MECHANISMS OF MACHINERY

MEng 3162

CHAPTER TWO

Linkages

Prepared by; Amanuel

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Linkages
• A linkage is a kinematic chain in which one of the links is fixed to the ground which
usually is the frame.

• A linkage permits relative motion between its links and may have one or more degrees of
freedom.

• A linkage with zero or negative degree of freedom is a structure which does not allow any
relative motion between the links.

• There are very many linkages formed by different connections of members. The members
of linkages are connected so as to produce the motion required by the design.

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FOUR-BAR LINKAGE
The kinematic linkage Link 1 is the frame or ground; generally, it is
shown in figure below is stationary.

known as the four-bar Link 2 is the driver, which may rotate or

oscillate.
linkage.
Link 3 is the coupler, sometimes known as
the connecting rod. This link undergoes
general plane motion.
Link 4 is the follower or driven element,
which may rotate or oscillate depending on
the rotary or oscillatory motion of link 2, and
on link dimensions.
These four links are joined by four revolute
joints.
four bar linkage
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Transmission angle
 The angle γ between the coupler 3 and the output link 4 (follower) is called the
transmission angle. The transmission angle γ is shown in Figure below.

The equation for the transmission angle can be derived as follows.

Z2 = r12 + r22 – 2r1r2cosθ2 = r32 + r42 – 2r3r4cosγ

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 In general, for good force transmission to the output link, the transmission angle should be
in the range 400 < γ < 1400 .

Motion of a four-bar mechanism

The type of motion that a four-bar linkage executes depends on the proportional size of its
links.
There are three basic types of motion which a four-bar linkage can produce. These are;
 Crank-rocker to indicate that link 2 rotates and link 4 oscillates;
 Double crank to indicate that both the driver and follower rotate and
 Double-rocker to indicate that both the driver and follower oscillate through certain
angles.

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Grashoff's Law
 The type of motion executed by a four-bar linkage can be determined by considering
arrangement of the links and their proportions.
Consider the four bar mechanism shown in figure below.

By Grashoff’s law, for at least one link to be capable of making a full revolution;
S+l<p+q
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 Non Grashoff's 4 bar: No link can rotate 360 if: S + L > P + Q
 In Grashoff’s linkage at least one link will be capable of making a full revolution with
respect to the ground plane.
 In non-Grashoff’s linkage no link will be capable of a complete revolution relative to any
other link.
Inversions of four bar mechanism
 A mechanism with four links is known as simple mechanism, and the mechanism with
more than four links is known as compound mechanism.
 When a mechanism is required to transmit power or to do some particular type of work, it
then becomes a machine.
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 Different mechanisms can be obtained by fixing different links of the same kinematic
chain. These are called as inversions of the mechanism.
 By changing the fixed link, the number of mechanisms which can be obtained is equal to
the number of links.
 Excepting the original mechanism, all other mechanisms will be known as inversions of
original mechanism. The inversion of a mechanism does not change the motion of its links
relative to each other.

 To determine whether a four-bar link will operate as a crank-rocker, a double-crank , or a

double-rocker, Grashoff's law is applied.
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According to Grashoff’s law;
i) If the sum of the lengths of the longest and shortest links is less than or equal to the sum of
the lengths of the other two links, then
a) Two different crank rockers will be formed when the shortest link is the crank and either
of the adjacent links is the fixed link;

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Crank rocker mechanism

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b) A double crank will be formed when the shortest link is the fixed link.

c) A double rocker will be formed when the link opposite the shortest link is the fixed link.

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ii) If S + L > P + Q, all inversions of the four bar chain mechanism will be triple-rockers in
which no link can fully rotate.

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 SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM:
 Slider-crank mechanism is basically a four-bar mechanism with three revolute joints, or
turning pairs and a prismatic joint or a sliding pair.

 In the slider-crank mechanism, commonly

link 1 is the frame, considered to be fixed;
link 2 is the crank which is the driver;
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link 3 is the connecting rod, the link between the driver and the follower;
link 4 is the slider which is the driven element.

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 The slider crank mechanism converts rotary motion into reciprocating motion and vice
versa.
 Commonly the slider-crank mechanism is applied in internal combustion engines, where
in the application the slider, link 4, is the driver and the crank, link 2, is driven.
 Inversion of the Slider-crank mechanism
Inversion is created by grounding different link in a kinematic chain. It is known that a
mechanism is formed by fixing one of the links of the kinematic chain. If a different link is
fixed in turn, an inversion of the mechanism in consideration is formed.
 The second inversion of slider-crank mechanism obtained by fixing link 2.

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 Link 3 along with the slider at its end C, becomes crank. Hence link 3 along with the
slider (link4) rotates about B.
 By doing so, the link 1 rotates about A along with the slider (link4) which reciprocates on
link1.
 This inversion is used in white worth quick- return mechanism and rotary engine.

 WHITE WORTH QUICK- RETURN MECHANISM

 This mechanism is used in workshops to cut metals.
 The forward stroke cuts the metal whereas the return stroke is idle.
 The forward stroke takes a little longer period whereas the return stroke takes shorter
period. Chapter 10: Web Services (Amin T. Lecturer @ Faculty of Computing & SE ) 12/23/2022 13

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THE WORKING PRINCIPLE OF WHITE WORTH QUICK- RETURN
MECHANISM
 Link 3 along with its slider (i.e. link4) rotates in a circle about B. By doing so, the link 1
rotates about A along with the slider (link4) which reciprocates on link1.
 On the link1, produced downward there is a point D, where link5 is connected. The other
end of link 5 is connected to the tool (link6).
 The forward stroke of the tool cuts the metal whereas the return stroke is idle.
 The point D rotates in a circle about point A. The axis of the motion of the tool passes
through A and is perpendicular to AB, the fixed link.
 The link3 (crank) rotates in a counter-clockwise direction. Let, initially the slider is at C1.
the point D will be then at D1 and the tool 6 will be at E1 (i.e. The extreme left position)
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 As the crank rotates counter-clockwise direction from point C1 to C and then to C2, the
point D will move from D1 to D and then to D2.
 The tool (link6) will move from E1 to E2 (i.e. extreme right position). The movement of
tool 6 from E1 to E2 is known as forward stroke.

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The third inversion of slider-crank mechanism obtained by fixing link 3.

Link 2 acts as a crank and is rotating about point B. Link 4 oscillates.

This inversion is used in oscillating cylinder engine and crank and slotted-
lever mechanism.
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The forth and final inversion of the slider-crank mechanism has the piston,
link 4, stationary.

Link 3 can oscillate about the fixed point C on link 4. This makes end B of
link 2 to oscillate about C and end A to reciprocate along the axis of fixed
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link4.
This inversion is used in hand-pump.
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 The Scotch Yoke mechanism
 The Scotch-yoke mechanism, is widely  The displacement of the slider x in moving
used as a sine and cosine generator, i.e. it from A to A’ is given by;
is used to produce harmonic motion. x = r – rcosθ = r(1 – cosθ)
 It is also used to produce desired Substituting θ = ωt, the displacement is
vibrations.
x = r(1 – cosωt)
The velocity of the follower is
𝑑𝑥
v= = rωsinωt = rωsinθ
𝑑𝑡

and the acceleration is:

Chapter 10: Web Services (Amin T. Lecturer @ Faculty of Computing & SE ) 𝑑2 𝑥 12/23/2022 18
𝑎= = rω2 cosωt = rω2 cosθ
𝑑𝑡 2

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 Quick-Return Mechanism
 Quick return mechanisms are combinations of simple linkages which give a quick return-
stroke of the follower for a constant angular velocity of the driver.
 Many times mechanisms are designed to perform repetitive operations. During these
operations for a certain period the mechanisms will be under load known as working
stroke and the remaining period is known as the return stroke, the mechanism returns to
repeat the operation without load.
 The ratio of time of working stroke to that of the return stroke is known a time ratio.
 Quick return mechanisms are used in machine too1s to give a slow cutting stroke and a
quick return stroke.
 In the design of quick-return mechanisms, the ratio of the crank angle for the working
stroke to that of Chapter
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Web Services stroke is@known
(Amin T. Lecturer as &the
Faculty of Computing SE ) time-ratio. 12/23/2022 19

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 The time-ratio for quick-return mechanisms is always greater than unity to give a slower
cutting stroke and a faster return stroke.

𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 tw

Time ratio (Q) = = = >1
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 tr

The various quick return mechanisms commonly used are;

i. Crank-shaper (Crank and slotted lever) quick return mechanism
ii. Whitworth
iii. Drag link

Crank-shaper (Crank and slotted lever) quick return mechanism

 This mechanism is mostly used in shaping machines, slotting machines and in rotary
internal combustion
Chapter 10:engines.
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Figure below shows the crank- shaper  To produce a quick return, the time ratio
mechanism. should be greater than 1.
 For the direction of motion indicated in the
figure, the cutting stroke occurs when the
crank rotates from O2A' to O2A" through an
angle α, the idle stroke being when the crank
moves from O2A" to O2A' through the angle
β.
 So the time ratio Q is given by

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 TOGGLE MECHANISMS
 A simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a straight line at one point
in their motion.
Figure below shows a schematic representation of such links in toggle mechanisms.

A simple toggle mechanism

As the angle a approaches 900 , the links CA and AB come into toggle and the mechanical
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advantage approaches infinity; which in practice is less than infinity due to frictional effects.
The simple toggle is used in stone crushers, punch presses, riveting machines, etc.

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Stone Crusher
 The stone crusher uses two toggle linkages
in series to obtain high mechanical
advantage.
 When links 2 and 3 are in toggle, links 4
& 5 are also in toggle to produce high
crushing force needed.
 When link 2 reaches the lowest point of its
stroke, it comes into toggle with link 3 and
at the same time links 4 and 5 come into
Stone crusher
toggle with each other.
 This configuration results in a very large
crushing force.
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Punch Press
 The large punching force needed is obtained when the crank O2A and connecting rod AB
come into toggle at the lower end of the punch stroke exactly at the time where it is most
needed.
The toggle mechanism for a punch press is shown in figure below.

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 STRAIGHT LINE MECHANISMS
 The straight line mechanisms are mechanisms which can generate straight lines from
rotary motion.
 They are designed so that a point on one of the links moves in a straight line without the
need for guides, thus converting rotary motion to straight line motion. Some examples of
straight line mechanisms are Watt mechanisms, Tchebicheff’s mechanism, etc.

Watt mechanisms
This mechanism generates an approximate straight line motion. Figure below shows watt
mechanism
 If links 2 and 4 are of equal length, the tracing point P
traces an approximate straight
12/23/2022 line
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figure 8 towards the ends of the stroke length.

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Tchebicheff’s mechanism
Tchebicheff's straight line mechanism is shown in figure below.
Links 2 and 4 have equal length, and the tracing point P is at the center of link 3.

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Tchebicheff’s mechanism

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PARALLEL MECHANISMS
 These mechanisms are employed for producing parallel motions and reproducing motions
at different scales. Common examples of parallel mechanisms are the pantograph and the
drafting machine.

INTERMITTENT MOTION MECHANISMS

 These mechanisms convert continuous motion into intermittent motion. Common
examples of intermittent motion mechanisms are the Geneva wheel and ratchet
mechanism.

Geneva Mechanism
 Provides intermittent rotary motion.
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 During one cycle of the crank, the Geneva wheel rotates through fraction part of a
revolution.

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Ratchet Mechanism  Ratchets are used in watches and
counting devices.
 This mechanism is used in producing
intermittent rotary motion member.
 A ratchet and Pawl mechanism consists of 5
Pawl
a ratchet wheel 2 and a pawl 3 as shown in
the figure.
 When the lever 4 carrying pawl is raised, Ratchet

the ratchet wheel rotates in the counter 3

clock wise direction (driven by pawl).
2
4
 As the pawl lever is lowered the pawl
slides over the ratchet teeth. Lever
 One more pawl 5 is used to prevent the
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ratchet from reversing.

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 Steering Gear Mechanism
 Used to change the direction of the wheel axle with respect to the chassis which enables
motion of an automobile in any desired direction.
 Commonly, steering in automobiles is done by means of the front wheels, the back wheels
having fixed direction with respect to the chassis.

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 To avoid skidding or slipping of the wheels sideways, the front two wheels must turn
about the same instantaneous center C which lies on the axis of the back wheels.
Otherwise, skidding will result on the front wheels which causes undue wear in the tires.
 The condition for correct steering is that all four wheels must turn about the same
instantaneous center. This condition is satisfied if the inner wheel axis makes a larger
turning angle θ compared to the outer wheel axis turning angle β.
 For the left turn indicated in Figure above the condition to be satisfied is obtained as
follows.

 The condition for correct steering is obtained to be

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This is the fundamental equation for correct steering which if satisfied, eliminates skidding
of the front wheels.
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Ackerman Steering Gear
 Consists of a four bar mechanism joined by revolute joints as shown in figure below.

 The shorter links QR and PS are of equal length and are connected to the front wheel
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axles by hinge joints.

 Links PQ and RS are of unequal length.
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 When the vehicle moves along a straight path, links PQ and RS are parallel to each other
and links QR and PS are equally inclined to the longitudinal axis of the vehicle. The
above figure shows the position of the vehicle when steering to the left.
 In this position, the lines of the front axles intersect at C on the axis of the back wheels
and links PQ and RS are no longer parallel to each other.

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