Computer System

Chapter 1
Output Devices
• The device that receives data from a computer system for
display, physical production, etc., is called output device.
• It converts digital information into human readable form.
For example, monitor, projector, headphone, speaker, printer,
etc.
Computer Memory
• Computer memory is the storage space in the computer,
where data is to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored.
• The memory is divided into large number of small parts
called cells.
• Each location or cell has a unique address, which varies from
zero to memory size minus one. For example, if the
computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 *
1024 = 65536 memory locations. The address of these
locations varies from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −

• Cache Memory
• Primary Memory/Main Memory
• Secondary Memory
Cache Memory

• Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory

which can speed up the CPU. It acts as a buffer between the
CPU and the main memory. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently used by the
CPU. The parts of data and programs are transferred from
the disk to cache memory by the operating system, from
where the CPU can access them.
•
Advantages

• The advantages of cache memory are as follows −

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short
period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.
Primary Memory (Main Memory)

• Primary memory holds only those data and instructions on

which the computer is currently working. It has a limited
capacity and data is lost when power is switched off. It is
generally made up of semiconductor device. These
memories are not as fast as registers. The data and
instruction required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM and ROM.
Characteristics of Main Memory

• These are semiconductor memories.

• It is known as the main memory.
• Usually volatile memory.
• Data is lost in case power is switched off.
• It is the working memory of the computer.
• Faster than secondary memories.
• A computer cannot run without the primary memory.
Random Access Memory

• RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of

the CPU for storing data, program, and program result.
• It is a read/write memory which stores data until the
machine is working. As soon as the machine is switched off,
data is erased.
RAM is of two types −
• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Static RAM (SRAM)
• The word static indicates that the memory retains its
contents as long as power is being supplied. However, data is
lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature.
Characteristic of Static RAM
• Long life
• No need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size
• Expensive
• High power consumption
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain

the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that
rewrites the data several hundred times per second

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

• Short data lifetime
• Needs to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Smaller in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption
Read Only Memory

• ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from

which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of
memory is non-volatile. The information is stored
permanently in such memories during manufacture. A ROM
stores such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM
chips are not only used in the computer but also in other
electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.
Advantages of ROM

• The advantages of ROM are as follows −

• Non-volatile in nature
• Cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• Static and do not require refreshing
• Contents are always known and can be verified
types of ROMs
• MROM (Masked ROM): The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices
that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind
of ROMs are known as masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): PROM is read-only
memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank
PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program.
• EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory):EPROM can
be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During
programming, an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region.
The charge is retained for more than 10 years because the charge has no
leakage path.
• EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only
Memory):EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be
erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and
programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond).
Secondary Memory

• This type of memory is also known as • However, these days, there

external memory or non-volatile. It is are secondary storage
slower than the main memory. These devices like SSD which
are used for storing data/information support very fast data
permanently. CPU directly does not transfer speed as compared
access these memories, instead they to earlier HDDs. Also, data
are accessed via input-output transfer between computers
routines. The contents of secondary have become easier and
memories are first transferred to the simple due to the availability
main memory, and then the CPU can of small-sized and portable
access it. For example, disk, CD-ROM,
DVD, etc. flash or pen drives.
Characteristics of Secondary Memory

• These are magnetic and optical memories.

• It is known as the backup memory.
• It is a non-volatile memory.
• Data is permanently stored even if power is switched off.
• It is used for storage of data in a computer.
• Computer may run without the secondary memory.
• Slower than primary memories.
Memory unit
• Memory unit is the amount of data that can be stored in the
storage unit. This storage capacity is expressed in terms of
Bytes.
 The following table explains the main memory
storage units −
S.No. Unit & Description
Bit (Binary Digit)
1 A binary digit is logical 0 and 1 representing a passive or an active state of a component
in an electric circuit.
Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.
Byte
3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte is the smallest unit, which can represent a data
item or a character.
Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a group of fixed number of bits processed as a unit,
which varies from computer to computer but is fixed for each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is called word-size or word length. It may be as small as
8 bits or may be as long as 96 bits. A computer stores the information in the form of
computer words.
The following table lists some higher storage units −

S.No. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes
Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB
GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB
TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB
PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB
Units of Memory
• A computer system uses binary numbers to store and
process data.
• The binary digits 0 and 1, which are the basic units of
memory, are called bits. Further, these bits are grouped
together to form words.
• A 4-bit word is called a Nibble. Examples of nibble are 1001,
1010, 0010, etc. A two nibble word, i.e., 8-bit word is called a
byte, for example, 01000110, 01111100, 10000001, etc.
Like any other standard unit, bytes are
grouped together to make bigger chunks or
units of memory.
Data Transfer between Memory and CPU

• Data are transferred between

different components of a
computer system using physical
wires called bus.
• For example, bus is used for data
transfer between a USB port and
hard disk or between a hard disk
and main memory.
• Bus is of three types—
• (i) Data bus to transfer data
between different components,
Data Transfer between Memory and CPU

• (ii) Address bus to transfer

addresses between CPU and
main memory.
• (iii) Control bus to
communicate control signals
between different
components of a computer.
• All these three buses
collectively make the system
bus, as shown in Figure.
• As the CPU interacts directly with main memory, any data
entered from input device or the data to be accessed from hard
disk needs to be placed in the main memory for further
processing. The data is then transferred between CPU and main
memory using bus. The CPU places on the address bus, the
address of the main memory location from which it wants to
read data or to write data. While executing the instructions, the
CPU specifies the read or write control signal through the control
bus. As the CPU may require to read data from main memory or
write data to main memory, a data bus is bidirectional. But the
control bus and address bus are unidirectional. To write data into
memory, the CPU places the data on the data bus, which is then
written to the specific address provided through the address bus.
In case of read operation, the CPU specifies the address, and the
data is placed on the data bus by a dedicated hardware, called
memory controller. The memory controller manages the flow of
data into and out of the computer's main memory
Microprocessors
• Microprocessor is a small-sized electronic component inside
a computer that carries out various tasks involved in data
processing as well as arithmetic and logical operations.
• These days, a microprocessor is built over an integrated
circuit comprising millions of small components like resistors,
transistors and diodes.
Microprocessor Specifications
• Microprocessors are classified on the basis of different
features which include
• chip type,
• word size,
• memory size,
• clock speed, etc.
Word Size
• Word size is the maximum number of bits that a
microprocessor can process at a time.
• Earlier, a word was of 8 bits, as it was the maximum limit at
that time. At present, the minimum word size is 16 bits and
maximum word size is 64 bits
Memory Size
• Depending upon the word size, the size of RAM varies.
Initially, RAM was very small (4MB) due to 4/8 bits word size.
As word size increased to 64 bits, it has become feasible to
use RAM of size upto 16 Exabytes (EB).
(C) Clock Speed
• Computers have an internal clock that generates pulses
(signals) at regular intervals of time.
• Clock speed simply means the number of pulses generated
per second by the clock inside a computer.
• The clock speed indicates the speed at which the computer
can execute instructions.
• Earlier, it was measured in Hertz (Hz) and Kilohertz (kHz).
But with advancement in technology and chip density, it is
now measured in Gigahertz (GHz), i.e., billions of pulses per
second
(D) Cores
• Cores Core is a basic computation unit of the CPU.
• Earlier processors had only one computation unit, thereby
capable of performing only one task at a time.
• With the advent of multicore processor, it has become
possible for the computer to execute multiple tasks, thereby
increasing the system’s performance.
• CPU with two, four, and eight cores is called dual-core, quad-
core and octa-core processor, respectively.
Software
• software is a set of instructions and data that makes
hardware functional to complete the desired task.
• Some examples of software include operating systems like
Ubuntu or Windows 7/10, word processing tool like
LibreOffice or Microsoft Word, video player like VLC Player,
photo editors like GIMP and LibreOffice draw.
• A document or image stored on the hard disk or pen drive is
referred to as a soft-copy. Once printed, the document or an
image is called a hard-copy.
Types Of Software
• Depending on the mode of interaction with hardware and
functions to be performed, the software can be broadly
classified into three categories viz.
• (i) System software,
• (ii) Programming tools and
• (iii) Application software.
System Software
• The software that provides the basic functionality to operate
a computer by interacting directly with its constituent
hardware is termed as system software.
• A system software knows how to operate and use different
hardware components of a computer.
• Examples of system software include operating systems,
system utilities, device drivers, etc.
(A) Operating System
• As the name implies, the operating system is a system
software that operates the computer.
• An operating system is the most basic system software,
without which other software cannot work.
• The operating system manages other application programs
and provides access and security to the users of the system.
• Some of the popular operating systems are Windows, Linux,
Macintosh, Ubuntu, Fedora, Android, iOS, etc.
System Utilities
• Software used for maintenance and configuration of the
computer system is called system utility.
• Some system utilities are shipped with the operating system
for example disk defragmentation tool, formatting utility,
system restore utility, etc.
• Another set of utilities are those which are not shipped with
the operating system but are required to improve the
performance of the system, for example, anti-virus software,
disk cleaner tool, disk compression software, etc
(C) Device Drivers
• The device driver acts as an interface between the device
and the operating system.
• it is not possible for the operating system alone to operate
all of the existing and new devices, where each device has
diverse characteristics.
• The responsibility for overall control, operation and
management of a particular device at the hardware level is
delegated to its device driver.
Programming Tools
Programming tools are
programming languages,
language translators and
program development tools.
Programming Languages
• It is very difficult for a human being to write instructions in
the form of 1s and 0s. So different types of computer
programming languages are developed to simplify the
coding.
• Two major categories of computer programming languages
are
• low-level languages and
• high-level languages.
Low-level languages
• Low-level languages are machine dependent languages and
include machine language and assembly language.
• Machine language uses 1s and 0s to write instructions which
are directly understood and executed by the computer. But
writing a code in machine language is difficult as one has to
remember all operation codes and machine addresses. Also
finding errors in the code written in machine language is
difficult.
Low-level languages
• To simplify the writing of code, assembly language was
developed that allowed usage of English-like words and
symbols instead of 1s and 0s. But one major drawback of
writing a code in this language is that the code is computer
specific, i.e., the code written for one type of CPU cannot be
used for another type of CPU.
High level languages
• High level languages are machine independent and are
simpler to write code into.
• Instructions are using English like sentences and each high
level language follows a set of rules, similar to natural
languages.
• However, these languages are not directly understood by the
computer. Hence, translators are needed to translate high-
level language codes into machine language.
• Examples of high level language include C++, Java, Python,
etc.
Language Translators
• As the computer can understand only machine language, a
translator is needed to convert program written in assembly
or high level language to machinelanguage.
• The program code written in assembly or high-level language
is called source code.
• The three types of translators used in computing systems are
assembler, compiler and interpreter.
• Assembler
• The translator used to convert the code written in assembly
language to machine language is called assembler.
• Each assembler can understand a specific microprocessor
instruction set only and hence, the machine code is not
portable.
• Compiler
• Compiler converts the source code (codes written in high level
language codes written in high level language) into machine code at one
go.
• Once translated, the compiler is not needed.
• An interpreter
• An interpreter translates one line at a time instead of the
whole program at one go.
• Interpreter takes one line, converts it into executable code if
the line is syntactically correct, and then it repeats these
steps for all lines in the source code. Hence, interpreter is
always needed whenever a source code is to be executed.