]

PROJECT – REPORT

Submitted by

AKASH A 2051T301

ARUN PRASATH B 2051T302

KARTHIGEYAN S 2051T306

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

in

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, SALEM -11

(An Autonomous Institution, Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai)

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI- 600 025

JUNE - 2022
]
APPENDIX

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI- 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “MINIATURE AUTOMATED GUIDED

VEHICLE” is the bonafide work of

AKASH A 2051T301

ARUN PRASATH B 2051T302

KARTHIGEYAN S 2051T306

who carried out the project under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. T. BALUSAMY, Ph.D. Dr.A.BARANIRAJ, ME, PhD

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT, SUPERVISOR,
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Government College of Engineering, Government College of Engineering
Salem-636011. Salem-636011.

Submitted for Project examinations Viva-Voce held on _______________.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

]
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Apart from the efforts of us, the success of any project depends largely on encouragement
and guidelines of many others. We take this opportunity to express our gratitude to the
people who have been instrumental in the successful completion of this project.

We take immense pleasure in thanking our beloved Principal

Dr.R.MALAYALAMURTHI, Ph.D., Government College of Engineering, Salem for
permitting us to do this project.

We wish to express our deep sense of gratitude to professor and Head of the Department
Dr.T.BALUSAMY, Ph.D., Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his guidance and
useful suggestions, which helped us in completing this project work on time.

Words are inadequate in offering the thanks to our project guide, Dr.A.BARANIRAJ,
M.E,Ph.D, Assistant Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering, for his valuable
guidance and timely suggestion and kind encouragement to carry out this project and helped
us to complete the project successfully.

We would also thank our Institution and our faculty members, without whom this project
would have been a distant reality. We also extend our thanks the guidance and support
received from all the members who contributed for this project, was vital for the success of
this project. We are grateful for their constant support and help
]

ABSTRACT
The Automatic Guided Vehicle refers a type of system that can be used in production
as well as in other industries etc. This system includes a battery operated remote sensing
locomotive (carrier) on which a small lift is provided, specific path over which it moves,
sensors for sensing the the obstructions on the path of the carrier. Also sensors for sensing
exact positions from where load wants to carry and to where.

The remote sensing carrier moves using the electric power from the battery. It
moves with a low and constant speed on the prescribed path. The path has a specific
color. The bottom of the carrier have sensor which is always coupled with the path. From
the remote station we send only information for moving the carrier, not for steering it.
The steering is done by the path. The front side of carrier vehicle contains sensors for
sensing the obstructions on the path.

As it reaches the collecting station, its top floor lift to a small distance and lift the
stand which contains the parts wants to assemble, supply. And the carrier moves through
the path and reaches the supply station. The sensor provided on the carrier detected
the station and unload the stand contains assembly parts at that station. And move to
collecting stations again. Continues working cycles for making this project a reality.
]
LIST OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO TOPIC PAGE NO

I INTRODUCTION

1.1 Automated Guided Vehicle 1

1.2 Background 2
1.3 Problem Statement 3
1.4 Project and It’s Scope 4

II LITERATURE REVIEW 5-8

III COMPONENTS USED 9 - 21

3.1 Design Objectives 9

3.2 Design Considerations 9
3.3 Components of AGV 11
3.3.1 Mechanical Part 12
3.3.2 Electrical Components 14
3.3.3 Software 18
3.3.4 Program Source Code 19

IV DEVELOPED PROTOTYPE 22 -27

4.1 Block Diagram 22
4.2 Circuit Diagram 23
4.3 Working Principle 25
4.4 Theoretical and logical calculation 26
4.5 Billing 27

V CONCLUSION 28 -29

VI REFERENCES 30
]

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO TOPIC PAGE NO

1 Technical Data of Chassis 13

4.5 Billing Table 27

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE NO TOPIC PAGE NO

3.3.1.1 Chassis of AGV 12

3.3.2.1 Arduino Uno 14

3.3.2.2 IR Sensor 14

3.3.2.3 L293D Motor driver 14

3.3.2.4 DC Motor 15

3.3.2.5 HC-SR04 Ultrasonic Sensor 15

3.3.2.6 L293D IC 16

3.3.2.7 IR for path detection 17

3.3.2.8 Working of IR Sensor 17

4.1.1 Block Diagram of developed prototype 22

4.2.1 Circuit Diagram 23

4.2.2 Assembled Miniature AGV prototype 24

 CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 AUTOMATED GUIDED VEHICLE

An automated guided vehicle or automatic guided vehicle (AGV) is a mobile

robot that follows markers or wires in the floor, or uses vision or lasers. They are most
often used in industrial applications to move materials around a manufacturing facility
or a warehouse.

Automated guided vehicles increase efficiency and reduce costs by helping to

automate a manufacturing facility or warehouse. The AGV can tow objects behind them
in trailers to which they can autonomously attach. The trailers can be used to move raw
materials or finished product. The AGV can also store objects on a bed. The objects can
be placed on a set of conveyor and then pushed off by reversing them. Some AGVs use
forklifts to lift objects for storage. AGVs are employed in nearly every industry,
including, pulp, paper, metals, newspaper, and general manufacturing. Transporting
materials such as food, linen or medicine in hospitals is also done.

An AGV can also be called a laser guided vehicle (LGV) or self-guided vehicle
(SGV). Lower cost versions of AGVs are often called Automated Guided Carts (AGCs)
and are usually guided by specific lines magnetic tape.

AGVs are available in a variety of models and can be used to move products on
an assembly line, transport goods throughout a plant or warehouse, and deliver loads to
and from stretch wrappers and roller conveyors.AGV applications are seemingly endless
as capacities can range from just a few kgs to hundreds of tons. The Aim of the project
is to design and fabricate such a AGV.

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, defines AGVs as:

“A robot that been used highly in industrial applications to move materials from point
to point”
The American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE) defined AGVs as:

1
a. Machines without drivers that can move along pre-programmed routes, or use sensory
and navigation devices to find their own way around.

b. Vehicles that are equipped with automatic guidance systems and are capable of

following prescribed paths or driverless vehicles that are programmed to follow guide
path.

1.2 BACKGROUND

The creations of Automated Guided Vehicle (AGV) have been around since the 1950’s
and the technology was first developed by Barret Electronics from Grand Rapids,
Michigan. It was then developed by the Europeans in the 1970’s and nowadays AGVs
can be found in any countries. One of the first AGVs was a towing vehicle that pulled a
series of trailers between two points, and today’s there are many task given to AGVs
and they also have their own name and potentials.

Considering the full potentials and advantages of the Automated Guided Vehicle
(AGV) in our livings, it is valuable to do this project, as it also will be the first step
towards the creation of more intelligent technology or system. The simplest AGV model
may use just a sensor to provide its navigation and can be the complex one with more
sensors and advance systems to do the task. They can work or do the task everywhere
needed but the safety for the AGV as well as the people and environment surround it must
be provided.

The AGVs is just the same as mobile robot, which can moves from one place to
another to do their task, but mostly the mobile robot is used for difficult task with
dangerous environment such as bomb defusing. Furthermore, the mobile robot can be
categorized into wheeled, tracked, or legged robot. AGV work, which usually menial,
are often be essential to the smooth running of factories, offices, hospitals, and even
houses. They can work without any complaint around many workplaces all over the
world.

2
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

There are many reasons which yield to the creation of Automated Guided Vehicle
(AGV) around the world. Mostly the reason is to overcome the logistic problems that
often occurred in the workplaces and to make improvement to the facilities provided in
the workplaces. Usually the AGVs are implemented in factories, hospitals, offices,
houses, and even can be found anywhere outdoors without the people surround realized
it.

In the industries or factories, the AGVs can ease the physical strain on human
workers by performing tiring tasks, such as lifting and carrying heavy materials, more
efficiently with no signs of fatigue creeping in. They can carry far more than human
workers, and their movements can be tracked electronically at all times. Their
movements can be timed to feed or collect products or materials from the work cells in
the factories.

Besides that, in the hospitals thousands of staff spends a portion of their day moving
medical supplies, bedding, medicines and other equipment around large hospitals. By
using the AGVs, the strain on the workers can be ease as well as the hospital’s system
would be more smart and systematic without any bad complaint from the patients and
people. AGVs also capable of both cutting cost and releasing more staff hours to tend
and care for patients.

Therefore it is very significant that the valuable knowledge on AGV construction is

studied and be further implemented from the result of this project. It is due to its
advantages to our own living and technology.

We have pleasure in introducing our project AGV, which is equipped by

microcontroller, motor driving mechanism, and battery. The power stored in the battery
is used to drive the DC motor that causes the movement as well as lifting power to AGV.
Battery assembled on the AGV is easily replaceable and detachable, used for recharging
the battery, while the AGV is under roof.

3
1.4 PROJECT AND ITS SCOPE

The objective and scope of this project is to create an AGV model that can follow
a trail of line on a flat surface horizontally. This AGV model is using microcontroller to
control all navigation and lifting functions during its operation. In other words, the
microcontroller acts just like the brain for the model that controls all operation of the
system.

The model is a four-wheeled mobile robot that has the ability to follow line on
floor. There are three wheels including two driving wheels controlled by two motors and
a free wheel in front that is able to rotate 360°. With three wheels, both driving wheels
are always in contact with the surface, because of the robot’s steering relies on both its
driven wheels being in contact with the surface at all times.

This project consists of four main stages, which are theoretical design, mechanical
fabrication, electronic hardware design and as well as algorithm design in assembly
language. The matter to be considered is how the robot can follow the trail of line
continuously. It is also important to choose the most suitable microcontroller, actuators,
and sensors to achieve the project objectives.

4
 CHAPTER - II

LITERATURE REVIEW

Automatic Guided Vehicles (AGVs) have played a vital role in moving material
and product for more than 50 years. The first AGV system was built and introduced in
1953. It was a modified towing tractor that was used to pull a trailer and follow an
overhead wire in a grocery warehouse. By the late 1950's and early 1960's, towing AGVs
were in operation in many types of factories and warehouses.

The first big development for the AGV industry was the introduction of a unit load
vehicle in the mid-1970s. This unit load AGVs gained widespread acceptance in the
material handling marketplace because of their ability to serve several functions; a work
platform, a transportation device and a link in the control and information system for the
factory. Since then, AGVs have evolved into complex material handling transport
vehicles ranging from mail handling AGVs to highly automated automatic trailer loading
AGVs using laser and natural target navigation technologies. The problem of scheduling
of AGVs and the other supporting equipments has been extensively studied by Basnet
and Mize and Rachamadugu and Stecke currently providing the most up-to-date and
comprehensive reviews in this area.

Han and McGinnis have developed a real time algorithm in which material
handling transporters are considered. Schriber and Stecke have shown how the additional
consideration of the material handling system and limited buffers degrades the system
performance. Sabuncuoglu and Hommertzheim have highlighted the importance of
material handling and they compared several AGV dispatching rules. They have also
shown how the buffer capacity can affect the performance of the system. Flexibility,
which is a distinguishing feature of FMSs, has received an extensive amount of attention.
Routing flexibility (i.e., alternative machines and processing routes) has been considered
by Wilhelm and Shin, Chen and Chung, and Khoshnevis and Chen. These studies have
indicated that dynamic routing (i.e., a path determined dynamically during schedule
generation) performs better than a preplanned routing.

5
 Rachamadugu have proposed a quantitative measure of sequence flexibility and
have shown that perfect sequence Flexibility improves system performance. Similar
observations have been made by Lin and Solberg. In most work to date, tools,
pallets/fixtures and their availability are not modeled adequately.

A static allocation of tools is usually assumed in these studies. However, some

researchers have considered a limited tool magazine capacity and the changing of tools
from central tool storage. One purpose of this thesis is to develop an algorithm that can
be used to investigate the research issues discussed above.

Kim proposed a deadlock detection and prevention algorithms for AGVs. It was
assumed that vehicles reserve grid blocks in advance to prevent collisions and deadlocks
among AGVs. A graphic representation method, called the "reservation graph," was
proposed to express a reservation schedule in such a form that the possibility of a
deadlock can be easily detected. A method to detect possible deadlocks by using the
reservation graph was suggested.

Maxwell and Muckstadt first introduced the problem of AGV flow system design.
While their main concern is vehicle routing, they also address material flow path and
station location design issues. The flow network they used, known as conventional
configuration, is composed of unidirectional arcs. Gaskin and Tanchoco developed the
first integer programming model for material flow path design. Given a fixed network of
aisles and fixed pickup and delivery stations, the model assigns direction to arcs to
minimize the total trip distances of loaded vehicles.

Afentakis states the advantages of the loop layout as simplicity and efficiency,
lowinitial and expansion costs, and product and processing flexibility. Loop layout has
been studied by many researchers including Bartholdi and Platzman, Sharp and Liu,
Kouvelis and Kim, Egbelu, Banerjee and Zhou, and Chang and Egbelu. Bozer and
Srinivasan initiate the concept of tandem configuration as a set of no overlapping,
bidirectional loops, each with a single vehicle.

Another problem in steering issues is to schedule several AGVs in a non-

conflicting manner which is a complicated real-time problem, especially when the AGV
system is bi- directional. In fact, many conflicting situations may arise such as head-on
6
and catching-up conflicts when the AGVs or the guide-paths are bidirectional and if no
efficient control policy is used to prevent them. Several conflict-free routing strategies
have been proposed and can be classified into two categories:

 Predictive methods: Aim to find an optimal path for AGVs. The conflicts are

predicted off-line, and an AGV’s route is planned to avoid collisions and

deadlocks.
 Reactive methods: the AGVs are not planned and the decisions are taken in a real-

time manner according to the system state.

These methods are based on a zone division of the guide-path and consider them
as non-sharable resources. Predictive methods give good performance, but are not very
robust since they do not take into account real time problems. However, reactive methods
are very robust but the resulting performances can be poor because the decisions are
taken by considering a very short-term time horizon. In this report due to specification
of the whole plan (presence of only one AGV) a kind of predictive method is proposed.

In early 1990s Fuzzy logic came through to control and manipulate whole of the
material flow in manufacturing floors. The main indication of employing this system on
AGVs was the ability of controlling multiple AGV in a same time without collision.
However, only simulation results are presented. Senoo et al used experimental results of
a three wheeled mobile robot to discuss the stability of a fuzzy controller. It is also stated
that fuzzy control was implemented in order to achieve reduction of steer energy, while
maintaining better steer angle when compared with PI control.

Fuzzy logic has found useful applications in control among other areas. One useful
characteristic of a fuzzy controller is its applicability to systems with model uncertainty
and/or unknown models. Another useful characteristic of a fuzzy logic controller is that
it provides a framework for the incorporation of domain knowledge in terms of heuristic
rules. Wuwei et al. They presented the new navigation method for AGV with fuzzy
neural network controller when in the presence of obstacles. Their AGV can avoid the
dynamic and static obstacle and reach the target safely and reliably.

7
 Wu et al. used fuzzy logic control and artificial potential field (APF) for AGV
navigation. The APF method is used to calculate the repulsive force between the vehicle
and the closest obstacle and the attractive force generated by the goal. A fuzzy logic
controller is used to modify the direction of the AGV in a way to avoid the obstacle. Lin
and Wang proposed a fuzzy logic controller for collision avoidance for AGV.

Mehdi Yahyaei has design a AGV using fuzzy logic system and a rotational ultra-
sonic sensor to steer the AGV to avoid collisions and obstacles. He also employed a
programmable logic control (PLC) as the processor which makes the AGV to be
ultimately fit to the industrial environments.

They combined fuzzy logic with crisp reasoning to guide an AGV to get out of
trap since memories of path and crisp sequence flows are handled by non-fuzzy
processing. Their designed AGV was able to avoid collision with unknown obstacle.
Alves and Junior used a step motor to turn the direction of the ultra-sonic sensors, so that
each sensor can substitute two or more sensors in mobile robot navigation. Perhaps
Sugeno has done one of the pioneering researches in mobile robot navigation using fuzzy
logic control.

The fuzzy control rules, which he defines for the controller, were derived by
modeling an expert driving action. He made a computer model of a car in microcomputer
to find fuzzy rules. The speed of the designed car was constant; then, the control input to
the car is only the angle of the steering angle

8
 CHAPTER - III

COMPONENTS USED

3.1 DESIGN OBJECTIVES

In nowadays AGV has a greater influence in the production field. Why we prefer
this system is mainly because of its accuracy to transport goods, avoiding accidents at
industrial zone, decreasing production overall cost etc.
In our project the important factor is that, we provide a sensor which detects the
objects in the paths to avoid collision with those objects, by stopping the vehicle and
moves after the when object leaves the path.

3.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS:

In design problems many decision variables arise. The impact of decisions on mutual
interactions and performance might be difficult to predict. It might be hard to decide on
one thing without considering other decision variables. At least the following tactical and
operational issues have to be addressed in designing an AGV system

• Flow path layout

• Traffic management: prediction and avoidance of collisions and deadlocks
• Number and location of pick-up and delivery points
• Vehicle requirements
• Vehicle routing
• Vehicle scheduling
• Battery management

A flow path layout compromises the fixed guided paths on which vehicles can
travel to the various pick-up and delivery points of loads. Traffic management is required
to avoid collisions and deadlock situations in which two or more vehicles are blocked
completely. To ensure that loads are transported in time, sufficient vehicles should be
available and the right vehicle should be dispatched to the right load.

9
 This layout is usually represented by a directed network in which aisles intersections
and pickup and delivery locations can be considered as nodes. The arcs represent the guide
path the AGVs can travel on. Directed arcs indicate the direction of travel of vehicles in the
system.
The layout of this flow path directly influences the performance of the system. In
our project we just mark two stations only. One loading and one unloading station. The
carrier moves in the loop which connects these two stations.
In controlling and designing AGV systems the problem of prevention of AGV
collisions. By attaching sensors on AGVs, physical collisions can be avoided. An AGV
should have the ability to avoid obstacles and the ability to return to its original path
without any collisions. So the traffic management has only less important in our case.
But while using more than one carrier we should take care about them.

To determine an optimal AGV’s system, capable of meeting all requirements,

many factors have to be taken into account. Several of these factors are:
• Number of units to be transported
• Points in time at which units can be or need to be transported
• Capacity of the vehicle
• Speed of the vehicle
• Costs of the system
• Layout of the system and guide path
• Traffic congestion
• Vehicle dispatching strategies

Number and location of pick-up and delivery points. If AGVs use batteries,
frequent battery changing might be required. McHaney (1995) presents an overview of
AGV battery technology. The time required for replacing or charging batteries can impact
the number of vehicles required. Simulation results from McHaney (1995) indicate a
significant increase in the number of AGVs required while incorporating battery
management issues in the simulation study compared to neglecting these issues in the
studies. Furthermore, the time required for charging batteries impacts throughput,
congestion and costs.
10
3.3 COMPONENTS OF AGV:

3.3.1 MECHANICAL PARTS:

The Mechanical components includes,

1. Chassis
2. Steering system

Chassis:

 Act as sacrificial component to prevent damage of expensive payload in

case of accidents
 Act as a frame for attaching other components carry the load of other
components.

Steering System:

 Steering system is for steering the AGV. The two individual motors are directly
attached with the wheel for steering.

3.3.2 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:

Electrical components include the motor and the power supply unit for the motor and
sensoring. Electronic components provide sensing, logical decision and control of the
vehicle. It includes Arduino, which is the brain of the vehicle for the decision logic,
the motor driver as both sensing and control of motor, regulator ICs, sensors for
sensing the path, position of loading and unloading stations, detect object in the path
etc.

3.3.3 SOFTWARE:

Computer is used for making and implementing program for the Arduino, using
embedded computer programming language. For this project we use Arduino Uno
microcontroller. The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software.

11
3.3.1 MECHANICAL PART

CHASSIS:

The chassis is fabricated from Acrylic sheet. This is done for ease of fabrication,
and to reduce the overall weight. It was designed in Catia, part of fabrication was
outsourced due to unavailability of precision cutting tools. The chassis was designed to
take a static load of 3kg.

The Top part of chassis has lots of drilled holes which serves as holes for bolting
other parts and reduce the weight of the chassis. The Holes are arranged in a zigzag linear
arrangement so that the decrease in strength of chassis is not considerable.

The flange which holds the motor was designed using Aluminium and is bolted to
the chassis. So that the driving motors can easily accommodate below the chassis. The
chassis incorporates hole for attaching front globe wheel, and also for attaching the lift
structure

Chassis of AGV

12
Technical Data of Chassis:

Features Data
Length 240mm
Breadth 150mm
Height 30mm
Material Acrylic sheet
Maximum load 2 Kg
Mounting Holes 14×3mm ø Holes for general
mounts 2×8mm ø Holes for
motor
1×10mm ø Hole for switch

13
3.3.2 ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS:

Arduino Uno

IR Sensor

L293D Motor Driver

14
 DC Motor

HC –SR04 Ultra Sonic Sensor

It is an electronic circuit which enables a voltage to be applied across a load in either

direction. It allows a circuit full control over a standard electric DC motor. That is, with
an H- bridge, a microcontroller, logic chip, or remote control can electronically command
the motor to go forward, reverse, brake, and coast.

15
 A "double pole double throw" relay can generally achieve the same electrical
functionality as an H-bridge, but an H-bridge would be preferable where a smaller
physical size is needed, high speed switching, low driving voltage, or where the wearing
out of mechanical parts is undesirable. The term "H-bridge" is derived from the typical
graphical representation of such a circuit, which is built with four switches, either solid-
state (e.g., L293/ L298) or mechanical (e.g., relays).

In our AGV we use the driver IC L293d. There are two driver ICs are provided in
the design, because three motor are in the AGV. One driver circuit is connected to the
two motors of driving mechanism. And second one is used for the motor which is
incorporated with the lift.

L293D IC

IR Sensor is one of the important parts. Path detection and obstrucle detection is done
with the help of IR Sensors. There are five IR Sensors are in our AGV. Out of them four
are used for the path detection and rest of one is used for obstrucle detection.

16
IR sensor have a transmitter and a receiver port.

The strength of signal reached at the receiver port after the reflection of light is
used to detect the path. Path is marked in the black background by white lines. Sensor
detect the white line by the strength of IR wave. The reflected wave from white line has
high strength than that of from black. TSOP1730 are used in the design.

IR for Path Detection

Working of IR Sensor

17
3.3.3 SOFTWARE:

Arduino is an electronics platform and is an open source, which originated in

Ivrea in Italy. It consists of 8, 16 or 32-bit microcontroller and is programmed based on the
requirement and the task to be performed. It can be used for prototyping with little or no
knowledge of electronics and programming.

Users can build Arduino boards independently and make it adaptable to various
applications and projects. Arduino software, (IDE – Integrated Development Environment)
is also open source and runs on Mac, Windows and Linux, it is based on AVR C (C and
C++) programming language. Arduino IDE software is used to program the AGV.
Program is burned using special Arduino board. For this Arduino Uno board is used.

Arduino is an open-source electronics prototyping platform based on flexible,

easy-to- use hardware and software. It's intended for artists, designers, hobbyists, and
anyone interested in creating interactive objects or environments.

The program is written in the Arduino software using special commands. The main
feature of this software is that we can run the program to the Arduino board in Arduino
IDE and then we can upload it to our Arduino board via USB cable. And we can check
the function. It will helps to make changes in the program, in easy way.

The program is written in such a way that when the vehicle is in on condition, the
four line detecting sensors works and detect the line. If the middle sensors close, the two
driving motor rotates. If left sensors close right motor works, if right sensors close left
motor works. If the object detector sensor closes, all the two motors stops whatever may
be the line detecting conditions.

18
3.3.4 PROGRAM SOURCE CODE:

#include <NewPing.h>
#include <Servo.h>
#include <AFMotor.h>
#include <SoftwareSerial.h>

//hc-sr04 sensor
#define TRIGGER_PIN A2
#define ECHO_PIN A3
#define max_distance 50

//ir sensor
#define irLeft A0
#define irRight A1

//motor
#define MAX_SPEED 200
#define MAX_SPEED_OFFSET 20

char command;

Servo servo;

NewPing sonar(TRIGGER_PIN, ECHO_PIN, max_distance);

AF_DCMotor motor1(1, MOTOR12_1KHZ);

AF_DCMotor motor2(2, MOTOR12_1KHZ);
AF_DCMotor motor3(3, MOTOR34_1KHZ);
AF_DCMotor motor4(4, MOTOR34_1KHZ);

int distance = 0;
int leftDistance;
int rightDistance;
boolean object;

void setup() {
Serial.begin(9600);
pinMode(irLeft, INPUT);
pinMode(irRight, INPUT);

servo.attach(10);
servo.write(90);

motor1.setSpeed(250);
motor2.setSpeed(250);
motor3.setSpeed(250);
motor4.setSpeed(250);
}

19
void loop() {
AGV();
}

// This function is for the line following

void AGV(){
if (digitalRead(irLeft) == 0 && digitalRead(irRight) == 0 ) {
objectAvoid();
}
else if (digitalRead(irLeft) == 0 && digitalRead(irRight) == 1 )
{
objectAvoid();
moveLeft();

}
else if (digitalRead(irLeft) == 1 && digitalRead(irRight) == 0 )
{
objectAvoid();
moveRight();
}
else if (digitalRead(irLeft) == 1 && digitalRead(irRight) == 1 )
{
Stop();
}

void objectAvoid() {
distance = getDistance();
if (distance <= 13) {
Stop();
lookLeft();
lookRight();
delay(100);
}
else {
moveForward();
}
}

int getDistance() {
delay(50);
int cm = sonar.ping_cm();
if (cm == 0) {
cm = 100;
}
return cm;
}

20
int lookLeft () {
servo.write(120);
delay(500);
leftDistance = getDistance();
delay(100);
servo.write(90);
return leftDistance;
delay(100);
}

int lookRight() {
servo.write(30);
delay(500);
rightDistance = getDistance();
delay(100);
servo.write(90);
return rightDistance;
delay(100);
}
void Stop() {
motor1.run(RELEASE);
motor2.run(RELEASE);
motor3.run(RELEASE);
motor4.run(RELEASE);
}
void moveForward() {
motor1.run(FORWARD);
motor2.run(FORWARD);
motor3.run(FORWARD);
motor4.run(FORWARD);
}
void moveBackward() {
motor1.run(BACKWARD);
motor2.run(BACKWARD);
motor3.run(BACKWARD);
motor4.run(BACKWARD);
}

void moveRight() {
motor1.run(BACKWARD);
motor2.run(BACKWARD);
motor3.run(FORWARD);
motor4.run(FORWARD);
}
void moveLeft() {
motor1.run(FORWARD);
motor2.run(FORWARD);
motor3.run(BACKWARD);
motor4.run(BACKWARD);
}
21
 CHAPTER – IV

DEVELOPED PROTOPTYPE

4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM:

Block Diagram

Block diagram is a diagram of a system, in which the principal parts or functions are
represented by blocks connected by lines that show the relationships of the blocks. They
are heavily used in the engineering world in hardware design, electronic design, software
design, and process flow diagrams. In this diagram direction of all arrows are either from
or to the microcontroller.

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4.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Diagram

23
The completely fabricated prototype of Automatic Guided Vehicle has possessed the
intelligences such as following a particular line, loading and unloading at particular
stations and collision avoidance etc.

Miniature AGV Prototype

24
4.3 WORKING PRINCIPLE:

The concept of working of a line follower robot is based on the phenomenon of light.
We know that white colour reflects almost all of the light that falls on it, whereas black
colour absorbs most of the light. In case of a line follower robot we use IR transmitters and
receivers also called photodiodes. They are used for sending and receiving light. IR transmits
infrared lights. When infrared rays falls on white surface, it’s reflected back and catched by
photodiodes which generates some voltage changes. When IR light falls on a black surface,
light is absorb by the black surface and no rays are reflected back, thus photo diode does not
receive any light or rays.

Arduino line follower robot when sensor senses white surface then Arduino gets 1, ie,
HIGH as input and when senses black line Arduino gets 0, ie, LOW as input. The H-Bridge
Motor Drivers L293D is used to drive DC motors as they require much more current that
the Arduino can provide.

The L293D motor driver follows the H-bridge configuration, which is handy when
controlling the direction of rotation of a DC motor. The other benefit of using an H-bridge is
that we can provide a separate power supply to the motors. This is very significant especially
when using an Arduino board where the 5V power source is simply not enough for two DC
motors.

The ultrasonic sensor is used for obstacle detection. The ultrasonic sensor transmits
the ultrasonic waves from its sensor head and again receives the ultrasonic waves reflected
from an object. The ultrasonic sensor emits the short and high-frequency signal. These
propagate in the air at the velocity of sound. If they hit any object, then they reflect an echo
signal to the sensor. The ultrasonic sensor consists of a multivibrator, fixed to the base. The
multivibrator is a combination of a resonator and a vibrator. The resonator delivers ultrasonic
wave generated by the vibration. The ultrasonic sensor consists of two parts; the emitter
which produces a 40 kHz sound wave and the detector detects a 40 kHz sound wave and
sends an electrical signal back to the microcontroller.

25
4.4 THEORETICAL AND LOGICAL CALCULATIONS

Torque of DC motor used, T = 12Kg-cm = 1.7772 N-m

Speed of motor, N = 100 RPM

Angular Velocity, ω = 2ΠN/60

= (2*Π*100)/60

= 10.47 rad/sec

Physically Power is the rate of doing work. For linear motion, power is the product of
force multiplied by the distance per unit time. In the case rotational motion, the analogous
calculation for power is the product of Torque multiplied by the rotational distance per
unit time.
Rotational Power, P =T*ω

= 1.1772*10.42

=12.33 W

No. of motors available for driving mechanism = 2 motors.

So total power available for driving = 2* 12.33 = 24.66W

There is only one motor is used for the lifting purposes,

∴ Linear velocity, v = (0.3*10^ (-2)) * 10.47

= 0.03141 m/s

= 3.14 cm/s

Weight of carrier = 1.5 Kg

Width of line marking= 3 cm

Maximum load carrying capacity = 1.5 Kg

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4.5 BILLING:

NO ITEMS NO. OF COST OF TOTAL

ITEMS ITEMS COST
(INR)
1 DC Motor 4 50 200
2 Wheel 4 40 160
3 IR Sensors 2 70 140
4 Ultra sonic censor 1 80 80
5 Ultra sonic base 1 50 50
6 Acrylic Case 1 700 700
7 Servo Motor 1 160 160
8 Li ion 18650 Battery 4 110 440
9 Battery Holder 1 120 120
10 Battery Charger 1 180 180
11 L293D Motor Driver 1 200 200
12 Wires 4 bundles 80 320

13 Fasteners - 250 250

14 Switch 1 50 50

15 Arduino UNO 1 900 900

16 Other Accessories - 500 500
Total 4450

Billing Table

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 CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION
The AGV is a productivity increasing feature in a factory. During the manufacturing of
this AGV we had found many of intelligence that can be given to it. We provide the basic
functions like line following and collision avoiding. And the main function,
transportation of goods from station to station. The followings are the main features of
the prototype which we fabricated.

1. Speed of delivery
2. Adjustment of vehicle speed
3. Flexibility of path
4. Adaptive to changes in factory layouts
5. Avoid collision with other objects
6. Reduction in labor cost
7. Reduction in running cost compared to conveyer systems
8. Ability to add sensors to detect the payload conditions
9. Ability to adjust the lifting time
10. Continues cycle of working
11. Conditions for line following can be change easily

Automatic Guided Vehicle can be used in a wide variety of applications to

transport many different types of material including pallets, rolls, racks, carts, and
containers. AGVs excel in applications with the following characteristics:

 Repetitive movement of material over a distance

 Regular delivery of stable loads
 Medium throughput/volume
 When on time delivery is critical and late deliveries are causing inefficiencies
 Operation with at least two shifts
 Archive Systems
 Distribution

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 High Density Storage
 High Speed Sortation
 Material Flow and Transport
 Production and Manufacturing Delivery Systems
 Production and Manufacturing Support Systems
 Warehouse Management and Control
 Work-In-Process Buffers

The fabricated models have following advantages while comparing with the
existing models of this kind. The analyzing of advantages helps to motivate the
fabrication of AGV in the manufacturing industries. The important advantages of the
prototype are given below

 Reduce manpower
 Increase productivity
 Reduce product damages
 Maintain better control of material management
 Traffic control is not needed in this system because of single carrier
 Suitable to transfer goods.

Each of the machines has their own merits and demerits. During the production
we had faced many problems. Much of them were solved during the assembling. But
still some of them stand here, which can’t have to remove. The followings are the
limitations of the prototype fabricated:

 Installation cost is very high.

 AGVs are fragile and should be handled with care.
 Regular care, inspection and maintenance needed
 Battery should be recharged periodically
 AGV will stop delivery when it is forced off the path.
 Sun light affect the movement.

29
 CHAPTER VI
REFERENCES

 www.elsevier.com/locate/ejor/Survey of research in the design and

control of automated guided vehicle systems

 www.jbtcorporation.com/en/Solutions/Automatic-Guided-Vehicles

 http://www.arduino.cc/

 www.sunroms.com

 Automation, Production Systems, and Computer Integrated Manufacturing, By

Groover, Mikell.P, ISBN 8120334183
 https://www.instructables.com/Arduino-Obstacle-Avoiding-Robot-with-
L293D
 https://create.arduino.cc/projecthub/electropeak/arduino-l293d-motor-driver-
shield-tutorial-c1ac9b
 https://rees52.com/kits/2057-make-a-line-follower-robot-using-l293d-motor-
driver-module-interfacing-with-arduino-uno
 https://github.com/adafruit/Adafruit-Motor-Shield-library
 https://rees52.com/kits/2057-make-a-line-follower-robot-using-l293d-motor-
driver-module-interfacing-with-arduino-uno

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