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 SCOE- BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Unit 6: Work, Power, Energy and Batteries (Q No. 7 and Q. No. 8)

Part A: Work, Power Energy

Resistance Temperature Coefficient
1. With neat sketch & example, show the effect of change in temperature on resistance of:
(a)Metal (b) Insulator (c) Semiconductor (d) Common & Special Alloys.
Pure Metals (Conductors): The conductor has more number of free electrons. When such
conductor is connected across some voltage, ions get formed inside it and the electrons which
are moving randomly will get aligned in certain direction. At low temperature ions are
stationery, but as soon as temperature increases, the unmovable ions gain energy and start
oscillating about their mean position. More the temperature more will be the magnitude of
oscillation. This will cause obstruction to flow of free electrons; which lead to increase in
resistance. So in case of conductor, with increase in temperature its resistance will increase.
So the conductors have positive temperature coefficient of resistance. Examples: Gold,
Silver, Copper etc.

Fig. Variation of Resistance with respect to Temperature

Insulator: In insulator the numbers of free electrons are less. With increase in temperature,
vibration of ions will increase. But simultaneously the electrons from the atoms gain extra
energy and get escaped from their parent atoms and become available for conduction. This
reduces the resistance of insulting material.
So in case of insulator, with increase in temperature, its resistance will decrease. The
insulators have negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Examples: Carbon, Mica,
Rubber, Plastic etc.
Semiconductor: At low temperature, the resistance of semiconductor is high. But dominant
increase in temperature gives additional energy to the electrons available in valency band.

38
 SCOE- BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

These electrons cross over the narrow energy gap and enters into conduction band. So in case
of semiconductor, after certain rise in temperature the resistance drastically reduces to small
value and remains constant thereafter
Examples: Silicon, Germenium.
Alloy: The resistance of common alloys such as bronze, brass, steel increases as the
temperature increases, but the rate of increase is very small. In special alloys an increase in
temperature not only causes an obstruction to the electron movement but also compensates
for this by increase in number of free electrons where the number of free electrons is about
equal to the obstruction to the thermal energy gained. The temperature change may have very
little effect on resistance. e.g. Manganin, Eureka show almost no change in resistance with
change in temperature. So such types of alloys are used to make resistance boxes.

2. Define Resistance Temperature Coefficient (RTC) and state the factors on which RTC
depends.
RTC is defined as the change in resistance per ohm initial resistance per degree change in
temperature.
Rt – Ro
o =
Rot

Ohm 1
Unit of RTC OhmoC = oC or / oC per degree Celsius

Factors affecting RTC

1) Type and nature of material:
Conductors, general alloys will have positive temperature coefficient
Insulators and semiconductors will have negative temperature coefficient
Special alloys, E.g. Eureka, Manganin will have zero temperature coefficient
2) Temperature: Change in temperature changes RTC

3. With usual notations derive the expression, α2 = α1 / (1 + α1 (t2 – t1)).

Let us consider a conducting material whose initial resistance is R1 at temperature t1oC i.e. at
point A

39
 SCOE- BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Fig.
Now, if the temperature of heating of the material is gradually increased by heating process
up to temperature t2oC i.e. at point B, then it's resistance will be R2

The expression for R2 ,

R2=R1 [1 + 1 · (t2 – t1)] … (1)

Where 1 is T.C.R. at t1oC

Now consider that, the material is having resistance R2 at t2oC and if the temperature of
conducting material is gradually reduced by cooling process up to initial temperature t 1oC i.e.
up to point A,
The expression for R1 ,

R1=R2 [1 + 2 · (t1 – t2)] … (2)

where 2 is T.C.R. at t2oC.

From equation (1) and (2), taking ratio of

R1
R2 =1 + 2 (t1 – t2) … (3)

1
= … (4)
1 + 1 (t2 – t1)

From equation (3) and (4)

1
  2 (t1 – t2) = –1
1 + 1 (t2 – t1)

1 – 1 – 1 (t2 – t1) – 1 (t2 – t1)

= =
1 + 1 (t2 – t1) 1 + 1 (t2 – t1)

Multiplying both sides by negative sign and rearranging the equation.

40
 SCOE- BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

1 (t2 – t1)
 2 (t2 – t1) =
1 + 1 (t2 – t1)

1
2 = ---- (5)
1 + 1 (t2 – t1)
If we consider
t1 = 0oC and t2= to C,1= o and 2=t then,

0
t 
1   0t

From equation (5)

 2 + 1 2 · (t2 – t1) = 1

1 – 2 = 1 2 (t2 – t1)

Insulation Resistance
4. What is insulation resistance? State the factors affecting value of Insulation resistance.
The insulation resistance is defined as the resistance offered by an insulating material to the
flow of leakage current.
It is denoted by Ri and its unit is Ω.

Mathematically, it is defined as, Ri  V I l

Where, V = Voltage measured between conductor and earth

Il = Leakage current and Ri = Insulation resistance.

Factors affecting value of Insulation Resistance

1) Resistivity of the material: Ri depends on type and nature (resistivity) of the material
2) Temperature: As temperature of insulating material increases Ri decreases and vice versa
3) Length: Ri is inversely proportional to the length of the cable
4) Moisture: Ri decreases when the moisture content in insulating material increases.

5. Derive an expression for insulation resistance of a single core cable.

To find the resistance offered by insulating material (Ri) of a single core cable having length
‘l’ meters to flow of leakage current, cross section of the cable is considered as shown in
figure.

41
 SCOE- BEE End-Sem Notes | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Fig.
Due to finite insulation resistance of the insulating material used, some leakage current flows
from the conductor in radialy outward direction. Therefore, to obtain the expression for Ri, a
small section with thickness as "dr" at a distance of “r" meters from the centre of the cable is
considered.
Where, R1 = Radius of conductor, R2 = Radius of cable including conductor and insulator

Length offered by insulation layer = dr, Cross-sectional area = 2πrl

The resistance offered by small section is
dr
dRi =  2πrl

The total insulation resistance Ri can be obtained by integrating "dRi" over the entire radius of
insulating material i.e. from R1 and R2.
R2 R2 R
 dr  2 dr 
R2

Ri =    2πl [ e ] R1
 dR i = =
 2πrl 2πl  r = log r
R1 R1 R1

  R2
Ri = 2πl [loge R2 – loge R1] = 2πl ln R  Ω
 1

 R2
Ri = loge   Ω
2πl R1

Questions asked in End-Sem Dec 2019 Examination

Q. Define temperature coefficient of resistance. State the factors on which it depends. [4 M]
(Refer Q. No.2)
Q. What Prove that α2 = α1/(1 + α1 (t2 – t1)), all the symbols have their appropriate meaning. [6M]
(Refer Q. No. 03)

42
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Unit 06: Work Power Energy and Batteries

Part B: Batteries
1. Explain, what do you mean by Cell and is a secondary acid cell whereas, a nickel-
Battery? iron cell and a nickel-cadmium cell are the
Ans: Cell: A cell is a basic element of a battery. secondary alkaline cells.
It consists of two suitable dissimilar Battery:
metallic plates, called ‘electrodes’ A battery consists of a number of identical
immersed into a liquid or paste of a certain cells connected together inside a container.
chemical material, called as ‘electrolyte’. As a single cell can develop very small
The chemical reactions between the potential difference, the appropriate
electrodes and the electrolyte create a interconnection of many cells can give a
potential difference across the two sufficient value of potential difference,
electrodes. Thus, a cell is an which can be useful for practical
electrochemical device that transforms applications. The cells in a battery may be
chemical energy into electrical energy. It connected in series, parallel or series-
can therefore be used as a power source parallel combinations depending on what
(energy source). voltage and current output is required from
a battery. The series combination of cells
Types of Cells:
increases the voltage whereas; the parallel
A primary cell: The cell, which supplies
combination increases the current
the energy only once until it is fully
delivering capacity.
discharged is called as the primary cell. It is
not rechargeable and hence can be used 2. Explain series, parallel and series
only once. A Leclanche cell, Voltaic cell, parallel grouping of cells.
Daniel cell, carbon-zinc cell, zinc chloride Series Grouping
cell, silver oxide cell etc. are the examples If n= no. of cells,
of primary cells. r = Internal resistance of the cell
A secondary cell: The cell, which can be E= EMF of each cell
recharged and used several times is called R= Resistance of the load
as a secondary cell. Secondary cells can be
acid cells or alkaline cells. A lead-acid cell

43
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Equivalent resistance all cells = ( n r ) m

Total resistance of the circuit = [ R  (n r m)]

Total EMF of the battery = n  E

Current delivered by battery (IT) =
nE
R  (n r m)
Total EMF of the battery = n  E
Total internal resistance of battery = n  r 3. Explain the construction of Lead acid

Total resistance of circuit = R + n r battery with neat diagram

Current delivered by battery (I) = The lead-acid cell essentially contains

nE ( R  n r ) following elements:

Parallel Grouping

Equivalent resistance all cells 1. Plates

1 1 r
= =  The plates, which are actually electrodes
1 1 1 1
   ........  (n times) n n
  are
r r r r r
r a) Anode: Lead Peroxide (PbO2) of
Total resistance of circuit = R +
n Chocolate brown colour
E
Current delivered by battery (I) = b) Cathode: Spongy Lead (Pb) with slate
r
R
n grey colour
nE
= 2. Electrolyte:
nR  r
Series-Parallel Grouping Aqueous solution of Sulphuric acid
(H2SO4).
3. Separators:
The separators are used to separate positive
and negative plates, preventing them to
come in contact with each other. These are
made of either specially treated wood or
perforated rubber. The common separator is

44
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

wood, since it is the cheapest of all

separators.
4. Container
The container is made of vulcanized rubber,
or glass. Glass containers are normally used
for light duty work and rubber container for
portable work. Entire assembly of plates
along with the solution is placed in the A lead acid battery uses lead acid cells. A
container. lead acid cell is a secondary cell. It is also a
5. Bottom Blocks wet cell. The basic cell of a lead acid battery
These are fitted at the bottom of the is shown below.
container to prevent short circuiting of cell Chemical action: When the load is
due to the active material fallen from the connected across the battery terminals,
plates. current starts flowing in the circuit. The
6. Plate connector electrons leave the –ve plate, pass through
Separate connectors are used to connect all the load and come to +ve plate. On the
positive plates to one bar and negative surface of the anode, a molecule of lead
plates to another common bar peroxide (PbO2) is dissociated as three ions,
7. Cover with vent Plug one of lead and two of oxygen. The lead ion
The covers are generally of vulcanized has a deficiency of two electrons while each
rubber. A hole is provided for pouring the oxygen ion has two excess electrons. Thus
electrolyte and this can be closed by a the anode has deficiency of two electrons.
screwed cap. The cap is provided with This is as if the anode has two excess +ve
minute holes for gases to escape. This is charges. This makes the plate +vely
also known as ‘Vent Cap’. The function of charged. In the electrolyte, two molecules
the vent cap is to allow the escape of the of H2SO4 are dissociated as four hydrogen
gases. ions and two sulfate ions. Every hydrogen
4. Write down the chemical reactions ion has deficiency of one electron and every
during first charging and discharging of sulfate ion has two surplus electrons. The
lead acid battery. four hydrogen ions of electrolyte combine
with two ions of oxygen to form two

45
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

molecules of water and one sulfate ion of water, the chemical reaction ends and the
the electrolyte combines with the lead ion battery is totally discharged.
on the positive plate to form PbSO4. Recharging: A d.c. supply of appropriate
voltage is given to the cell for an
On the surface of negative plate, one atom
appropriate period of time. This reverses
of lead becomes a positive ion of lead
the direction of current within the cell from
leaving two electrons on the plate. This
that while discharging. The chemical
positive lead ion combines with one sulfate
reactions are now reversed and the
ion of electrolyte to form PbSO4.
conditions are restored in the cell i.e., the
Thus, the anode has two excess positive PbO2 is accumulated on +ve plate, Pb is
charges and the cathode has two excess accumulated on ve plate and H2SO4 is
negative charges. The negative charges on
formed again. The battery is now fully
ve plate come to the +ve plate through charged to use again.
external load circuit and hence the path of 5. What are the indications of fully charged
current is completed. The current is Lead acid battery
maintained till the chemical reactions are The various indications of fully charged
continued. battery are
The chemical reactions are summarized as; a) Voltage
Dissociation: b) Specific Gravity of Electrolyte
At anode:PbO2  Pb , ++
O  , O  , +e , +e c) Colour of the electrodes
In electrolyte: 2(H2SO4)  H , H , H , + + +
d) Gassing
H+ , SO4 , SO4 , Voltage: When the cell is fully charged its
At cathode: Pb  Pb++ , e  , e  terminal potential will be approximately 2.6
Overall Reaction: volts.
PbO2 + 2(H2SO4) + Pb ↔ 2PbSO4 + 2H2O Specific Gravity: When the cell is fully
The consequence of these reactions is that, charged, the specific gravity of the
PbSO4 is accumulated on both the plates electrolyte will be approximately 1.21.
and the electrolyte changes to water. When When the cell is fully discharged its value
all the lead peroxide on +ve plate and lead falls to 1.17.
coating on the ve plate get converted to Colour of Electrodes: When the cell is
PbSO4 and all the H2SO4 gets converted to fully charged, the lead sulphate anode gets

46
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

converted into lead per oxide (PbO2) dark 4. The battery should not be left in the
chocolate brown in colour and lead sulphate discharged condition for longer period,
cathode gets converted into lead (Pb), grey as it reduces the life of battery.
in colour. It is considered one of the best 5. The discharged battery should be
tests for ascertaining the condition of a protected from low temperatures to
battery prevent the electrolytes from freezing
Gassing: When the cell is fully charged, the and bursting the cell container.
hydrogen and oxygen gases are liberated at 6. The battery should not be overcharged
the cathode and anode respectively, so as it can weaken the plate structure of
liberation of gases (hydrogen and oxygen), the cells.
known as gassing, on the electrodes 7. A battery like a lead-acid battery
indicates that the cells are fully charged. contains sulfuric acid. Such a battery
6. Describe the maintenance procedure of should be handled and transported
Lead acid battery carefully as the leakage of acid can
1. The battery should be recharged cause damage to skin or eyes.
immediately after discharge i.e., when 8. A battery should be charged in a well-
output voltage is lowered from the ventilated space free from flames or
permissible value. sparks, as the gases released during
2. The electrolyte level in the cells must charging are explosive.
always be kept above top of the 9. The terminals of the battery should be
electrodes (plates). Any loss of level kept clean to avoid corrosion and to
(due to evaporation and decomposition) prevent increase in contact resistance. A
must be compensated by adding pure thin layer of Vaseline or petroleum jelly
and distilled water. The ordinary tap should be applied over the terminals.
water must not be used. 10. A battery should be overcharged after
3. The specific gravity of electrolyte must every 3 to 4 months to wipe out the
be checked during each charging. If the traces of impurities on the electrode
electrolyte is to be added, it should be plates. If this is not done, the internal
pure. resistances of the cells increase.

47
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

7. State necessary precautions to be taken There are mainly two types of charging
during charging, handling and namely constant voltage charging and
maintenance of lead acid battery. constant current charging:
1. Store or recharge lead-acid batteries in a) Constant Voltage Charging
a well-ventilated area away from sparks
or open flames.
2. Wear acid-resistant goggles/face shield,
gloves, and if available, an apron, when
recharging or handling lead-acid
batteries. In this method, the charging voltage is kept
3. Keep lead-acid battery vent caps constant throughout the charging process.
securely in place. In this method the charging current is high
4. Never overcharge a lead-acid battery in the beginning when a battery is in
and only refill fluid with distilled water. discharged condition, and it gradually drops

5. Never attempt to short-circuit a battery. off as the battery picks up charge resulting

Doing so can damage the product and in increased back emf. Charging at constant

generate heat that can cause burns. voltage may be carried out only when the

6. Never attempt to charge a battery which batteries have the same voltage, for

has been physically damaged example, 6 or 12 or 24 V. In this case source

7. Do not keep any inflammable liquid of current should have a voltage of 7.5, 15

like Petrol near the battery. or 30 V; these batteries are connected in

8. Do not place any metal objects like parallel to the charging circuit.

screwdriver or spanner on the battery. This method is the most common method of

This may cause shorting of terminals. charging lead- acid batteries and has been

9. Do not wear metal bangle / metal wear used successfully for over 50 years for

in hand to prevent shorting/burning. different types of lead-acid batteries. With

10. The connectors should be firmly this method of charging, the charging time

attached to the battery terminals. is almost reduced to half, capacity is

8. Explain the methods of charging the increased by approximately 20% but

storage batteries efficiency is reduced by approximately

10%.

48
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

b) Constant Current Charging Efficiency of batteries:

The efficiency of a secondary battery is
expressed in two ways namely;
i. Ampere-hour efficiency
ii. Watt-hour efficiency (energy
efficiency)
Ampere-hour efficiency is the ratio of
In this method of charging of batteries, the
output ampere-hours during discharging to
batteries are connected in series so as to
the input ampere-hours during charging.
form groups and each group is charged
Ampere-hour efficiency ( Ah ) =
from the dc supply mains through loading
rheostats. The number of batteries in each Ampere  hours ( Ah) during disch arg ing
x100
Ampere  hours ( Ah) during ch arg ing
group depends on the charging circuit
voltage which should not be less than 2.7 V I d x Td
= x100
I C x TC
per cell. The chaining current is kept
constant throughout the charging period by Where Id, Td are the current and time during

reducing the resistance in the circuit as the discharging and Ic, Tc are the current and

battery voltage goes up. This method is time during charging. Ampere-hour

usually employed for initial charging of efficiency of lead-acid cell is about 90%.

lead-acid batteries and for charging Watt-hour efficiency is the ratio of output

portable batteries in general. watt-hours during discharging to the input

In order to avoid excessive gassing or watt-hours during charging.

overheating, the charging may also be Watt-hour efficiency (Wh ) =

carried out in two steps, an initial charging Energy during disch arg ing
x100 =
of comparatively higher current and a Energy during ch arg ing

finishing rate of low current. In this method Watt  hour (Wh)during disch arg ing
x100
the charge current is kept one-eighth of its Watt  hour (Wh) during ch arg ing

ampere-hour rating. I d x Td xVd

= x100
9. What is battery efficiency and how it is I C x TC xVC

expressed or calculated? Where Id, Td and Vd are the current, time

and average pd during discharging. And Ic,

49
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Tc and Vc are the current, time and average discharge. Type of conductivity is ionic
pd during charging. in nature rather than electronic.
Watt-hour efficiency of lead-acid cell is 11. Explain working of Lithium Ion battery
ranges from 75% to 90%. along with charging and discharging
10. Explain construction of Lithium Ion equations.
battery. As their name suggests, lithium-ion
The lithium ion battery was introduced in batteries are all about the movement of
the early 1990s. This batteries consist of lithium ions: the ions move one way when
largely four main components: cathode, the battery charges (when it's absorbing
anode, electrolyte, and separator. power); they move the opposite way when
the battery discharges (when it's supplying
power):
Charging

a) Cathode: A Positive electrode is made

with Lithium Cobalt Oxide (LiCoO2)
has a current collector made of thin
aluminum foil.
b) Anode: A negative electrode made with
specialty carbon has current collector of
thin copper foil.
c) Separator: It is a fine porous polymer
Battery Charging
film.
During charging, lithium ions flow from the
d) Electrolyte: Lithium salt in an organic
positive electrode to the negative electrode
solvent. Electrolyte is selected in such a
through the electrolyte. Electrons also flow
way that there should be an effective
from the positive electrode to the negative
transport of Li-ion to the cathode during
electrode, but take the longer path around

50
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

the outer circuit. The electrons and ions

combine at the negative electrode and
deposit lithium there.
At Anode (-):
When no more ions will flow, the battery is
fully charged and ready to use.
Discharging

Overall reaction:

12. State applications of Lead acid and

Lithium ion battery.
Lead Acid Battery:
1. Used in automobiles for starting and
lighting
2. Used in generating stations and
Substations to operate protective
devices and emergency lighting
3. Used Un-interrupted Power Supply
Battery Discharging
(UPS)
During discharging, the ions flow back
4. Used in Emergency Lighting
through the electrolyte from the negative
5. Used in telephone exchange
electrode to the positive electrode.
Lithium Ion Battery
Electrons flow from the negative electrode
1. Used in mobile phones, Laptops
to the positive electrode through the outer
2. Used in cameras and calculators
circuit, powering the load. When the ions
3. Used in Electric vehicles
and electrons combine at the positive
4. Used in toys and rechargeable flash
electrode, lithium is deposited there.
lights
When all the ions have moved back, the
5. Used in aerospace applications.
battery is fully discharged and needs
13. Compare Lead Acid and Lithium ion
charging up again
battery
Lead Acid Lithium Ion
At Cathode (+):
51
 Scoe End-Sem Notes- Battery | Dr. A. N. Sarwade

Anode PbO2 LiCoO2 indication that, upto which level of

Cathode Pb Carbon discharge the battery capacity can be used
Electrolyte H2SO4 Lithium salt
safely.
with organic
DoD is defined as the capacity in Ah that
solvent
Specific power 180 W/kg 340 W/kg is discharged from a fully charged battery,
Specific Energy 50 Wh/kg 265 Wh/kg divided by battery nominal capacity. DoD
Energy density 50-100 690 Wh/m3 is normally expressed in percent (%).
3
Wh/m
When the battery is discharged to its full
Cycle life 200-300 1200 Cycles
energy capacity, then its DoD is 100%.
cycles
Cost Low cost Costly
DoD is important because the life span of
Rated Voltage 2.2 Volt 3,6 Volt batteries such as lead acid, lithium ion
Maintenance Maintenance Maintenance depends heavily on no. of charge and
required free discharge cycles. If DoD is high, then the
Charging Slow and Fast charging
life span of the battery gets shortened. e.g.
inefficient
a battery may have 5000 cycles at 20%
Handling Difficult Easy
Use Car, Mobile phone, DoD, but 1500 cycles at 80 % DoD.
motorcycle, Laptop, Lithium ion batteries typically be
UPS, Camera, discharged upto 80% before reaching a
Emergency Electric
potential harmful state of deep discharge.
lighting vehicles
They have a battery management system to
prevent deep discharge.
14. Explain Concept of Depth of Discharging
Most battery manufacturers indicate in the
(DoD)
specification sheet, the maximum
DoD is the key factor for any battery. It
recommended DoD for peak performance
indicates the degree to which the battery
of the battery. If the manufacturer of 20
can be discharged to certain minimum
kWh battery recommends a maximum DoD
voltage from its full state of charge.
of 60 %, it means that you should avoid
Though the battery capacity is specified by
discharging more than 12 kWh without
the manufacturer, it is not possible to use it
recharging.
at its entire capacity. The DoD gives the

52