UNIT-V

FEEDBACK COMPONENTS
Sensor Characteristics
• To choose an appropriate sensor for a particular need, we have to
consider a number of different characteristics. These characteristics
determine the performance, economy, ease of application, and
applicability of the sensor.
• In certain situations, different types of sensors may be available for the
same purpose. Therefore, the following may be considered before a
sensor is chosen:
• Cost: The cost of a sensor is an important consideration, especially
when many sensors are needed for one machine.
• Size: Depending on the application of the sensor, the size may be of
primary importance. For example, the joint displacement sensors have
to be adapted into the design of the joints and move with the robot’s
body elements.
• Weight: Since robots are dynamic machines, the weight of a sensor is
very important. A heavy sensor adds to the inertia of the arm and
reduces its overall payload. Similarly, a heavy camera mounted on a
robotic insect airplane will severely limit its flying capabilities.
• Type of output (digital or analog): The output of a sensor may be
digital or analog and, depending on the application, this output may be
used directly or have to be converted. For example, the output of a
potentiometer is analog,
• Interfacing: Sensors must be interfaced with other devices such as
microprocessors and controllers. The interfacing between the sensor and the
device can become an important issue if they do not match or if other add-on
components and circuits become necessary(including resistors, transistor
switches, power source, and length of wires involved).
• Resolution: Resolution is the minimum step size within the range of
measurement of the sensor.
• Sensitivity: Sensitivity is the ratio of a change in output in response to a change
in input. Highly sensitive sensors will show larger fluctuations in output as a
result of fluctuations in input, including noise.
• Linearity: Linearity represents the relationship between input variations and
output variations. This means that in a sensor with linear output, the same
change in input at any level within the range will produce a similar change in
output.
• Range: Range is the difference between the smallest and the largest
outputs the sensor can produce, or the difference between the smallest and
largest inputs with which it can operate properly.
• Response time: Response time is the time that a sensor’s output requires
to reach a certain percentage of the total change. It is usually expressed in
percentage of total change, such as 95%. It is also defined as the time
required to observe the change in output as a result of a change in input.
For example, the response time of a simple mercury thermometer is long,
whereas a digital thermometer’s response time, which measures
temperature based on radiated heat, is short.
• Frequency response: Suppose you attach a very high-quality radio tuner
to a small, cheap speaker. Although the speaker will reproduce the sound,
its quality will be very low, whereas a high-quality speaker system with a
woofer and tweeter can reproduce the same signal with much better
quality.
Reliability: Reliability is the ratio of how many times a system operates
properly, divided by how many times it is used. For continuous, satisfactory
operation it is necessary to choose reliable sensors that last a long time
while considering the cost and other requirements.
Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as how close the output of the sensor is to
the expected value. If for a given input, the output is expected to be a certain
value, accuracy is related to how close the sensor’s output is to this value.
For example, a thermometer should read 100 C when placed in pure boiling
water at sea level.
Repeatability: If the sensor’s output is measured a number of times in
response to the same input, the output may be different each time.
Repeatability is a measure of how varied the different outputs are relative to
each other.
Sensor Utilization
• Figure (a) shows a basic sensor circuit with a voltage source.
• As the sensor turns on and off, due to the back-emf principle, the wires
act as inductors and consequently, a voltage spike is generated in the
wires that can create false readouts.
• To prevent this, it is advisable to add a monolithic-type capacitor to the
circuit, as shown in Figure (b).
• The capacitor should be placed as close to the sensor as possible.
• Similarly, if long wires (longer than a few inches) are used to connect
a sensor to a voltage source or to where the signal is read, the wires
can act as antennae and interfere with the signal.
• The solution is to use shielded or coaxial wires or to twist the wires
together.
 Position Sensors
• Position sensors are used to measure displacements, both angular and linear,
as well as movements.
• In many cases, such as in encoders, the position information may also be
used to calculate velocities.
The following are common position sensors used in robotics:
1. Potentiometer
2. Resolvers
3. Encoders
4. Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
5. (Linear) Magnetostrictive Displacement Transducers (LMDT or MDT)
6. Hall-effect Sensors
7. Other devices
1. Potentiometer
• Potentiometers are analog devices whose output voltage is
proportional to the position of a wiper.
• A voltage is applied across the resistive element.
• The voltage between the wiper and ground is proportional to
the ratio of the resistance on one side of the wiper to the total
resistance of the resistive element.
• Essentially the pot acts as a voltage divider network.
• That is, the voltage across the resistive element is divided
into two parts by a wiper.
• Measuring this voltage gives the position of the wiper.
• The function of the potentiometer can be represented by the following
function:

Where:
Vo(t) is the output voltage,
Kp is the constant voltage of the pot in volts per radian or
(volts per inch in the case of a linear pot)
θ(t) is the position of the pot in radians (or inches).
• Since a pot requires an excitation voltage, in order to
calculate Vo, we can use

Where:

Vex is the excitation voltage,

θtot is the total travel available of the wiper,
θact is the actual position of the wiper.
 2. Resolvers
A resolver is also a transformer, where the primary coil is connected to the
rotating shaft and carries an alternating current, either through slip rings or
from a brushless transformer within it.
There are two secondary coils, placed 90⁰ apart from each other. As the rotor
rotates, the flux it develops rotates with it.
When the primary coil in the rotor is parallel to either of the two secondary
coils, the voltage induced in that coil is maximum, while the other secondary
coil perpendicular to it does not develop any voltage.
As the rotor rotates, eventually the voltage in the first secondary coil goes to
zero, while the second coil develops its maximum voltage.
For all other angles in between, the two secondary coils develop a voltage
proportional to the sine and cosine of the angle between the primary and
the two secondary coils.
Although the output of a resolver is analog, it is equal to the sine and cosine
of the angle, eliminating the necessity to calculate these values.
• where θ is the angle of the rotor with respect to the stator.
• This signal may be used directly, or it may be converted into a digital
representation using a device known as a ‘resolver-to-digital’
converter.
• Since a resolver is essentially a rotating transformer, it is important to
remember that an ac signal must be used for excitation.
• If a dc signal were used there would be no output signal.
 3. Encoders
• An encoder is a simple device that can output a digital signal for each small
portion of a movement.
• To do this, the encoder disk or strip is divided into small sections.
• Each section is either opaque or transparent (it can also be either reflective or
non reflective).
• A light source, such as an LED on one side, provides a beam of light to the
other side of the encoder disk or strip, where it is seen by a light-sensitive
sensor, such as a phototransistor.
• If the disk’s angular position (or in the case of a strip, the linear position) is
such that the light is revealed, the sensor on the opposite side will be turned
on and will have a high signal.
• If the angular position of the disk is such that the light is occluded, the
sensor will be off and its output will be low (therefore, a digital output).
• As the disk rotates, it can continuously send signals. If the signals are
counted, the approximate total displacement of the disk can be measured at
any time.
There are two basic types of encoders: a) Incremental and b) Absolute.
Incremental Encoders: Figures (a) and (b) are incremental encoders.
In this type of encoder, the areas (arcs) of opaque and transparent sections
are all equal and repeating.
• Since all arcs are the same size, each represents an equal angle of rotation.
• If the disk is divided into only two portions, each portion is 180 degrees, its
resolution will also be 180 degrees, and within this arc, the system is
incapable of reporting any more accurate information about the displacement
or position.
• If the number of divisions increases, the accuracy increases as well.
• Therefore, the resolution of an optical encoder is related to the number of arcs
of transparent/opaque areas.
• Typical incremental encoders can have 512 to 1024 arcs, reporting angular
displacements with a resolution of 0.7 to 0.35 degrees.
• High resolution encoders with thousands of pulses per revolution (PPR) are
also available.
• Optical encoders are either opaque disks with the material removed for
transparent areas (Figure (a) and (c)) or are clear material like glass with
printed opaque areas.
• Many encoder disks are also etched, such that they either reflect the light or
do not reflect the light.
• In that case, the light source and the pick-up sensor are both on the same side
of the disk.
• An incremental encoder is like an integrator. It only reports changes to
angular position (it reports the change in location, which is the displacement).
• However, it cannot report or indicate directly the actual value of the position.
• In other words, an incremental encoder can only tell how much movement is
made.
Absolute Encoders: An alternative to incremental optical encoders is
an absolute encoder.
Each portion of the encoder disk’s angular displacement has a unique
combination of clear/opaque sections that give it a unique signature.
Through this unique signature, it is possible to determine the exact
position of the disk at any time, without the need for a starting position.
In other words, even at start time, the controller can determine the
position of the disk by considering the unique signature of the disk at
that location.
• As shown in Figure, there is a multiple row of sections, each one different
from the others.
• The first row may have only one clear and one opaque section(one on, one
off ). The next row has 4 (or 22 ), followed by 8 (or 23), and so on.
• Each row must have its own light source and light detector assembly.
• Each sensor assembly sends out one signal.
• Therefore, two rows require two inputs to the controller (2 bits), three rows
require 3 bits, and so on.
• As shown in Figure, an encoder with 4 rows can have 24=16 distinct
combinations, each section covering an angle of 22.5. This means that
within this section of 22.5, the controller cannot determine where the
encoder is. Therefore, the resolution is only 22.5. To increase the
resolution, there would have to be more sections, or bits.
 Velocity Sensor
The following are the more common velocity sensors used in robotics.
Their application is very much related to the type of position sensor
used. Depending on the type of position sensor used, there may not even
be a need to use a velocity sensor.
1. Encoders
2. Tachometers
3. Differentiation of position signal
 1. Encoders
If an encoder is used for displacement measurement, there is in fact no need to
use a velocity sensor.

Since encoders send a known number of signals for any given angular
displacement, by counting the number of signals received in a given length of
time (dt) velocity can be calculated.

A typical number for (dt) may be 10 ms. However, if the encoder shaft rotates
slowly, the number of signals received may be too small for an accurate
calculation of velocity.
2. Tachometers

A tachometer is in fact a generator that converts mechanical energy into

electrical energy.

Its output is an analog voltage proportional to the input angular speed.

It may be used along with potentiometers to estimate velocity.

Tachometers are generally inaccurate at very low speeds.
ROBOT APPLICATIONS
IN MANUFACTURING

by
Dr Naveen Kumar G
Associate Professor
Mechanical Engineering
• An industrial robot is a robot system used for manufacturing.

• Industrial robots are automated, programmable and capable of

movement on three or more axes.

• Typical applications of robots include welding, painting,

assembly, disassembly, pick and place for printed circuit
boards, packaging and labeling, palletizing, product inspection, and
testing; all accomplished with high endurance, speed, and precision.
They can assist in material handling.
• Material handling automation
uses advanced technology to move
parts or products where you need
them, when you need them.
• Automated material handling looks
for opportunities to integrate robotics
or other technology into your facility,
line, or system to ensure that all
integration is efficient, safe, and
ergonomic.
 Machine loading & unloading
• These applications are material handling operation in which the robot is
used to service a production machine by transferring parts to and/or from the
machine
There are three as that fil into this application category.
1. Machine load/unload: The robot loads a raw work part into the process
& unloads a finished part. Ex: Machining operations
2. Machine loading: The robot must load the raw work part or material
into the machine but the part is ejected from the machine by some other
means.
Ex: Press working operations
3. Machine unloading: The produces finished parts from materials that are
loaded direct into the machine without robot assistance. The robot unloads the
part from the machine.
Ex: Die casting and plastic modelling applications.
Applications of loading and unloading
• Plastic injection mold machines
• Blow molding machines
• Thermal forming machines
• Brown board die cut presses
• Printing presses with automatic stacking equipment
Robotic Material Handling
• Material handling (MH) makes use of the robot's simple capability to
transport objects.
• By fitting the robot with an appropriate end of arm tool (e.g. gripper),
the robot can efficiently and accurately move product from one
location to another.
• Material handling robots can eliminate the requirement of hazardous,
tedious, or fatiguing labour in an industrial environment.
• The list of Material handling robots include more than 52 models
ranging from 2 to 1500 kg payload capacity.
 Robot material-transfer
• Material-handling applications include material transfer
and machine loading and unloading.
• Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials
or work parts from one location to another.
• Many of these tasks are relatively simple,
requiring robots to pick up parts from one
conveyor and place them on another.
• Other transfer operations are more complex,
such as placing parts onto pallets in an
arrangement.
 Robot Spot welding
• Spot welding is a resistance welding
process that uses large electrical current to
join two or more sheets of metal in a single
location.
• Spot welding technology has evolved
through its extensive use in automobile
manufacturing using articulated robots.
• By developing robot spot welding
automation that offers through arm cable
routing, reduces cycle time, allows greater
control, and reduces cost.
• spot welding software accurately controls the position, acceleration, and force
of the gun.
• The position control and force calibration allow for different thicknesses and
types of material to be welded.
• industry-leading spot welding technology can help you increase product
quality, reduce production cycle time, or design and build a custom turnkey
spot welding solution.
Robot Continuous arc welding
• Arc welding is a joining process that uses large electric current to melt
and fuse a consumable metal onto the base metal.
• Arc welding and other related processes are used extensively
throughout transportation, construction, and industrial equipment
manufacturing.
• The development of automated arc welding solutions continues to be driven
by the requirement for higher product quality, productivity and reduced costs.
• In addition, good manufacturing system flexibility, which is essential for
responding to the dynamic behaviours of the market and therefore keeping
products competitive, has become a key development target for the
manufacturing industries.
• As a result, robotic welding processes offer attractive alternative solutions to
traditional manual operation and hard automation.
Robotic welding used in automotive production
Robot Continuous arc welding applications
• High-quality welds in a shorter cycle time.
• Manufacturing flexibility.
• Developed to a mature production.
• Strong industrial need continues to drive the rapid development of
robotic arc welding.
• Associated technologies to overcome technical difficulties and expand
their capability.
Robotic Spray painting
• Automated painting applications require specialized equipment in
order to achieve accurate and consistent paint finish quality.
• This specialized equipment includes an explosion-proof robot arm,
spray applicator, gear pumps, colour change manifolds, solenoid
valves, transducers and pressure regulators
• These arms feature lightweight aluminum castings, a triple roll hollow
wrist, as well as explosion proof cavities to house electrical control
equipment.
• Certain models incorporate an open "process arm" for the mounting of
any manufacturer's paint process equipment, in close proximity to the
applicator, allowing for responsive paint process control.
• In addition to a standard 6-axis automotive style paint robot with a
horizontal waist joint, a 7-axis pedestal robot is also available.
• The seventh axis has been incorporated as an additional (vertical)
waist joint, designed specifically to increase the robot's significant
work envelope.
Applications for Vision Inspection
• Presence/Absence detection.
• Part verification (orientation, function, dimension, finished part
features)
• Defect detection.
• Automated vision test & measurement.
• Optical character recognition & verification (OCR/OCV)
• Pattern matching.
• Colour verification.
ASSEMBLY ROBOTICS
• When it comes to putting parts together, assembly line robots occupy a
sweet spot between humans and dedicated or “hard” automation.
• An assembly robot moves faster and with greater precision than a
human, and an off-the-shelf tool can be installed and commissioned
quicker than special-purpose equipment.
• Easily reconfigured – many times, it only takes a change of the program –
an automated robotic assembly is a low-risk investment that simultaneously
satisfies the demands of manufacturing, quality and finance.
• Robotic assembly systems come in three configurations: six-axis
articulated arms, four-axis “SCARA” robots, and the modern “Delta”
configuration.
 Applications of Assembly Robotics
• Applications for robotic assembly include automotive components, like
pumps, motors and gearboxes.
• Computers and consumer electronics are another excellent area, as are
medical devices and household appliances
• Assembly robots are ideal for tasks demanding speed and precision like
applying sealants and adhesives.
• Not only can they put together parts that are too small or intricate for a
human, but they work quickly and accurately without tiring or making
mistakes.
• They are good in applications where cleanliness is paramount, like
pharmaceuticals and medical device assembly, and they aren’t prone to
debilitating injuries, like carpal tunnel syndrome, that come with repetitive
work.
Robotic inspection
• Robotic visual inspection refers to a camera and lighting gear
mounted on the end-effector of a robot and the robot moves to
inspect multiple points on the same object/test piece for features.
• The robot can be programmed to automatically detect a sequence of
locations on the object.
Challenges in Robotic Visual Inspection
• The number of points to inspect, the cycle time, resolution of the
images, and budget constraints are all factors that affect the
implementation of a robotic visual inspection pipeline.
• While robotic visual inspection has impressive advantages, it does
have some limitations and disadvantages because of the robot motion
as well as the camera including: