study was to analyse how teacher-initiated motivational climate in PE influenced
students’ motivational regulations and affective responses in PE along with their PA participation,
and whether these relationships were sustainable across middle school levels 7 to 9. In addition,
we aimed to examine the role of positive affect in explaining the relationship between motivation
in PE and PA participation. This study extended our understanding on the effects of learning- and
performance-oriented climates on PE enjoyment and PA participation. In addition, the role of
positive affect, such as enjoyment in PE, as an indirect mediator between motivational experi-
ences in PE and overall PA participation was also studied.
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Effect of learning-oriented climate

Our findings partially supported our hypothesis H1a and the findings of the previous studies that
have shown learning-oriented climate to relate to adaptive motivational consequences (Barkoukis
& Hagger, 2013; Barkoukis, Ntoumanis et al., 2010). Our results showed that students who per-
ceived their climate highly learning-oriented had higher forms of autonomous motivational regu-
lations in PE, enjoyed PE more, and had lower amotivation compared to students who perceived
their climate as less learning-oriented. These findings are consistent with AGT and empirical evi-
dence (Ames, 1992) and indicate that practices that contribute to learning-oriented PE climate,
such as variety of tasks, enhanced cooperation, autonomy support, provision of self-referenced
feedback, self-evaluation can result into adaptive responses during PE lessons. Importantly,
this process was supported at both grade levels suggesting that learning-oriented climate is a criti-
cal factor leading to positive responses in PE lessons, independently of the age and the absolute
levels of motivational climate and motivational regulations. Thus, it is recommended that PE tea-
chers should employ strategies to increase students’ perceptions of motivational climate (for
instance TARGET approach, Ames, 1992).
Interestingly, the longitudinal findings of this study did not support our hypotheses H1b on the
longitudinal effect of learning-climate in adaptive motivational outcomes. In other words, the
effect of learning-climate on autonomous motivational regulations and enjoyment at Grade 7
did not transfer directly to Grade 9. However, the learning-climate (T0) – enjoyment (T0) – enjoy-
ment (T1) pattern emerged, indicating that if a student perceived his or her PE climate learning-
oriented he or she also enjoyed PE more and this affect seemed to carry over across middle school
grade levels.
Unexpectedly, we found that perceptions of learning-oriented climate also related positively
with less autonomous motivational regulations (both introjected and extrinsic regulations) at
Grade 7 and to introjected regulation at Grade 9. However, this was a cross-sectional finding
without longitudinal support. Therefore, it only can be concluded that students who perceived
their PE climate learning-oriented had higher autonomous and less autonomous motivation,
but these were not due to an influence of learning-oriented climate. Previously it has been
argued that fully intrinsic motivation profile in school context is rare due to the constraining
nature of school context (Yli-Piipari, Barkoukis, Liukkonen, & Jaakkola, 2013). In other
words, when pursuing good grades or teacher acceptance, external constrains may drive students
into a situation in which free will and possibility of autonomous motivation are greatly
diminished.
 14 T. Jaakkola et al.

Effect of performance-oriented climate

Based on the previous studies (Barkoukis, Ntoumanis et al., 2010; Liukkonen et al., 2010), we
hypothesised (H1a) that perceptions of performance-oriented climate relate to maladaptive moti-
vational outcomes, such as increased less autonomous motivational regulations and amotiva-
tion. In accordance with our hypothesis, we found that 7th and 9th graders, who perceived
their motivational climate highly performance-oriented, were more extrinsically motivated
and amotivated compared to students who perceived their climate as less performance-oriented.
This finding is consistent with past research (see Jaakkola & Digelidis, 2007 for an overview),
suggesting that performance-oriented climate is associated with maladaptive responses, such as
less autonomous motivational regulations. However, neither performance-oriented climate nor
less autonomous motivational regulations had any negative influence on PE enjoyment. In
addition, longitudinal analysis revealed that performance-oriented climate related to increased
less autonomous motivational regulations across time, suggesting that performance-oriented
climate may have longitudinal detrimental impact on the quality of adolescents’ motivation.
These findings show that competitive situations during the lesson may be perceived as enjoy-
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able and fun by the students. However, a consistent focus of the motivational climate on other-
referenced criteria may have detrimental effect on students’ motivation. Having in mind that
promotion of a learning-oriented climate does not necessarily results in decreasing perform-
ance-oriented climate (Barkoukis, Tsorbatzoudis, & Grouios, 2008), specific practices should
be employed. For instance, although competitive drills and games can be used, PE teachers
should avoid placing emphasis on winning and demonstrating competence, arrange opportu-
nities for all children to win, feel competent and successful, and follow students’ learning pace.

Mediating effect of enjoyment

The findings of this study partially supported our hypothesis H2 on the mediating effect of PE
enjoyment (Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). We found that enjoyment was an indirect agent trans-
ferring the effect of intrinsic motivation to PA participation. In other words, although intrinsic PE
motivation and PA participation were not directly related to each other, intrinsic motivation facili-
tated PA participation through student enjoyment. Furthermore, the impact of enjoyment in PE
was long-lasting. The study showed that if students perceived their PE climate learning-oriented
at Grade 7 that related to high enjoyment levels, not only at Grade 7, but at Grade 9. In addition,
enjoyable experiences at Grade 7 related not only to higher PA participation at Grade 7 but also to
higher level of PA participation two years later via enjoyment at Grade 9. These findings support
the previously reported findings that have shown PE enjoyment to be, not only, an important psy-
chosocial variable linked with increased PA participation (Carroll & Loumidis, 2001; Garcia Ben-
goechea et al., 2010; Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor, 2000), but to be a “link” to understand the
relationship between school PE and PA participation (e.g. Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004). This
transfer effect can be occurring in several ways. First, successful task attainment typically
results in positive affect (enjoyment) and failure – in negative affect (Mellers, Schwartz, &
Ritov, 1999). Because enjoyable experience in PE is pleasant, this affective state may add
emotional incentive to participate in PA during leisure-time. An alternative explanation could
be drawn from the trans-contextual model (Hagger, Chatzisarantis, Culverhouse, & Biddle,
2003). Based on the model, autonomous experiences in PE transfer into autonomous motivational
regulations in leisure-time and these experiences, in turn, can transfer into PA behaviour through
PA attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behaviour control. Although this model has
received some empirical support (Hagger & Chatzisarantis, 2009), the model does not account
for affective responses that may in part explain the PE motivation and PA participation relation-
ship. It is noticeable that enjoyment in PE explained only 10– 15% of PA participation, indicating
 International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 15

that PA participation is also influenced by numerous other factors (Sallis, Prochaska, & Taylor,
2000) alongside enjoyment in school PE.

Practical implications
These findings have important implications for physical educators. Most notably, our results
encourage PE instructors to imply learning-oriented teaching practices that emphasise self-
improvement and task mastery rather than performance-oriented teaching practices that focus
on competition and normative comparisons. In addition, this study supports the previous findings
(Dishman et al., 2005) and suggestions (Wallhead & Buckworth, 2004), indicating that enjoyment
in PE may be the psychological mediator that carries positive PE experiences over to increased
out-of-school PA participation. Given these findings, we believe that PE activities should (a)
match student needs, skills and preferences, (b) be perceived as exciting and challenging by
the students, and (c) offer a wide range of involvement choices. It has been argued that failure
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to consider these characteristics could potentially lead to a lack of enjoyment for PE (Ntoumanis,
Pensgaard, Martin, & Pipe, 2004).

Limitations and directions for future research

This study has its limitations. First, adolescents’ PA was assessed with self-report measures, and
therefore the overall weekly PA levels may be biased. For example, Sallis and Saelens (2000)
stated that children tend to overestimate their amount of PA activity, given social desirability,
and that objective measures, such as accelerometers or pedometers, may give a more accurate
indication of amount of activity. However, the validity and reliability of the World Health Organ-
ization’s Health Behavior in School-Aged Children study has shown self-reporting to be accep-
table in measuring PA among children and adolescents (Booth, Okely, Chey, & Bauman, 2001;
Vuori et al., 2005). Still, future research would benefit by using objective measures of PA partici-
pation. Second, although this study was a longitudinal study and it extends the previous correla-
tional findings, experimental studies are needed to establish causal relationships.

Contributions of the study

This study adds to existing literature showing that intrinsic motivation is the vital component of
motivation that transfers the effect of learning-oriented climate to long-lasting enjoyment in PE
context. In addition, performance-oriented climate has a long-lasting effect on less autonomous
motivational regulations. Finally, the study showed enjoyable experiences in PE to transfer intrin-
sic motivation into PA participation.

Notes
1. According to SDT, extrinsic motivation includes also a fourth regulation, namely integrated regulation,
which reflects the integration of behaviour within the self. Integrated regulation is considered to be the
most autonomous type of extrinsic motivation as people “reciprocally assimilate a new identification
with their sense of who they are” (Deci & Ryan, 2008, p. 16). In the SDT tradition the measurement
of integrated regulation has been incorporated in the measures of identified regulation (Deci & Ryan,
2008).
2. Nicholls (1989) labelled the two goal orientations task and ego orientation. Recently, also the learning
and performance orientation terms have been used to describe the motivational climate dimensions.
 16 T. Jaakkola et al.

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