TARAMANDAL,GORAKHPUR

Physics Project

FIRE ALARM
ALL INDIA SENIOR SECONDARY CERTIFICATE
EXAMINATION

2019-2020

Submitted By Submitted To
SATYAM SINGH MR.ABHISHEK GUPTA
Class- XII PGT PHYSICS
Roll No.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Here I wish to regard my deep sense of gratitude to

MR.ABHISHEK GUPTA PGT Physics Surmount international
School for suggesting the project “Fire Alarm” and supervising my
work.
I am grateful to respected principal Mrs.Deepika Arora for providing
necessary lab facilities for carrying out the project work. I am also
thankful to, Mr.Sultan our lab Assistant, and all those who helped me
in completing this project. I also want to extend my thanks to my
companions who took keen interest, and gave helping hand in
completion of my project.
SATYAM SINGH
XII
Roll No-

CERTIFICATE OF GUIDANCE

This is to certify that SATYAM SINGH of class XII Department of

Physics Surmount international school Gorakhpur worked on the
project entitled “Fire Alarm”
The project work is submitted by his embodies and the work done by
the student himself. During period of work the concerned student has
shown his full dedication.
I wish for his bright future.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

PRINCIPAL SCHOOL STAMP

PREFACE

The content of this project file is based on a thorough study and

understanding of transistors, viable sources and information are taken
into consideration for the preparation of this report. This project report
is on the working model of Fire alarm which is can be used for
multiple purpose like as an flood alarm , rain alarm , sewage overflow
alarm etc. The project report focuses on the preparation of the Fire
alarm in a chronological order which concludes with finding its role in
future and its future advancement. I hereby express my gratitude
towards our teacher who helped in the better understanding of the
concept required while making this model.

Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of Firey protection;

combination systems provide both Fire and intrusion protection.
Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit
television surveillance (CCTV) systems to automatically record the
activities of intruders, and may interface to access control systems for
electrically locked doors. Systems range from small, self-contained
noisemakers, to complicated, multiarea systems with computer
monitoring and control. It may even include two-way voice which
allows communication between the panel and Monitoring station.

Content
(I) Introduction
(II) Components used
(III) Circuit and basic working
(IV) Block diagram
(V) Circuit diagram
 (VI) Transistor
(a) History
(b) Importance
(c) Simplified operation
(d) Comparison with vacuum tubes
(e) Types
(f) Construction
(VII) Role in industries/society
(VIII) Future advancements
(IX) Bibliography

Introduction

Fire is precious for every living being on this planet and while
observing the current status of fresh Fire available for consumption ,
there arises a dire need to take precautious steps for saving every
single drop of Fire .The Fire alarm can be used in saving Fire either by
means of notifying us in case of normal Fire overflow in household
Fire tanksor in case of rain so that we can proceed with rain Fire
harvesting to ensure sufficient Fire in Fire reserves. This Fire alarm is
going to be the biggest need in near future as Fire will be as precious
and valuable as gold.
 Components used

i. 10 Kilo Ohms fixed carbon resistance

ii. 33 Kilo Ohms fixed carbon resistance

iii. p-n-p Silicon Transistor

iv. n-p-n Silicon Transistor

v. 0.01 mF capacitor
vi. Speaker 8 ohms

vii. 3 volt battery

Circuit and basic working

The circuit comprises of a sensor strip/plate in which the copper plates

are adjusted to each other and finally they make two terminal points to
be connected at this circuit . In this circuit , the transistors form a
complimentary pair direct-coupled amplifier. Feedback is provided
through the resistance and capacitor. The first transistor is working as
preamplifier and the other transistor works as the audio amplifier to
operate speaker. When the rain drops fall on the probes Fire forms a
path for current to flow across the space and offers few kilo
resistance . Thus a current flow through the sensor probes and makes
the first transistor turn on and through its collector the other transistor
also turns on , thus the oscillation sounds come through speaker.
Block diagram:-
 Transistors
A transistoris a semiconductor device used
to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power. It is
composed of semiconductor material usually with at least
three terminals for connection to an external circuit.
A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals
controls the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input)
power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are
packaged individually, but many more are found embedded
in integrated circuits.
The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic
devices, and is ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Julius Edgar
Lilienfeld patented a field-effect transistor in 1926 but it was not
possible to actually construct a working device at that time. The first
practically implemented device was a point-contact transistor invented
in 1947 by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter Brattain,
and William Shockley. The transistor revolutionized the field of
electronics, and paved the way for smaller and
cheaper radios, calculators, and computers, among other things. The
transistor is on the list of IEEE milestones in electronics and Bardeen,
Brattain, and Shockley shared the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics for
their achievement.

History
The thermionic triode, a vacuum tube invented in 1907, enabled
amplified radio technology and long-distance telephony. The triode,
however, was a fragile device that consumed a substantial amount of
power. In 1909 physicist William Eccles discovered the crystal diode
oscillator. German physicist Julius Edgar Lilienfeld filed a patent for
a field-effect transistor (FET) in Canada in 1925, which was intended
to be a solid-state replacement for the triode. Lilienfeld also filed
identical patents in the United States in 1926 and 1928. However,
Lilienfeld did not publish any research articles about his devices nor
did his patents cite any specific examples of a working prototype.
Because the production of high-quality semiconductor materials was
still decades away, Lilienfeld's solid-state amplifier ideas would not
have found practical use in the 1920s and 1930s, even if such a device
had been built. In 1934, German inventor Oskar Heil patented a
similar device in Europe.
From November 17, 1947, to December 23, 1947, John
Bardeen and Walter Brattain at AT&T's Bell Labs in Murray Hill,
New Jersey of the United States performed experiments and observed
that when two gold point contacts were applied to a crystal
of germanium, a signal was produced with the output power greater
than the input. Solid State Physics Group leader William Shockley saw
the potential in this, and over the next few months worked to greatly
expand the knowledge of semiconductors. The term transistor was
coined by John R. Pierce as a contraction of the
term transresistance. According to Lillian Hoddeson and Vicki Daitch,
authors of a biography of John Bardeen, Shockley had proposed that
Bell Labs' first patent for a transistor should be based on the field-
effect and that he be named as the inventor. Having unearthed
Lilienfeld’s patents that went into obscurity years earlier, lawyers at
Bell Labs advised against Shockley's proposal because the idea of a
field-effect transistor that used an electric field as a "grid" was not
new. Instead, what Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley invented in 1947
was the first point-contact transistor. In acknowledgement of this
accomplishment, Shockley, Bardeen, and Brattain were jointly
awarded the 1956 Nobel Prize in Physics "for their researches on
semiconductors and their discovery of the transistor effect".
In 1948, the point-contact transistor was independently invented by
German physicists Herbert Mataré and Heinrich Welker while
working at the Compagnie des Freins et Signaux,
a Westinghouse subsidiary located in Paris. Mataré had previous
experience in developing crystal rectifiers from silicon and germanium
in the German radar effort during World War II. Using this
knowledge, he began researching the phenomenon of "interference" in
1947. By June 1948, witnessing currents flowing through point-
contacts, Mataré produced consistent results using samples of
germanium produced by Welker, similar to what Bardeen and Brattain
had accomplished earlier in December 1947. Realizing that Bell Labs'
scientists had already invented the transistor before them, the company
rushed to get its "transistron" into production for amplified use in
France's telephone network.
The first bipolar junction transistors were invented by Bell Labs'
William Shockley, which applied for patent (2,569,347) on June 26,
1948. On April 12, 1950, Bell Labs chemists Gordon Teal and Morgan
Sparks had successfully produced a working bipolar NPN junction
amplifying germanium transistor. Bell Labs had made this new
"sandwich" transistor discovery announcement, in a press release on
July 4, 1951.

Importance
The transistor is the key active component in practically all
modern electronics. Many consider it to be one of the greatest
inventions of the 20th century. Its importance in today's society rests
on its ability to be mass-produced using a highly automated process
(semiconductor device fabrication) that achieves astonishingly low
per-transistor costs. The invention of the first transistor at Bell
Labs was named an IEEE Milestone in 2009.
Although several companies each produce over a billion individually
packaged (known as discrete) transistors every year, the vast majority
of transistors are now produced in integrated circuits (often shortened
to IC, microchips or simply chips), along
with diodes, resistors, capacitors and other electronic components, to
produce complete electronic circuits. A logic gate consists of up to
about twenty transistors whereas an advanced microprocessor, as of
2009, can use as many as 3 billion transistors (MOSFETs). "About 60
million transistors were built in 2002… for [each] man, woman, and
child on Earth”.
The transistor's low cost, flexibility, and reliability have made it a
ubiquitous device. Transistorized mechatronic circuits have
replaced electromechanical devices in controlling appliances and
machinery. It is often easier and cheaper to use a
standard microcontroller and write a computer program to carry out a
control function than to design an equivalent mechanical system to
control that same function.

Simplified operation
The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a
small signal applied between one pair of its terminals to control a
much larger signal at another pair of terminals. This property is
called gain. It can produce a stronger output signal, a voltage or
current, which is proportional to a weaker input signal; that is, it can
act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to turn
current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where
the amount of current is determined by other circuit elements.
There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in
how they are used in a circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals
labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small current at the base
terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control
or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter
terminals. For a field-effect transistor, the terminals are
labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate can control a
current between source and drain.
The image represents a typical bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge
will flow between emitter and collector terminals depending on the
current in the base. Because internally the base and emitter
connections behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop
develops between base and emitter while the base current exists. The
amount of this voltage depends on the material the transistor is made
from, and is referred to as VBE.

Transistor as a switch
Transistors are commonly used in digital circuits as electronic
switches which can be either in an "on" or "off" state, both for high-
power applications such as switched-mode power supplies and for
low-power applications such as logic gates. Important parameters for
this application include the current switched, the voltage handled, and
the switching speed, characterised by the rise and fall times.
In a grounded-emitter transistor circuit, such as the light-switch circuit
shown, as the base voltage rises, the emitter and collector currents rise
exponentially. The collector voltage drops because of reduced
resistance from collector to emitter. If the voltage difference between
the collector and emitter were zero (or near zero), the collector current
would be limited only by the load resistance (light bulb) and the
supply voltage. This is called saturation because current is flowing
from collector to emitter freely. When saturated, the switch is said to
be on.
Providing sufficient base drive current is a key problem in the use of
bipolar transistors as switches. The ratio of these currents varies
depending on the type of transistor, and even for a particular type,
varies depending on the collector current. In the example light-switch
circuit shown, the resistor is chosen to provide enough base current to
ensure the transistor will be saturated.
In a switching circuit, the idea is to simulate, as near as possible, the
ideal switch having the properties of open circuit when off, short
circuit when on, and an instantaneous transition between the two
states. Parameters are chosen such that the "off" output is limited to
leakage currents too small to affect connected circuitry; the resistance
of the transistor in the "on" state is too small to affect circuitry; and the
transition between the two states is fast enough not to have a
detrimental effect.

Transistor as an amplifier :-The common-emitter amplifier is designed

so that a small change in voltage (Vin) changes the small current
through the base of the transistor; the transistor's current amplification
combined with the properties of the circuit means that small swings
in Vinproduce large changes in Vout.
Various configurations of single transistor amplifier are possible, with
some providing current gain, some voltage gain, and some both.
From mobile phones to televisions, vast numbers of products include
amplifiers for sound reproduction, radio transmission, and signal
processing. The first discrete-transistor audio amplifiers barely
supplied a few hundred milliwatts, but power and audio fidelity
gradually increased as better transistors became available and
amplifier architecture evolved.
Modern transistor audio amplifiers of up to a few hundred watts are
common and relatively inexpensive.

Comparison with vacuum tubes:-Before transistors were

developed, vacuum (electron) tubes (or in the UK "thermionic valves"
or just "valves") were the main active components in electronic
equipment.
 Construction
The first BJTs were made from germanium (Ge). Silicon (Si) types
currently predominate but certain advanced microwave and high-
performance versions now employ
the compoundsemiconductor material gallium arsenide (GaAs) and
the semiconductoralloysilicon germanium (SiGe). Single element
semiconductor material (Ge and Si) is described as elemental.
Rough parameters for the most common semiconductor materials used
to make transistors are given in the adjacent table; these parameters
will vary with increase in temperature, electric field, impurity level,
strain, and sundry other factors.
The junctionforwardvoltage is the voltage applied to the emitter–base
junction of a BJT in order to make the base conduct a specified
current. The current increases exponentially as the junction forward
voltage is increased. The values given in the table are typical for a
current of 1 mA (the same values apply to semiconductor diodes). The
lower the junction forward voltage the better, as this means that less
power is required to "drive" the transistor. The junction forward
voltage for a given current decreases with increase in temperature. For
a typical silicon junction the change is −2.1 mV/°C. In some circuits
 special compensating elements (sensistors) must be used to
compensate for such changes.
The density of mobile carriers in the channel of a MOSFET is a
function of the electric field forming the channel and of various other
phenomena such as the impurity level in the channel. Some impurities,
called dopants, are introduced deliberately in making a MOSFET, to
control the MOSFET electrical behavior.
 Its maximum temperature is limited;
 it has relatively high leakage current;
 it cannot withstand high voltages;
 it is less suitable for fabricating integrated circuits.

Because the electron mobility is higher than the hole mobility for all
semiconductor materials, a given bipolar n–p–n transistor tends to be
swifter than an equivalent p–n–p transistor. GaAs has the highest
electron mobility of the three semiconductors. It is for this reason that
GaAs is used in high-frequency applications. A relatively recent FET
development, the high-electron-mobility transistor (HEMT), has
a heterostructure (junction between different semiconductor materials)
of aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)-gallium arsenide (GaAs)
which has twice the electron mobility of a GaAs-metal barrier
junction. Because of their high speed and low noise, HEMTs are used
in satellite receivers working at frequencies around 12 GHz. HEMTs
based on gallium nitride and aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN/GaN
HEMTs) provide a still higher electron mobility and are being
developed for various applications.
Max. junctiontemperature values represent a cross section taken from
various manufacturers' data sheets. This temperature should not be
exceeded or the transistor may be damaged.
Al–Sijunction refers to the high-speed (aluminum–silicon) metal–
semiconductor barrier diode, commonly known as a Schottky diode.
This is included in the table because some silicon power IGFETs have
a parasitic reverse Schottky diode formed between the source and
drain as part of the fabrication process. This diode can be a nuisance,
but sometimes it is used in the circuit.
Packaging:-
Discretetransistors are individually packaged transistors. Transistors
come in many different semiconductor packages .The two main
categories are through-hole (or leaded), and surface-mount, also
known as surface-mountdevice (SMD). The ballgrid array (BGA) is
the latest surface-mount package (currently only for large integrated
circuits). It has solder "balls" on the underside in place of leads.
Because they are smaller and have shorter interconnections, SMDs
have better high-frequency characteristics but lower power rating.
Transistor packages are made of glass, metal, ceramic, or plastic. The
package often dictates the power rating and frequency

BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following books were used in the completion of this
project:
 NCERT Textbook class 12.
 PHYSICS Lab Manual class 12.

Also, the following websites were consulted for relevant

material:
www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.yahoo.com