Drama - Comes from a Greek word meaning “action”, which is derived from the verb

meaning “to do” or “to act”.

A drama is a genre of literature, with a composition in prose or verse presenting in
dialogue or pantomime, where a story involving conflict or contrast of characters,
intended to be acted on the stage. It involves any situation or series of events having
vivid, emotional, conflicting, tragic, turbulent or striking interest or results. A story, which
is intended to be performed to an audience on the stage.
E.g. Merchant of Venice, Sophocles’ ‘Oedipus Rex’
Types - Drama is grouped into distinct types, kinds or categories because there are
qualities that are common to all dramatic compositions. It is these similarities and
differences that determine each genre. The dramatic genres include tragedy, comedy,
tragi-comedy, melodrama etc.
Tragedy - The words 'tragedy' and tragic as they are associated
with misfortune.
For example, the breakdown of a marriage or death of a dear one in an accident or
even natural causes could be described as tragic. Also, some public events that are
unpleasant like the assassination of a head of state or a political leader, natural or
human disasters like earthquakes, flood disasters, plane crashes etc.
According to oxford dictionary “a play of a serious or solemn kind ... a very sad event,
action or experience.”
According to Aristotle “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and
of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornaments,
the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action not of
narrative; through pity and fear effecting a proper purgation of these emotions.”
It explains all the aspects of this definition and moves further to
give the elements of tragedy as plot, character, thought, diction, music
and spectacle.
Tragedy is a serious play that deals with the misfortunes of man. It presents a man
(tragic hero. It presents injustice, evil, pain, misfortunes, paradoxes and mysterious
aspects of human existence.
For example: Macbeth, Hamlet

Comedy - Comedy is generally defined as a literary work that is written to amuse or

entertain a reader. In a comedy, characters can certainly suffer misfortune, but they are
typically comedic situations with positive outcomes. Its light-hearted treatment of plot
and tone does allow a reader and/or audience to release emotion and tension.
Aristotelian differentiation between tragedy and comedy: tragedy imitates men who are
better than the average and comedy men who are worse.
Horace maintains that tragic characters must be noble while comic characters are
ignoble and of lower birth and foolish.
For example: pride & prejudice, All’s Well That Ends Well
Tragi-comedy - Tragicomedy is a literary device used in fictional works. It contains both
tragedy and comedy. Mostly, the characters in tragicomedy are exaggerated, and
sometimes there might be a happy ending after a series of unfortunate events. It is
incorporated with jokes throughout the story, just to lighten the tone.
For example: Cherry orchard, Merchant of Venice
Melodrama - Melodrama is a subgenre of drama, which is an exaggerated form of this
genre. Originally, it made use of melody and music, while modern melodramas may not
contain any music at all. In fact, a melodrama gives preference to a detailed
characterization where characters are simply drawn, one-dimensional, or stereotyped.
Typically, melodrama uses stock characters including a heroes, heroines, and villains.
For example - Wuthering Heights
Characteristics of Shakespearean tragedy

Elements Explanation

Tragic Hero A main character cursed by fate and possessed of a tragic flaw.

A Struggle This struggle can take place as part of the plot or exist within the main
Between character.
Good and
Evil

Hamartia The fatal character flaw of the tragic hero.

Tragic The good being destroyed along with the bad at the resolution of the play. Often
Waste played out with the unnecessary loss of life, especially of "good guy" characters.

External This can be a problem facing the hero as a result of the plot or a "bad guy"
Conflict character.

Internal The struggle the hero engages in with his/her fatal flaw.
Conflict

Catharsis The release of the audience's emotions through empathy with the characters.

Supernatura Magic, witchcraft, ghosts, etc.

l Elements

Lack of Things end poorly for everyone, including the "good guys."
Poetic
Justice
 Elements Explanation

Comic Relief One or more humorous characters who participate in scenes intended to lighten
the mood.

Analysis of his tragedies based on his renowned tragic plays like, Othello, King Lear,
Macbeth, and Hamlet. Below are the characteristics of Shakespearean tragedy.    
One Man Show - Shakespearean tragedies are mostly one man show. However, he
used much number of characters in his tragedies compared to Greek tragedies
excluding chorus, but the focus always remained on hero. Other characters also
experience rise and fall according to the plot but hero remains pivotal figure during the
whole play.  There is exception in his love tragedies like Antony and
Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet; where heroin also gains focus of the audience.
Social Status of Hero - In Shakespearean tragedies, hero is from outstanding social
status. His heroes are same like Greek and Roman heroes.  His all heroes are from
kings (Julius, Caesar, Lear), princes (Hamlet), nobles (Macbeth, Brutus), or military
commanders (Othello). Tragedies, written before Shakespeare, were also conforming to
the same Greek tradition. Some critic accused him for snobbery, they said that a
common man may face a tragedy in his life and his suffering is same like a king or a
noble. But, Shakespeare has his own point of view that a common man wins
sympathies from only his close and limited class but tragedy of a king or a noble man
win sympathies of a large span which makes it more appealing.      
Tragic Fall of Hero - Shakespearean tragedies depict suffering of a hero causing his
tragic death. In Shakespearean sense a tragedy is not a tragedy if hero does not face
tragic death. Initially hero goes through suffering and calamities leading him to tragic
death. The way sufferings befall on hero is interesting in case of Shakespeare. Initially
characters commit a sin or make an error of judgment that causes sufferings. The
magnitude of suffering increases as the plot of the play progresses. The magnitude of
suffering goes up to its maximum level in fourth act.
Sometime, sufferings are not limited to hero alone but other characters suffer too. In
some tragedies other characters also face tragic death like hero as in the case of
Othello in which innocent Desdemona was murdered  
The Cause of Suffering and Death - In Shakespearean tragedies, the cause of
sufferings and death is not like Greek tragedies. Greek believed on destiny but
Shakespeare blamed character himself responsible for his doom. A flaw in characters,
known as hamartia, is responsible for suffering and death but sometime destiny play its
role but on back end. Shakespearian characters are comprised of mixed traits. They are
no holy man or perfect in nature. They also commit sin that cause sufferings. In short, It
is perfect to say that “character is destiny” for Shakespearean tragedies.
Three Unities in Shakespearean Tragedy - Shakespearian tragedies do not follow
three unities. Aristotle proposed the three unities: unity of place, unity of time, and unity
of action.  According to Aristotle, firstly, a tragedy must take place in a single location,
for example a city square or a house but actions in Shakespearean tragedies are on
various places. One scene is at one place and second scene may be in another
city. Secondly it would happen during the course of one day but his plays are lengthy
and do not follow unity of time. Lastly, a tragedy would be a single story, without sub-
plots or sub-sub-plots but Shakespeare has sufficient number of sub-plots in his
tragedies. So in this way Shakespearean play do not follow Aristotle’s three unities.
Compared with these set patterns by Aristotle, Shakespeare’s tragedy is a more relaxed
genre.
Supernatural Elements - There are some other external factors, apart from the fatal
flaw of protagonist, in Shakespearean plays that are responsible for the tragic fall of
protagonist. The use of supernatural machinery and chance happening are the external
factors who contribute in tragic fall.  These factors play role in shaping destiny of
characters. Shakespeare used supernatural elements like three witches in Macbeth and
ghost in Hamlet. These elements prompt the hero to do irrational and heinous offence in
the play that causes his tragic fall. In similar way, the use of handkerchief in Othello
became cause of chance happening which made him more jealous and extreme
jealousy became cause of his fall. Although these factors contribute a lot but basically it
is his own character which causes hero’s fall.
Structure of Shakespearean tragedy - Shakespearean plays usually consist of five
acts, corresponding to different scenes in each act. Act one includes exposition,
outlines the situation, begins the action and introduces the main characters. Act
two continues the action towards further development, and introduces complications in
the plot. Act three is comprised of climax of the plot, brings everything to a head. A
change of direction occurs in this act and audience realizes the sin or folly committed by
protagonist that leads him towards sufferings. Act four includes further developments of
act three leading inevitably to final act. Act five includes final outcome and revelation
that ends with tragic death of hero.
Moral Values and Poetic Justice - Shakespeare never focused on poetic justice which
requires the characters to be awarded or punished with their merits and demerits
accordingly.  But there is only hero who suffers because of his flaw but there are some
other characters who became innocent prey of hero’s flaw. On other hand no villainous
character is left unpunished in Shakespearean plays but the destructive power of their
evil is strong enough that it pulls other innocent characters into it.  In Othello,
Desdemona and Emilia were murdered innocently without any evil committed by them.
But the intrigue plot of villain was strong enough that pushed innocent characters into
tragic death. The moral values of Shakespearean tragedies do not left pessimistic
impression on readers but they feel piteous and fearful. 
Plot structure - Plot - “plan or line of events of a story especially of a novel
or a story”.
In dramatic plot, unlike in the novel where the author describes the characters and
incidents they are involved in, the playwright presents the characters in action. Plot is
the organization of a series of action or events usually moving through conflicts to a
climax and resolution. Plot does not concentrate on an individual hero or his fate or her
fate but also on minor characters.
Structure of drama - The plot structure of a play including the exposition, conflict, rising
action, climax, falling action, and resolution (or denouement).
Exposition - where you introduce your characters, establish the setting, and begin to
introduce the primary conflict of your story.
Conflict -  the main opposition, obstacle or complication that characters need to
navigate for the story to reach a conclusion.
Rising action - The rising action normally begins with an inciting incident, or a moment
that sets your story into action. As it progresses, you’ll have multiple moments of conflict
that escalate and create tension as the story moves toward the climax.
Climax - The climax is the peak of tension, plot, and character in your story. It’s the
moment that your reader has been waiting for—so make it exciting!
Falling action - Now that you’ve reached the peak of your story, it’s time to start
moving toward a more satisfying conclusion. This is the time to start resolving conflicts
and subplots, so your story doesn’t feel rushed in the last few chapters. This is also
where any conflicts that arose because of the climax can start being resolved.
Resolution/denouement - Finally, the resolution is the end of your story where you can
tie up the final loose ends and bring your story to its happy or tragic ending.
Aristotle 6 elements - The 6 Aristotelean elements are plot, character, thought,
diction, spectacle, and song.
Plot - What, the main action, which can be described through the character’s objectives.
Character - Who, the protagonist and their relationship to the other characters and to
the world they inhabit.
Thought - Why, the psychology behind the character’s action. Why does a character
want what he wants? 
Diction - How, the dialogue, which in addition to action, is a tactic characters utilize to
achieve their, often opposing, objectives.
E.G Think of the debates between Walter Lee and Beneatha. The dialogue is used to
delineate their psychology and defend their plans for the money.
Spectacle - Where, that which we can see on stage, also known as setting. 
Song - Rhythm of speech or the use of literal music. Both of which are utilized to drive
a narrative forward or delineate character and emotion. The rhythm of speech quite
often reveals, urgency, mood, culture, etc.
The 6 elements we utilize to build drama are what, who, why, how, where, and rhythm
of speech. This is in part a journalistic approach to playwriting in which we can begin to
ask ourselves questions about a play.
Literary elements of drama - Character - a person portrayed in a drama, novel, or
other artistic piece.

Conflict - the internal or external struggle between opposing forces, ideas, or interests
that creates dramatic tension.

Suspense - a feeling of uncertainty as to the outcome, used to build interest and

excitement on the part of the audience.

Theme - the basic idea of a play; the idea, point of view, or perception that binds
together a work of art.

Technical elements of drama - Act: a major division in a play

Scene: a real or fictional episode; a division of an act in a play.

Lighting: the arrangement of lights to achieve effects to help create mood or tone in a
play.

Sound: the effects an audience hears during a performance to communicate character,

context, or environment.

Set Design: everything on the stage including furniture and props, and environment in
which the action of a play occurs.

Costumes: the clothing worn by the actors who play the characters. Oftentimes, these
help to establish characterizations, mood, and tone.

Characterization -  A literary device, is used step-by-step in literature to highlight and

explain the details about a in a story. The initial stage in which the writer introduces the
character. After introducing the character, the writer often talks about his behavior; then,
as the story progresses.
Characterization as a literary tool was coined in the mid-15th century.
Types - An author can use two approaches to deliver information about a character and
build an image of it.
1. Direct or explicit characterization
2. Indirect or implicit characterization

1. Direct or explicit characterization - This kind takes a direct approach towards

building the character. It uses another character, narrator, or the protagonist
himself to tell the readers or audience about the subject.

2. Indirect or implicit characterization - This is a precise way of introducing the

character to the audience. The audience must deduce for themselves the
characteristics of the character by observing his/her thought process, behavior,
 speech, way of talking, appearance, and manner of communication with other
characters, as well as by discerning the response of other characters.

For example - The Great Gatsby, is probably the best. In this book, the main idea
revolves around the social status of each character.

Tragic hero - A literary device utilized to create a protagonist for a tragic work of
literature.
A tragic hero is a character that represents the consequences that come from
possessing one or more personal flaws or being doomed by a fate.
Aristotle categorized the characteristics of classic tragic hero in Greek drama as, in
general, a male character of noble birth who experiences a reversal of fortune due to a
tragic flaw. The realization of this flaw evokes sympathy from an audience.
For example - Oedipus Rex, the title character of Sophocles’ tragedy, is considered a
classic tragic hero, and Hamlet.
Classical drama Modern drama
Themes involving fate, theme, tragedy, A diversity of themes revolving around
religious content culture, genders, experiences, and issues
Exploring philosophical ideas, taking Experimentation with style and
familiar stories from history presentation, subtle, and intellectual
ideas explored
Female characters played by males Female actors perform countless roles
Supernatural elements & mythological Realistic with disillusionment, doubt,
creatures skepticism and important motif
Simple setting Detailed, symbolic, and important settings
Focus on role of fate, external factors in Individual will and freedom of choice
deciding the future of humans
Simple stage & costume Elaborate stage, lighting, special effects,
sound etc.
E.g. Macbeth Shakespeare, death of E.g. cherry orchard Anton Chekov, the
salesman Arthur miller caretaker Harold Pinter

Drama Theater
It is script of the play It is out stage production of the play
There is direct interaction between the There is no direct interaction b/w the
reader and the dramatist audience and the dramatist
Interpretation of the play depends on the Interpretation of the play depends on the
reader artists.
It is an abstract entity It is a physical entity
Literary terms - It is a technique, or a device used by a writer to tactfully emphasize,
embellish, or strengthen their compositions. It is a tool to coin new thought and meaning
into a word or an action.

Also include name of different structures and formats in a given text like plot or diction of
a literary piece.
Drama - Drama is any literary work that tells a story that usually involves actors on
stage in front of a live audience. It is possible to read and comprehend works of drama;
however, the full expression of drama is in the context of its performance on the stage.
Plot - The plot of a drama is a sequence of events that occur during that drama and the
way in which they are presented on the stage. According to Aristotle, plots must be in
three parts: beginning, middle, and end; each event in the plot causes the next event to
happen.
Theme - the central idea revealed in a literary text. Main theme of a literary work can be
expressed in one word, such as love, war, heroism, hypocrisy, society, revenge, hate,
wealth, etc.
A literary work may have more than one theme in a single text. Theme is not stated
plainly in the text, but it is expressed through the characters’ actions, words, and
thoughts.
Protagonist - the main character of a work of literature: drama, novel, story, or a heroic
poem. It may b a male character or a female, for male character, word hero is also used
and in same way heroin is used for female protagonist. Sometime a drama or play may
have more than one protagonist or may be without a protagonist or sometime this
character remains hidden.
Character - a person or anything that has an active role on stage of a drama.
Sometimes it may be an animal, an object, a tree or an illusionary character.
Characterization - Characterization is the way of describing and creating characters in
drama. Characterization usually includes personality traits of an individual character and
includes both descriptions of a character’s physical attributes as well as the personality
of a character. It also includes the way that characters act, think, behave, and speak.
Catastrophe – a dramatic action that is done after tragedy or tragic event. It is a
momentous tragic event ranging from bad luck to extreme misfortune or ruin of tragic
hero. It may be due to fate, intrigue of a villain, or due to hamartia of the hero.
Catharsis - Aristotle linked the term catharsis to dramatic tragedy. It is release of the
emotions such as sadness, fear, and, pity through viewing a tragedy and it involves the
change of extreme emotion to lead to internal restoration and renewal. In this way
spectators learned to display emotions at a proper amount and minimize extreme
outbursts of emotion in their routine life.
Chorus - This term is used for a group of singers and dancers who perform on stage
and their performance or song predicts future happening in the drama and connects
part of drama. In Elizabethan drama chorus spoke the prologue of the drama.  It was
most common part of drama in Greek tragedies.
Climax - The climax of a literary work is the very peak of tension nearly after the mid of
the drama from which the conclusion comes down. In a tragedy, the climax reveals
the protagonist’s greatest weaknesses or change in his mind, and this situation create
curiosity among viewers and they expect something unusual.
Tone - In literary works, tone is the attitude or approach that the author takes toward the
main theme of drama or any other literary piece. The tone of literary work may be
humorous, distant, intimate, solemn, ironic, condescending, sentimental, arrogant, etc.
Satire - Satire is a genre of literature that is used to ridicules problems in society,
businesses community, government, and individuals to highlight attention to certain
vices, abuses, and follies, for the sake of improvements. Sarcasm and irony are usually
key tools of satire. Satirists also use analogy, parody, and juxtaposition to highlight their
points.
Exposition - Exposition is the beginning of a drama in which characters are introduced
through a prologue, a chorus song or through dialogue depending on the plot of the
drama.
Conflict - Conflict is a state of clash between the ideas and choice in minds of the
characters. They cannot choose the right way and get stuck between true and fake.
Denouement - a final part of the drama just after the climax in which there is resolution
for any conflicts left in the plot. All the loose threads of the plot are tied up and secrets
are revealed in this last part.
Tragic Comedy - a form of drama in which there is a mixture of comedy in a tragedy. In
a tragedy, comedy is used to release the catharsis of the audience. Comedy is used in
tragedy where audience are not able to see a tragic scene for a long time.
Fool - A fool is a character in a drama who acts as a joker in the drama. In tragedies,
fools are created to neutralize the emotions of the audience or readers.
Thought - Thought mean what a character thinks or feels during the play. It may be an
individual thought, or it may be of multiple characters. Sometime, a character depicts
the whole society that means he is reflecting thought of that society.
Diction - a choice of words and a language medium by which characters reveal
thoughts and feelings.
Tragedy - “It is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete and have a certain
magnitude arousing the emotions of pity and fear resulting in catharsis”
Hamartia - Hamartia is a special term first used by Shakespeare for the downfall of
protagonist due to his error of judgment. It may be due to his wrong decision
unconsciously or he fails to judge what is right or what is wrong.
Soliloquy - A soliloquy is a monologue in which a character speaks out in a loud voice
when he is alone. In this way audience can know what is happening next in the play.
Stereotype - The term stereotype is used for conservative ideas in a play about a
character, setting or plot.
Motif - A motif is a repeating theme in the play. Some play or stories have more than
one theme. The theme that is repeating in many section of the play is called motif.
Monologue - a long speech made by one actor; may be delivered alone or in the
presence of others.
Aside - when a character in a play speaks to the audience though there are other
characters on stage.
Dialogue - The conversation of characters in a literary work. In fiction, dialogue is
typically enclosed within quotation marks. In plays, characters' speech is preceded by
their names.