Does race matter in international beauty pageants?

A
quantitative analysis of Miss World
By Selena Zhong and Rima Wilkes, PhD
University of British Columbia

Abstract:
Most research on race and beauty pageants uses qualitative research methods and focuses on national beauty
pageants. For this reason it is unclear whether there are broad patterns of racial inequalities in international
beauty pageants. My study addresses this issue by using a quantitative approach to examine whether race affects
success rates in international beauty pageants. This study examines countries that have competed in the Miss
World pageant from 1951 to 2011 and examine each country’s probability of winning and being in the semi-
finals. The analysis shows that race matters. White countries have a much higher chance of winning and being
in the semi-finals than non-white nations. Furthermore, white nations have been over-represented as winners
and semi-finalists while non-white nations have been under-represented in both those categories. The patterns of
success for white nations and lack of success for non-white nations demonstrates that beauty is not neutral and
that global beauty pageants can be seen as a reflection of racial hierarchies and a reaffirmation of the ideology
of white beauty.

Introduction Studying Race in Beauty Pageants than simple phenotypes, in beauty pageants
Browsing through the headshots of the Although race is a socially constructed where the body is visually displayed, physical
2011 contestants on the websites of the Miss concept, the concept of race and racism appearance is a noticeable way of signifying
World and the Miss Universe pageants, the persists3, and in order to study racial race.5 Moreover, the general public that view
women’s beauty was indisputable. Each one inequalities, race needs to be operationalized. beauty pageants also understand race and
was endowed with big, round eyes, straight There are many different ways to study race. racial (in)equality in terms of skin colour.6
hair, narrow nose, and an attractive smile. For this analysis, the categories “white” Furthermore, as previously mentioned,
I then decided to visit the photo gallery of and “non-white” are used to study racial most of the pageant contestants possess
Miss Universe 2011, the African winner Leila inequalities, and this categorization draws on Westernized facial features such as straight
Lopes. I clicked through images of the photo Telles’ (2009) study that notes that the white hair, narrow nose and large eyes; thus skin
album that featured her homecoming visit and non-white distinction is a conceptually colour remains one of the key ways to
to Angola. In the photographs where her clear racial divide.4 The categories of white differentiate the women in the international
body was juxtaposed with her countrymen, and non-white are applied to countries, pageants.
what became apparent was that Ms. Lopes rather than to the bodies, of the Miss World As with all methodologies for studying
was a shade or two lighter than the others. beauty pageant contestants themselves race, there are limitations to the one
Ms. Lopes’ body and the bodies of the other because not all 61 years of images and employed in this analysis. Race is a complex
contestants demonstrate that in order to be videos of these contestants were available. concept and the method used in this study
selected to compete in international beauty However, information on the countries that cannot fully capture its nuances.
pageants one must embody white phenotypic participated and succeeded in the 61 years of
characteristics1 such as straight hair, light the Miss World pageant was readily available. National Pageants and Race
skin tone and, a narrow nose.1 In order to categorize countries as white and Studies have shown that many non-
It is important to analyze how beauty is non-white, I viewed the images and videos of white countries send representatives that
defined and what kind of beauty is valorized pageant contestants that were available and look white to the global beauty pageants
in forms of popular culture such as beauty coded the countries that have consistently in order to increase their chances of
pageants. Popular culture shapes notions of sent women with Western phenotypes, such winning.2,7,8,9,10 King-O’Riain noted “both
feminine beauty for women across the globe2, as white skin, to the competition as white. India and Venezuela have recently sent taller,
and if white phenotypes are privileged and This includes all the European countries, more Western-looking women forward to
valorized, this could affect the self-image Australia, Canada, and the United States. international pageants because they want
of women who do not embody these While many of these countries that are coded a queen that will win on the global stage.”8
characteristics. For instance, the pressure as white have a portion of their population While King-O’Riain noted that there is a
to subscribe to the ideal of white beauty that does not identify as white, the pageant practice where Western-looking women are
could lead women to lighten their skin with contestants from these countries do not preferred, Runkle and Barnes’ studies show
harmful chemicals and may also negatively reflect this racial diversity. that the process of favouring Western-
affect their self-concept.2 While the concept of race embodies more looking women is a very active process.7,10

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Table 1: Studies on Beauty Pageants

Author Methodology Pageant Studied Time Period Studied
Lawson and Ross (2010) Quantitative analysis Miss Universe 1952-2008
Oza (2001) Ethnography Miss India 1996
Parameswaran (2004) Media analysis Miss India 1998-2000
Russel (2006) Media analysis Miss India 1996
Barnes (1994) Historical analysis & media analysis Miss Jamaica 1950s-1980s
Callahan (1998) Historical analysis & media analysis Miss Thailand 1934-1990s
Edmonson (2003) Historical analysis Pageants in the Caribbean 1999
Mattson and Pettersson (2007) Media analysis Miss Sweden 1949-1960
Runkle (2004) Ethnography Miss India 2003
Shissler (2004) Media analysis Miss Turkey 1929-1932
Wilk (1995) Ethnography Miss Belize 1990s
King-O’Riain (2008) Literature review Multiple ---
Banet-Weiser (1999) Ethnography Miss America ---
Balogun (2012) Ethnography Miss Nigeria 2009-2010

Runkle’s ethnographic study on the contestants on the national stage, none of even with an increase in the proportion
month-long training boot camp prior to the the studies addressed the issue of skin colour of women of colour named as queens.”8
Miss India pageant reveals the salience of and its implications for racial inequities in While King-O’Riain does not elaborate on
skin colour in the lives of these beauty queen international beauty pageants. Research has what this means (how and in what way do
aspirants. Each girl was on some type of shown that whiteness influences the success European beauty standards impact global
medication to lighten her skin colour. Runkle rates in national pageants,8,15 but there is a pageants?), she does suggest that whiteness
demonstrates that light skin is not only lack of research on whether whiteness also plays a role in global pageants. Banet-Weiser
preferred, it is created. The dermatologist plays a significant role in determining success also argues that “although non-European
administering these skin treatments justified on the global stage. nations and heritages are clearly supported
the process by citing the benefits of light Although there is a lack of research on in terms of their presence on stage, the
skin in beauty pageants – “we still lighten international pageants, studies on national structural and ideological basis of the
their skin here because it gives the girls pageants, such as India, the United States, pageant remains firmly embedded in US and
extra confidence when they go abroad [to Jamaica, and Belize, provide evidence that Western European values and histories.”16
international pageants].”10 race plays a role in global pageants. Osuri Both King-O’Riain and Banet-Weiser
Barnes’ study on Miss Jamaica reveals the points out that “dark-skinned winners are suggests that whiteness has an advantage
preference for a light-skinned Miss Jamaica still fewer in comparison to light or white- in beauty pageants since the pageants are
by demonstrating the active selection of skinned contestants.”15 King-O’Riain so steeped in white privilege. Non-white
a white beauty queen. Although 90% of suggests that the “continued valorization women may embody white aesthetics, but
Jamaicans identify as black, white women of ‘whiteness’ or ‘lightness’ and European they are still at a disadvantage compared to
have been favoured as beauty queens. In beauty standards seem to be impacting the white women. These studies suggest that
the 1980s, the Miss Jamaica contest was Miss World and Miss Universe pageants race plays an important role in international
turned over to private sponsorship and the
focus shifted to selecting beauty queens
that would have the best chance of winning
the international pageants and providing
financial rewards. It was during these years
that white women were selected to win Miss
Jamaica.7
In national pageants, there is a clear
preference for whiteness or lightness. By
continuously selecting white or light-skinned
women as winners in national pageants,
“white aesthetic standards do not appear
more attractive – they become the norm.”11

International Pageants and Race

Many studies on beauty pageants have
focused on national pageants,7,11,13,14 and
while some of these studies have shown
that there is a favouring of lighter-skinned Figure 1: Countries with the highest success rate from each continent.

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Social Sciences
Figure 2: Probability
of winning for each
country.

Table 2: Miss World Winning Countries and Winning beauty pageants and they open up the space how women who do not embody these
Probabilities for questions. Is there a privileging of white characteristics view themselves. Many have
Country Probability of women over non-white women as winners turned to skin bleaching and cosmetic
and semi-finalists in global beauty pageants? surgery to achieve this ideal, which poses
Winning (%) How much does whiteness affect the winning health problems.2 Moreover, research has
France* W
1.64 outcomes? What will this tell us about the shown that beauty is associated with privilege
Greece*W 1.69 type of feminine beauty that is produced, and resources.18 If Western aesthetics are
valorized, and circulated on the global stage? what is considered beautiful, then those with
Ireland*W 1.69 these physical traits will have access to more
Finland*W 1.72 Why Study International Pageants? resources than those without.
Israel*W 1.75 International beauty pageants are a form
Brazil 1.92 of what Malkki calls the “family of nations,” Quantitative Approach
Turkey*W 2.00 which “constitutes the differences between Most studies on beauty pageants are
national units in a way that is dehistoricizing, qualitative studies (Table 1). To date, only
Gibraltar*W 2.04 depoliticizing, and ultimately homogenizing one study19 has employed a quantitative
Dominican Republic 2.27 of differences.”17 This homogenizing of method to studying beauty pageants.
Puerto Rico 2.50 differences is found in the judging of the However, this study looks at the role of a
Trinidad & Tobago 2.56 pageant. Each girl is assigned a score for nations’ market liberalism on the success
Nigeria 3.13 each round and the scores are awarded based rates of the contestants and does not address
on the merits of each girl, which invokes issues regarding the racial inequities inherent
Netherlands*W 3.28 an “idealized conception of equality.”16 in these beauty pageants.
Germany*W 3.39 By studying and critiquing the practice of The qualitative studies use methods
Poland*W 3.45 privileging whiteness in these international of ethnography, historical analysis, and
Australia*W 4.08 pageants, we can dismantle the “romance media analysis to understand and explore
Argentina 4.17 of internationalism”17 that frames these issues surrounding national pageants. While
spectacles and recognize the racial inequities qualitative studies contribute excellent
Austria*W 4.17 in global beauty pageants. knowledge to the body of literature on
Bermuda 4.35 Miss World and Miss Universe are public beauty pageants, the qualitative studies on
Sweden*W 4.92 spectacles and they beam images of smiling beauty pageants tend to be restricted by time
USA*W 4.92 beauty queens around the globe. Images period. The fourth column in Table 1 shows
Peru 5.00 of the contestants are easily accessed, that most of these studies often do not cover
downloaded, or purchased from the Internet. long time periods. A quantitative approach
Iceland*W 6.12 However, circulating along with these images can provide a way of looking at the long
Jamaica 6.12 of smiling beauty queens is a particular history of the international beauty pageants
Russia*W 10.00 message about feminine beauty – a message (61 years of Miss World and 60 years of
UK*W 10.20 where whiteness is equated with beauty. The Miss Universe), giving us a clearer picture of
India 11.11 mass media and forms of popular culture the patterns of inequities in these pageants.
such as the Miss World and Miss Universe Qualitative studies have indicated there is a
Venezuela 11.11 pageants shape notions of feminine beauty.2 general preference for light or white-skinned
By continuously displaying images of light- women in international pageants, but have
Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries skinned women on the global stage and by not elaborated on this trend. A quantitative
privileging European aesthetics, international study can provide empirical evidence for this
beauty pageants problematically entrench the trend and can show us exactly how often
ideal of white beauty11 and reaffirm existing white skin has been favoured over dark
racial hierarchies. skin throughout the history of international
The ideal of white beauty could affect beauty pageants. All the qualitative studies

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have only considered the winners of beauty Turkey as European. After viewing photos and the United Kingdom have the highest
pageants and have neglected the significance of Israel’s contestants in the Miss World and success rate, while Zimbabwe has yet to win
of the semi-finalists. A quantitative approach Miss Universe pageant, I also coded Israel the Miss World title. A black country like
can examine beauty pageants through the as European. For a list of countries coded Zimbabwe has a much lower chance of being
bodies of the winners and the bodies of the into continents see Appendix B. I also coded selected for the semi-finals and capturing the
semi-finalists. the 81 countries as white countries and non- crown compared to white countries such as
white countries. White countries include all the United States and the United Kingdom,
Method the European countries and North American or brown countries like Venezuela and India.
This study examines the countries that countries as well as Australia and New India and Venezuela have higher rates
have succeeded in the Miss World pageant Zealand. Out of 81 competing countries, of winning than some white countries.
from its inception in 1951 to a recently held 34 countries are white countries and 47 However, these countries’ rates of being in
pageant in 2011. Data was gathered on the countries are non-white countries. White the semi-finals do not display their advantage
competing nations, the winning countries, countries make up 42% of the competing over non-white countries. Since winning is
and the semi-finalists through the Miss nations and non-white countries constitute a highly visible act, perhaps the crowning
World website, pageant fan-sites, as well as 58% of the competing nations. For the of two non-white countries suggests that
through viewing video clips of the pageant list of white and non-white countries see tokenism plays a role in international beauty
uploaded by fans. In the analysis only the Appendix C. pageants.
countries that competed at least 20 times For this analysis, I looked at each Many white countries have had the
throughout the 61 years of the Miss World country’s probability of winning and opportunity of winning the Miss World
pageant were considered. reaching the semi-finals. The probabilities contest, but a large proportion of non-white
I used 81 competing countries in my of winning were calculated by dividing the countries have yet to win the Miss World
analysis whose competing years range from number of times each country has won by competition (Figure 2). The graph also shows
20 to 61. They also vary tremendously in the number of times they competed in the that compared to white countries, a much
the amount of successes in the pageant (0-6 Miss World contest. The probability of being larger proportion of non-white countries
wins and 0-43 semi-finalists). For a list of the in the semi-finals was calculated by dividing have not been able to win the pageant.
81 countries see Appendix A. the number of times each country has been Tables 2 and 3 examine the information
I coded the 81 countries into seven represented in the semi-finals by the number presented in Figure 2 in more detail. Table
different continents – Europe, Africa, Asia, of times they competed in the Miss World 2 lists all the countries that have won the
North America, Latin America, Caribbean contest. Miss World competition from its inception
and Oceania. Latin America includes Central in 1951 to 2011. Throughout the 61 years
America, South America, and Mexico. Central Data of the Miss World competition, 28 different
America and Mexico are geographically Different continents have varying levels countries have successfully captured the Miss
part of North America, but are culturally of success in the Miss World pageant (Figure World title. Out of these 28 countries, 17 of
more similar to South America. I combined 1). Figure 1 provides us with the probability the winning countries are white (60.7%) and
Central America, Mexico and South America of winning and of being in the semi-finals 11 of the countries are non-white (39.3%).
to recognize the similar histories and for the most successful nation from each of This means that even though white countries
cultural traditions between these areas. The the seven continents. Africa has been the make up 42% of the competing nations in
Caribbean is geographically part of North least successful in both winning and being the Miss World competition, they constitute
America, but some parts can be considered selected for the semi-finals, while Europe has 60.7% of the winning countries. White
part of Latin America. I coded the Caribbean been one of the most successful continents. countries are over-represented as winners
as a separate continent because of its distinct Zimbabwe has a much lower probability of the Miss World pageant, while non-white
traditions and experiences with beauty (27.27%) of being in the semi-finals than UK countries are under-represented.
pageants. Geographically, Turkey straddles (71.43%). While each country’s probability Table 3 lists the 53 countries that have
both Asia and Europe. After viewing several of winning the Miss World title is quite low, yet to win the Miss World title. Out of these
photos of Turkish contestants in the Miss certain countries have a higher probability 53 countries, 17 (32.1%) are white countries,
World and Miss Universe pageant, I coded of winning than others. India, Venezuela, while 36 (67.9%) are non-white countries.
Figure 3: Probability of
being in semi-finals for
each country.

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Table 3: Countries That Have Not Yet Won Miss Table 4: Top 30 Countries with Highest Probability Table 5: Bottom 30 Countries with Lowest
World of Being Selected for Semi-Finals Probability of Being Selected for Semi-Finals
Country Probability of Country Probability of Country Probability of
Winning (%) being in Semi- being in Semi-
Tanzania 0.00 finals (%) finals (%)
French Polynesia 0.00 Netherlands*W 21.31 Latvia*W 0.00
Croatia*W 0.00 Guam 22.22 Hungary*W 0.00
Latvia*W 0.00 Poland*W 24.19 Luxembourg*W 0.00
Botswana 0.00
Croatia*W 25.00 El Salvador 0.00
Barbados 0.00
Hungary*W 0.00 Argentina 25.00 Guatemala 0.00
Zimbabwe 0.00 Trinidad & Tobago 25.64 Honduras 0.00
Bulgaria*W 0.00 Denmark*W 26.92 Cyprus*W 0.00
Ghana 0.00 Ireland*W 27.12 Gibraltar*W 2.04
US Virgin Islands 0.00 Zimbabwe 27.27 Malta*W 2.27
Swaziland 0.00 New Zealand*W 27.45 Singapore 2.56
Luxembourg*W 0.00 Mexico 27.66 Portugal*W 2.63
El Salvador 0.00 Colombia 28.89 Curacao 3.23
Kenya 0.00
Finland*W 29.31 Cayman Islands 3.23
Mauritius 0.00
Guam 0.00 Philippines 29.55 Swaziland 4.00
Yugoslavia*W 0.00 Spain*W 30.44 Bulgaria*W 4.35
Guatemala 0.00 Germany*W 30.51 Bahamas 4.65
Curacao 0.00 Puerto Rico 32.50 Botswana 4.76
Cayman Islands 0.00 Sweden*W 32.79 Tanzania 5.00
Panama 0.00 Russia*W 35.00 Paraguay 5.71
Honduras 0.00 Austria*W 35.42 Ecuador 6.25
Paraguay 0.00 Yugoslavia*W 37.04 Costa Rica 6.98
Chile 0.00
France*W 37.71 Hong Kong 7.32
Portugal*W 0.00
Uruguay 0.00 Brazil 38.46 Mauritius 7.41
Singapore 0.00 Israel*W 40.35 Chile 8.11
Bolivia 0.00 India 42.22 Belgium*W 8.62
Aruba 0.00 Jamaica 44.90 Bermuda 8.70
Hong Kong 0.00 Australia*W 46.94 Barbados 9.52
Thailand 0.00 Venezuela 55.56 Sri Lanka 9.52
Sri Lanka 0.00 USA*W 70.49 French Polynesia 10.00
Malaysia 0.00 UK*W 71.43 Bolivia 10.26
Switzerland*W 0.00
Bahamas 0.00 Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries
Costa Rica 0.00
Malta*W 0.00
Lebanon 0.00
Although non-white countries form 58% have less than a 20% chance of being in
of the competing nations, they constitute the semi-finals. The non-white country with
Philippines 0.00
67.9% of the countries that have not been the highest probability of being in the semi-
Colombia 0.00 able to succeed in winning the crown, thus finals (Venezuela 55.56%) has a much lower
Spain*W 0.00 are under-represented. success rate when compared to the United
Mexico 0.00 Success in beauty pageants can also be Kingdom’s 71.43% and USA’s 70.49%.
Cyprus*W 0.00 measured by looking at the semi-finalists Compared to white nations, non-white
Ecuador 0.00 in the pageants. Figure 3 presents the countries have a much lower probability of
Norway*W 0.00 probabilities of white countries and non- moving forward into the semi-final round.
Korea 0.00 white countries being in the semi-finals. This is more clearly illustrated by considering
New Zealand*W 0.00 The graph reveals that most white countries the average success rate for each group. The
Denmark*W 0.00 have a fairly good chance of being selected average probability of being selected for the
Canada*W 0.00 for the semi-final round. The majority of semi-finals for white countries is 23.36%,
Italy*W 0.00 white countries have a success rate of 20% while for non-white nations this probability
to 35%. The probability of being in the decreases to 14.9%.
Japan 0.00
semi-finals for non-white countries, on the Tables 4 and 5 look at Figure 3 in more
Belgium*W 0.00 other hand, are spread across a wide range detail by examining the countries with the
Note: Countries with (*W) indicates white countries
and the majority of non-white countries highest and lowest probabilities of being

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in the semi-finals. Table 4 looks at the 30 Western countries such as the United States 6
Gore, A. (2012) “‘White as Snow’ Miss France Beauty
countries with the highest probability of being and the United Kingdom have had the most Queen gets Caught in Racism Row and Catfight with
Previous Winner.” Daily Mail. Daily Mail. http://
in the semi-finals. Out of these 30 countries, successes in the Miss World beauty pageant. www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2248200/White-
18 are white nations (60%) and 12 are non- Racial inequalities operate on two levels snow-Miss-France-beauty-queen-gets-caught-racism-
white nations (40%). White countries make in these international pageants. Firstly, non- row-catfight-previous-winner.html/. (Accessed
up 42% of the competing nations and yet white contestants selected to compete on 12/14/2012).
7
Barnes, N.B. (1994) “Face of the Nation: Race,
constitute 60% of the countries with a high the global stage embody Western aesthetic Nationalisms and Identities in Jamaican Beauty
probability of successfully moving forward norms because they are lighter in skin colour Pageants.” The Massachusetts Review. 35.3. Pg 471-492.
into the semi-final round. White countries and have more Westernized features, such 8
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are over-represented as semi-finalists, while as straight hair, narrow nose, and large The Cultural Production of Identities in Beauty
Pageants.” Sociology Compass. 2.1. Pg 74-83.
non-white countries are under-represented. eyes, than women in their home countries. 9
Leung, F., Lam,S. and Sze, S. (2001) “Cultural
Table 5 considers the 30 countries with the Furthermore, once on the global stage, non- Expectations of Thinness in Chinese Women.” Eating
lowest probability of being in the semi- white women have a much lower success Disorders. 9.4. Pg 339-350.
finals. Out of these 30 countries, nine are rate in these global pageants compared
10
Runkle, S. (2004) “Making “Miss India”: Constructing
Gender, Power and the Nation.” South Asian Popular
white countries (30%) and 21 are non-white to white women. The consistent patterns Culture. 2.2. Pg 145-159.
countries (70%). Non-white countries make of success for white nations and lack of 11
Kang, J.M. (1997) “Deconstructing the Ideology of
up 58% of the competing nations and yet success for non-white nations demonstrates White Aesthetics.” Michigan Journal of Race & Law. 2. Pg
represent 70% of the least likely countries to that beauty is not objective or neutral – it is 283-357.
12
Callahan, W.A. (1998) “The Ideology of Miss Thailand
move into the semi-finals. raced. Global beauty pageants like the Miss in National, Consumerist, and Transnational Spaces.”
World competition reflects racial hierarchies Alternatives: Global, Local, Political. 23.1. Pg 29-61.
Conclusion and reaffirms the ideology of white beauty. 13
Parameswaran, R. (2004) “Global Queens,
Studies have shown that skin colour Furthermore, this pattern also suggests that National Celebrities: Tales of Feminine Triumph in
Post-Liberalization India.” Critical Studies in Media
matters in national pageants, and lighter- the occasional success of non-white nations Communication. 21.4. Pg 346-370.
skinned women are consistently preferred. is not due to a genuine valorization of non- 14
Wilk, R. (1995) “The Local and the Global in the
This preference for white aesthetics affects white beauty, but rather it is a way to display Political Economy of Beauty: From Miss Belize to Miss
the types of contestants we see competing diversity while preserving the privilege of World.” Review of International Political Economy. 2.1. Pg
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in the international pageants and it also lends whiteness that underlies these spectacles. 15
Osuri, G. (2008) “Ash-coloured Whiteness: The
evidence to racial inequities based on colour.2 Transfiguration of Aishwarya Rai.” South Asian Popular
This paper extends the analysis of skin colour References Culture. 6.2. Pg 109-123.
1
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Banet-Weiser, S. (1999) The Most Beautiful Girl in the
and beauty pageants by considering whether Tone, Achievement, and Self-Esteem among African World: Beauty Pageants and National Identity. University of
race affects success rates of countries American Women.” In Shades of Difference: Why Skin California Press.
competing in the international pageants. Color Matters. Glenn, E.N., ed(s). Stanford University 17
Malkki, L. (1994) “Citizens of Humanity:
The analysis showed that race does Press. Pg 25-39. Internationalism and the Imagined Community of
2
Glenn, E.N. (2008) “Yearning for Lightness: Nations.” Diaspora. 3.1. Pg 41-68.
matter. Race affects the probability of being Transnational Circuits in the Marketing and 18
Anderson, T.L., Grunert, C., Katz, A., and Lovascio, S.
selected as a semi-finalist and of being Consumption of Skin Lighteners.” Gender & Society. (2010) “Aesthetic Capital: A Research Review on Beauty
selected as Miss World. The data showed 22.3. Pg 281-302. Perks and Penalties.” Sociology Compass. 4.8. Pg 564-575.
that white countries have a much higher 3
Winant, H. (2006) “Race and Racism: Towards a Global 19
Lawson, R. and Ross, J. (2010) “Economic Freedom
Future.” Ethnic and Racial Studies. 29.5. Pg 986-1003. and Beauty Pageant Success in the World.” Journal de
chance of winning and reaching the semi- 4
Telles, T. (2009) “The Social Consequences of Skin Economistes et des Etudes Humaines. 16.1. Pg 2.
finals than non-white nations. White nations Color in Brazil.” In Shades of Difference: Why Skin Color
have also been over-represented as winners Matters. Glenn, E.N., ed(s). Stanford University Press.
and semi-finalists while non-white nations Pg 9-24.
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have been under-represented. African Transnational Divergences and Convergences.” In
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winning and reaching the semi-finals while ed(s). Stanford University Press. Pg 7-8.

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Appendix A
Table 1: Countries Used in Analysis
Country Probability of Winning Probability of being in Semi- Total Wins Total Semi-finalists Number of Times Competed
finals
Tanzania 0 5 0 1 20
French Polynesia 0 10 0 2 20
Croatia 0 25 0 5 20
Russia 10 35 2 7 20
Latvia 0 0 0 0 21
Botswana 0 4.762 0 1 21
Barbados 0 9.524 0 2 21
Hungary 0 0 0 0 22
Zimbabwe 0 27.273 0 6 22
Bulgaria 0 4.348 0 1 23
Bermuda 4.3478 8.696 1 2 23
Ghana 0 12.5 0 3 24
US Virgin Islands 0 12.5 0 3 24
Swaziland 0 4 0 1 25
Luxembourg 0 0 0 0 26
El Salvador 0 0 0 0 26
Kenya 0 11.538 0 3 26
Mauritius 0 7.407 0 2 27
Guam 0 22.222 0 6 27
Yugoslavia 0 37.037 0 10 27
Poland 3.4483 24.138 1 7 29
Guatemala 0 0 0 0 31
Curacao 0 3.226 0 1 31
Cayman Islands 0 3.226 0 1 31
Nigeria 3.125 12.5 1 4 32
Panama 0 12.121 0 4 33
Honduras 0 0 0 0 34
Paraguay 0 5.714 0 2 35
Chile 0 8.108 0 3 37
Portugal 0 2.632 0 1 38
Uruguay 0 10.526 0 4 38
Singapore 0 2.564 0 1 39
Bolivia 0 10.256 0 4 39
Aruba 0 10.256 0 4 39
Trinidad & Tobago 2.5641 25.641 1 10 39
Peru 5 17.5 2 7 40
Puerto Rico 2.5 32.5 1 13 40
Hong Kong 0 7.317 0 3 41
Thailand 0 12.195 0 5 41
Sri Lanka 0 9.524 0 4 42
Malaysia 0 14.286 0 6 42
Switzerland 0 19.048 0 8 42
Bahamas 0 4.651 0 2 43
Costa Rica 0 6.977 0 3 43
Malta 0 2.273 0 1 44
Lebanon 0 11.364 0 5 44
Dominican Republic 2.2727 15.909 1 7 44
Philippines 0 29.545 0 13 44
Colombia 0 28.889 0 13 45
India 11.1111 42.222 5 19 45
Spain 0 30.435 0 14 46
Mexico 0 27.66 0 13 47
Cyprus 0 0 0 0 48
Ecuador 0 6.25 0 3 48
Argentina 4.1667 25 2 12 48
Austria 4.1667 35.417 2 17 48
Gibraltar 2.0408 2.041 1 1 49
Iceland 6.1224 14.286 3 7 49
Jamaica 6.1224 44.898 3 22 49
Australia 4.0816 46.939 2 23 49
UK 10.2041 71.429 5 35 49
Turkey 2 14 1 7 50
Norway 0 20 0 10 50
Korea 0 17.647 0 9 51
New Zealand 0 27.451 0 14 51
Denmark 0 26.923 0 14 52
Brazil 1.9231 38.462 1 20 52
Canada 0 20.755 0 11 53
Venezuela 11.1111 55.556 6 30 54
Italy 0 20 0 11 55
Japan 0 14.286 0 8 56
Israel 1.7544 40.351 1 23 57
Belgium 0 8.621 0 5 58
Finland 1.7241 29.31 1 17 58
Greece 1.6949 16.949 1 10 59
Ireland 1.6949 27.119 1 16 59
Germany 3.3898 30.508 2 18 59
Netherlands 3.2787 21.311 2 13 61
Sweden 4.918 32.787 3 20 61
France 1.6393 37.705 1 23 61
USA 4.918 70.492 3 43 61

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Appendix B
Table 3: Countries Coded According to Continent
Europe Africa Asia North America Latin Americaa Caribbeanb Oceania
Croatia Tanzania Singapore Canada El Salvador Barbados French Polynesia
Russia Botswana Hong Kong USA Guatemala Bermuda Guam
Latvia Zimbabwe Thailand Panama US Virgin Islands Australia
Hungary Ghana Sri Lanka Honduras Curacao New Zealand
Bulgaria Swaziland Malaysia Paraguay Cayman Islands
Luxembourg Kenya Lebanon Chile Aruba
Yugoslavia Mauritius Philippines Uruguay Trinidad & Tobago
Poland Nigeria India Bolivia Puerto Rico
Portugal Korea Peru Bahamas
Switzerland Japan Costa Rica Dominican Re-
Malta Colombia public
Spain Mexico Jamaica
Cyprus Ecuador
Austria Argentina
Gibraltar Brazil
Iceland Venezuela
UK
Turkeyc
Norway
Denmark
Italy
Israeld
Belgium
Finland
Greece
Ireland
Germany
Netherlands
Sweden
France
Notes:
a
Latin America includes Central America, South America and Mexico. Central America and Mexico are geographically part of North America, but is culturally more similar to
South America. I combined Central America and South America to recognize the similar histories and cultural traditions between these two areas.
b
The Caribbean is geographically part of North America while some parts can be considered part of Latin America. I coded the Caribbean as a separate continent because of its
unique and distinct traditions and experiences with beauty pageants.
c
Geographically Turkey straddles both Asia and Europe. After viewing several years of Turkish contestants in Miss World and Miss Universe I coded Turkey as European
d
After viewing photos of Israel’s contestants in the Miss World and Miss Universe pageant, I coded Israel as European

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Appendix C
Table 3: List of Countries Coded as White and Non-White

White Countries Non-White Countries

Croatia Tanzania
Russia French Polynesia
Latvia Botswana
Hungary Barbados
Bulgaria Zimbabwe
Luxembourg Bermuda
Yugoslavia Ghana
Poland US Virgin Islands
Portugal Swaziland
Switzerland El Salvador
Malta Kenya
Spain Mauritius
Cyprus Guam
Austria Guatemala
Gibraltar Curacao
Iceland Cayman Islands
Australia Nigeria
UK Panama
Turkey Honduras
Norway Paraguay
New Zealand Chile
Denmark Uruguay
Canada Singapore
Italy Bolivia
Israel Aruba
Belgium Trinidad & Tobago
Finland Peru
Greece Puerto Rico
Ireland Hong Kong
Germany Thailand
Netherlands Sri Lanka
Sweden Malaysia
France Bahamas
USA Costa Rica
Lebanon
Dominican Republic
Philippines
Colombia
India
Mexico
Ecuador
Argentina
Jamaica
Korea
Venezuela
Brazil
Japan

82 Journal of Undergraduate Research and Scholarly Excellence - Vol IV