i

CHAPTER ONE: SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT 1

1.1. Learning Objectives 1
1.2. Introduction 1
1.3. Types of Non-hazardous Solid Waste 5
1.4. Sources of Solid Waste 6
1.5. Public Health and Ecological Aspect 8
Review Questions 10

CHAPTER TWO: CLASSIFICATION, GENERATION

11 RATE AND COMPOSITION OF SOLID
WASTES
2.1. Learning Objectives 11
2.2. Introduction 11
2.3. Classification of Solid Waste 12
2.4. Generation Rate of Solid Waste 13

2.5. Composition of Solid Waste 16

2.6. Quantities and Volume of Solid Waste 18

Review Questions 19

CHAPTER THREE: FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF 21

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT PROGRAM

ii
3.1. Learning Objectives 21

3.2. Introduction 21

3.3. On Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid 22

Waste

3.4. Collection of Solid Waste 26

3.5. Transfer and Transport 34

Solid Waste Management

3.6. Resource Recovery and Processing 35 3.7.

Disposal of Solid Waste 40

Review Questions 75

CHAPTER FOUR: HAZARDOUS SOLID WASTES

76 MANAGEMENT
4.1. Learning Objectives 76
4.2. Introduction 77
4.3. Concern about Hazardous Waste Management 79
4.4. Characteristics of Hazardous Waste 80
4.5. List of Hazardous Chemicals 82
4.6. Transportation and Disposal of Hazardous Waste 83
4.7. Control of Hazardous Waste 85

4.8. Health-Care Institution Solid Waste 88

Review Questions 105

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Solid Waste Management

CHAPTER ONE

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. define solid wastes.
2. describe major sources of solid wastes
3. list types of solid wastes.
4. discuss public health importance of solid wastes
5. mention ecological impacts of solid wastes

1.2 Introduction

Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and are discarded as
useless or unwanted. The term solid waste as used in this text
is all- inclusive, encompassing the heterogeneous mass of
throwaways from the urban community as well as the more
homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial, and
mineral wastes. Because of their intrinsic properties,
discarded waste materials are often reusable and may be
considered as a resource in another setting. Integrated solid
waste management is the term applied to all of the activities

associated with the management of the community’s waste.

The basic goal of integrated solid waste management is to
manage community waste in a manner that meets public
health and environmental concerns and the public’s desire to
reuse and recycle waste material.

Solid waste today contains many materials such as plastics

that are not readily degradable and toxic materials, primarily
various types of chemical waste produced by industry.
Similarly, the amount of hazardous waste generated has been
Solid Waste Management

undergoing dramatic change. In addition, industries increase

their annual discharges of toxic chemicals directly into the
environment.

Early civilizations did not have a problem with waste because

it consisted mainly of organic wastes and the decomposers
converted it into useful materials. There were also fewer
people, and they generated little waste. The problem became
larger with more people generating more and a variety of
waste. (chemical, liquid, solid, nuclear, and hazardous). Little
of this waste is food for the decomposers. Thus, a variety of
methods must be used to manage the waste.

A comprehensive solid waste management program

encompasses sweeping, storage, collection, and disposal of
solid waste. Proper management in these four areas helps
greatly in controlling insects, rodents and filth borne diseases.

In Ethiopia, particularly in Addis Ababa, an agency is

responsible for the collection and disposal of solid wastes for
the city of Addis Ababa with an estimated total population of
2.9 million in 2000. The agency has a clear mandate from the
city administration of Addis Ababa. It has an institutional
setup, separate budget, as well as the necessary equipment,
manpower and logistics for the task. The activity is now
carried out by 10 sub-city administration where a division
runs the solid waste management program. At present, the
agency has 3000 employees in the street sweeping unit and
park development, and 128 permanent employees in the
garbage collection units. It had a fleet of 74 heavy-duty
trucks, (about 40 on the move) and two bulldozers and one
compacter at the landfill site. The estimated solid waste
generation of an Addis Ababa resident was about 0.24
kilogram per capita per day and a total of 163,200 tons per
annum. The existing collection capacity covered less than 50
percent of the total wastes generated. The remaining wastes
were dumped along the streets, on vacant plots, along
streams, in ditches, bridges, etc.
Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management in other urban centers of Ethiopia

are under the jurisdiction of Municipal Division of Health. All
municipalities (except Addis Ababa) and certified urban
centers are mandated by Proc. No. 206 of 1981 to provide,
maintain and supervise environmental health services along
with their other activities in their municipalities and urban
centers. Thus, 3 solid wastes management services are the
responsibilities of these municipalities and urban centers.
Most of them have no institutional set up and resources for
discharging their duties effectively. This is aggravated by the
low priority usually accorded to sanitation activities.

The sanitarians assigned to the regional health departments

and health centers give technical advice whenever called for
besides their routine activities.

Therefore, the material that follows will discuss the major

aspects of solid waste management including type, source,
and public health and ecological impacts of solid wastes.

1.3 Types of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste

Refuse: Includes all solid wastes. In practice this category

includes garbage, rubbish, ashes, and other wastes.
Solid Waste Management

a. Combustible: This material is primarily organic in

nature and includes items such as paper, cardboard,

wood and bedding.
b. Noncombustible: This material is primarily
inorganic and includes tin cans, metals, glass,
ceramics, and other mineral refuse.
3. Ashes: Waste products from coal, charcoal, and wood

when burned.
4. Other wastes: demolished materials, abandoned cars, and

construction wastes, are also considered as municipal

waste.

1.4 Sources of Solid Wastes

In all cases the following sources are universal:

1. Residential: generated from living
households
(domestic), generally contain non-hazardous solid
wastes; kitchen waste, ‘‘Ketema”, and ash are common
in Ethiopia.

2. Agricultural: solid wastes due to agricultural activities: food

residues, animal dung, crop residues, etc. Such wastes are

usually non-hazardous and negligible in rural Ethiopia.
3. Commercial: wastes generated from business
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Solid Waste Management

6
Solid Waste Management

Table 1. Type of waste with respect to its

length of storage days
Waste type Length of Control guide line
storage (minimum)
days

Garbage 4 Fly breeding

Residential rubbish 7 Flies, land pollution
Mixed refuse 4 Flies
Street sweeping 7 Unsightliness
Dead animals 1 Flies, animal diseases
Special waste 1 Human diseases
Ashes 14 Air pollution,
Unsightliness
Feces 1 Flies, human diseases

1.5. Public Health and Ecological Aspects

The proper storage at the point of generation, collection and

disposal of the solid waste is part of the environmental
health service program, which must be accomplished
effectively in a community.

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Solid Waste Management

1. They produce a good breeding place for flies, hence create a

favorable conditions for food contamination by flies and other

fly-borne diseases.
2. Provide food and shelter for rats and mice, which are

destroyers and contaminants of food and other goods.

3. Under certain conditions, may create suitable breeding place

for mosquitoes. Subsequently bring in the problem of

mosquito-borne diseases, (e.g. malaria, filariasis, etc)
4. May cause nuisances- which create aesthetic problem,
(e.g. looks unpleasant and has bad smell, etc.)
5. May attract dogs, cats and other scavengers.
6. May cause fire hazards by instantaneous combustion.

The public health and ecological reasons for proper management

of solid wastes are:

- an attractive media for the growth and multiplication of flies,

and hence, may involve all diseases which are transmitted by
flies, (e.g. typhoid fever, cholera, dysenteries. etc);
- a suitable breeding place for mosquitoes, subsequently
bringing the problem of mosquito-born diseases;
- a good harborage for rats, which can be an economic as well
as health problem;
- from aesthetic point of view , such as bad odor , unsightly
conditions etc;
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Solid Waste Management

- pollution and contamination of air , land and water;

- possible fire hazards by instantaneous combustion;

Review Questions

1. What is solid waste?

2. Why is the problem of solid waste associated with time?

3 . What are the major sources of solid waste?
4. What is the public health importance of solid waste?
5. How can solid waste affect humans from an ecological
perspective?

CHAPTER TWO
9
Solid Waste Management

CLASSIFICATION, GENERATION
RATE AND COMPOSITION OF SOLID
WASTE

2.1. Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. describe the major classifications of solid waste.
2. define the terms "puterscible" and "non-putrescible" solid

waste.
3. describe the advantages of determining the solid waste

generation rate.
4. list factors that determine the generation rate of solid waste.
5. determine the quantity and volume of solid wastes.
6. explain the composition of solid wastes.

2.2 Introduction

The characteristics, quantities, volume and composition of

solid waste generated may differ from one country to
another and between urban and rural areas. It depends
mainly upon the customs, climate, living conditions and
economic standard of the area.

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Solid Waste Management

2.3. Classification of Solid Waste

Solid waste can be classified into two categories by its

characteristics. These are:

A. Putrescible solid waste

B. Non-Putrescible solid waste.

A. Putrescible wastes
- Are solid wastes that can be easily decomposed by bacterial
action
- Result from the growing, handling, preparation, cooking and
consumption of food.
- Their quantities are varying throughout the year, being
greatest in amount during the summer months when
vegetable wastes are more abundant.
- Require careful handling with frequent removal and adequate
disposal.
- Are the most valuable component yielding fertilizers, or soil
conditioners, through composting processes and used as
animal/hog feed (e.g. garbage).

B. Non putrescible wastes

- Are solid wastes that cannot be easily decomposed by
microbial action
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Solid Waste Management

- Consist of both combustible and non-combustible

substances, such as cans, paper, brush, glass, cardboard,
wood, scrap metals, bedding, yard clippings, crockery,
etc.
- Are frequently responsible for the creation of nuisances
and esthetic problems when they become scattered by
the wind and careless handling (e.g. rubbish).

2.4 Generation Rate of Solid Waste

Determination of the generation rate of solid waste is

important to obtain data in order to determine waste volume
and for subsequent solid waste management.

Factors to consider for the purpose of determining the generation

rate are:

1. Measures of quantities
a. Volume measurement.
b. Weight measurement

Be careful in volume measurement because you need to

distinguish wastes which are compacted and loosened. Both
have different weight and volume. Weight is the most
accurate basis for records regardless of whether the waste is
loose or compacted.
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Solid Waste Management

2. Statistical Analysis

It is necessary to have some statistical base for solid waste

management system development. This includes placement
of containers, programming the collection program and
allocation of vehicle type. (See chapter 3)

3. Expression of Unit Generation

In addition to knowing the source and composition of solid waste,

it is important to have uniform units of expression.

a. Residential and Commercial – kilogram per capita per day

(Kg/c/d)
b. Agricultural –Kilogram per hectare per year (kg/ ha/ year)

4. Methods Used to Determine Generation Rate

a. Load count analysis –basically involves counting of the

individual loads over a specified time period. If possible,

weighing the load will be very important.
b. Weight -volume analysis- measuring the volume of the truck

and weight of each load will give ample data.

Although the technique is expensive, it is used to: draw a
system boundary round the unit to be studied; identify
what occurrences affect generation rates; identify the
13
Solid Waste Management

rate of generation associated with different activities

using the data available; determine the quantity of waste
generated, stored and collected

5. Typical Generation Rate

This is the rate found by conducting a large survey very

representative for a nation, state or locality.

6. Factors Affecting Generation Rates

Factors that affect the generation rate of solid waste include:

a. geographical location – related primarily to the different
climate that can influence both the amount generated and
collection operation.
b. season of the year
c. frequency of collection
d. characteristics of population
e. extent of salvage and recycling.
f. legislation
g. public attitude

2.5. Composition of Solid Waste

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 Solid Waste Management

Composition of solid waste depends on the local factors such

as time of the year or season, habits of the community,
educational status, economic status, geographical location,
and population size.

A. Physical Composition
Knowing the physical composition of solid waste is important
for the selection and operation of equipment facilities, to
assess the possibility or feasibility of energy recovery and to
design disposal facilities. Its analysis may contain individual
component study, moisture content study and density.

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Solid Waste Management

Table 2. Ordinary physical composition of

municipal solid waste

Component Percent by weight

Range Typical
Food waste 6-26 15
Paper 24-45 40
Cardboard 3-15 4
Plastics 2-8 3
Textiles 0-4 2
Rubber 0-2 0.5
Leather 0-2 0.5
Garden trimming 0-20 12
Wood 1-4 7
Glass 4-16 8
Tin cans 2-8 6
Nonferrous metals 0-1 1
Ferrous metals 1-4 2
Dirt, Ash, Brick 0-10 4

Source: Rolf Eliassen et al: Solid Wastes Engineering

B. Chemical Composition
It is very important to study the nature and value of solid
waste to plan different disposal and recovery options. These
studies include the assessment of moisture content,
volatility, ash content, etc. The moisture content of
municipal solid wastes varies depending on composition of
16
Solid Waste Management

the waste, the season of the year, humidity and weather

condition.

Table 3. Typical data on moisture content of

municipal solid waste.
Component Moisture content by
percent
Range Typical
Food waste 50-80 20
Paper 4-15 6
Cardboard 4-8 5
Plastics 1-4 2
Textiles 6-15 10
Rubber 1-4 2
Leather 8-12 10
Garden trimming 30-80 60

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Solid Waste Management

Wood 20

Glass 1-4 2
Tin cans 2-4 3
Nonferrous 2-4 3
metals
Ferrous metals 2-6 3
Dirt, Ash, Brick, 6-12 8
Stone

Source: Rolf Eliassen et al: Solid Wastes Engineering

2.6 Quantities and Volume of Solid Waste

18
Solid Waste Management

Various estimates have been made on the quantity of solid

waste generated and collected per person per day. The
amount of municipal solid waste collected is estimated to be

2.7 kg/capita/day, of which about 0.6 kg is residential.

Averages are subject to adjustment depending on many
factors: time of the year; habits, education, and economic
status of the people; number and type of commercial
industrial operations; whether urban or rural area; and
location.

Each community should be studied and actual weighing made

to obtain representative information for design purposes.
Community wastes are not expected to exceed 1000
kg/capita/year. With the emphasis being placed on source
reduction such as less packaging, waste recovery and
recycling such as of paper, metals, cans, and glass, the
amount of solid waste requiring disposal is reduced. The
volume occupied by solid waste under certain conditions
determines the number and size or type of refuse containers,
collection vehicles, and transfer stations. Transportation
systems and land requirements for disposal are also affected.

Review Questions

1. What are the major classifications of solid wastes?

2. What are the factors that determine the generation rate of

solid waste?

19
Solid Waste Management

3. Why it is important to determine the generation rate of

solid waste?
4. How can you determine the composition of solid waste?
5. What are factors that determine the generation rate of
solid waste?

CHAPTER THREE
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

3.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the students will be able⁸ to:

20
Solid Waste Management

1. list functional elements of a solid waste

management program.
2. identify requirements of solid waste storage
containers.
3. realize that collection process of solid wastes
is complex.
4. compare sanitary land fill and incinerators.
5. identify common dead body disposal
methods.
6. describe common solid waste disposal
methods.

3.2 Introduction

Aesthetics, land use, health, water pollution, air pollution,

and economic considerations make proper solid waste
storage, collection and disposal of solid wastes (municipal
and individual) functions that must be taken seriously.
Indiscriminate dumping of solid waste and failure of the
collection system in a populated community would soon
cause many health problems. Odors, flies, rats, roaches,
crickets, wandering dogs and cats, and fires would dispel any
remaining doubts of the importance of proper solid waste
storage, collection and disposal.

3.3 On-Site Handling, Storage and Processing of Solid Waste

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Solid Waste Management

A. On-Site Handling
On-site handling methods and principles involve public
attitude and individual belief, and ultimately affects the
public health. It is an activity associated with the handling of
solid waste until it is placed in the containers used for its
storage before collection. This may take place at any time
before, during or after storage.

Importance of on-site handling of solid waste:

- reduce volume of waste generated
- alter physical form
- recover usable materials

On- site handling methods:

- sorting
- shredding
- grinding
- composting
Factors that should be considered in evaluation of on site processing
include capabilities, reliability, environmental effects, ease of
operation, etc.

B. On- Site Storage

The first phase to manage solid waste is at home level. It
requires temporary storage of refuse on the premises. The
individual householder or businessman has responsibility for
onsite storage of solid waste.
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Solid Waste Management

For individual homes, industries, and other commercial

centers, proper on-site storage of solid waste is the beginning
of disposal, because unkept or simple dumps are sources of
nuisance, flies, smells and other hazards.

There are four factors that should be considered in the onsite

storage of solid waste. These are the type of container to be
used, the location where the containers are to be kept, public
health, and the collection method and time.

1. Storage containers
Garbage and refuse generated in kitchens and other work
areas should be collected and stored in properly designed
and constructed water-proof garbage cans (waste bins). The
cans or receptacles can be constructed from galvanized iron
sheet or plastic materials. They should have tightly fitting
covers. They must be of such size that, when full, they can be
lifted easily by one man. They should be located in a cool
place on platforms at least 30 centimeters above ground
level. After putting in garbage, they should be kept covered.
The bins must be emptied at least daily and maintained in
clean conditions. A typical example of garbage can,
constructed from galvanized iron sheet, dimensions:
diameter 45 cm and height 75 cm, is shown in figure 1 below.

An adequate number of suitable containers should be

provided with proper platforms with receptacles stand. The
number may depend on the amount, type and establishments
23
 Solid Waste Management

where the need arises. Suitable containers should be

watertight, rustresistant, with tight-fitting covers, fire-
resistant, adequate in size, light in weight, with side handles
and washable.

Figure 1. Typical Garbage Can with Tightly Fitting Cover

Source: Gabre-Emanuel Teka (1997): Solid Waste Disposal From Food
Premises; In Food Hygiene

2. Container Size (capacity)

Consideration should be given for the size of the loaded container
that must be hauled to the collection vehicle or to the disposal
site. Therefore, container size for:- - ash: up to 80 to
128 liters
- mixed refuse: should not exceed 120 to 128 liters
- rubbish up to 200 liters
- kitchen waste is 40 liters
- garbage is 48 to 80 liters
Plastic liners for cans and wrapping for garbage reduce the
need for cleaning of cans and bulk containers, and keep down
odors, rat and fly breeding.
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Solid Waste Management

Galvanized metal is preferable for garbage storage because it

is resistant to corrosion. Plastic cans are light in weight but
are easily gnawed by rats.

Bulk containers are recommended where large volumes of

refuse are generated, such as at hotels, restaurants,
apartment houses, and shopping centers.

A concrete platform provided with a drain to an approved sewer

with a water faucet at the site facilitates cleaning.

On- site processing

Importance of on-site processing:
- reduces volume of waste generated
- alters physical form
- recovers usable materials
Factors that should be considered in evaluating on-site
processing are capabilities, reliability, environmental effects,
ease of operation, etc.

3.4 Collection of Solid Waste

This is the removal of refuse from collection points to final

disposal site. It is the most expensive as compared with other

25
Solid Waste Management

operation and management procedures, because it demands

special vehicles, experienced people to manage, more
manpower, hand tools, and more funds for fuel, salary,
maintenance, gathering or picking up of solid waste from the
various sources, taking the collected wastes to the location
where it is emptied, and unloading of the collection vehicle.

Collection cost has been estimated to represent about 50% of

the total cost of collection when a sanitary landfill is used as
means of disposal, and 60% when incineration is used.

Home collection of solid waste generally is done by a private

collector or a local government-owned and financed
operation. Private collectors usually charge a fee to each
individual homeowner, or a government contract will pay the
fees. The government contract enables solid waste collection
in a uniform, sanitary manner. Without such a contract, some
individuals may be reluctant to pay the collector for the
service and the refuse may go uncollected.

1. Collection process
Involves five different phases.
Phase 1 - House to dustbin
Phase 2 - Dustbin to truck
Phase 3 - Truck from house to house
Phase 4 - Truck to transfer station
Phase 5 - Truck to disposal

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Solid Waste Management

2. Collection services
People must understand that a good refuse-collection service
requires citizen cooperation in the provision and use of
proper receptacles in order to keep the community clean and
essentially free of rats, flies, and other vermin.

There are four types of collection services:

I. Curb (curb side): The home owner is responsible for
placing and returning the empty container. Never entirely
satisfactory.
II. Set-out (block collection): Owner is responsible for

returning the container. The full containers are brought

or set at the collection site by the crew. Bins are not left
out on the street for long periods.
III. Backyard carrying service (door to door
collection): Collection crews that go along with the
collection vehicle are responsible for bringing out stored
solid waste from the dwelling units. It is the only
satisfactory system in which the householder does not
get involved.
IV. Alleys: a narrow street or path between buildings in a

town. That is difficult to get the container and also to the

vehicle that will collect the waste.

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Solid Waste Management

Method of loading the solid waste on the vehicle: a.

directly lifting and carrying of container.
b. rolling of loaded containers on their rims.
c. use of small lifts for rolling the containers to the collection
vehicle.
d. use of large containers into which wastes from small
containers are emptied.

3. Planning of Solid Waste Collection Program.

Routing system of collection

1. Micro-routing is:
- the routing of a vehicle within its assigned collection zone. -
concerned with how to route a truck through a series of one
or two way streets so that the total distance traveled is
minimized.
- very difficult to design and execute.

2. Macro-routing is:
- large scale routing to the disposal site and the establishment
of the individual route boundaries.

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Solid Waste Management

Modes of operation in solid waste collection

1. Hauled container system- The containers used for the

storage of wastes are hauled to the disposal site, emptied

and returned.
2. Stationary container system - The containers used

for the storage of waste remain at the point of generation

except for occasional short trips to the collection vehicles.

Unit operations
1. Pick-up - refers to the time spent driving to the next

container after an empty container has been deposited.

2. Haul - represents the time required to reach the disposal

site starting after a container whose contents are to be

emptied has been loaded on the truck plus the time spent
after leaving the disposal site until the truck arrives at the
location where the empty container is to be deposited.
3. At-site- refers to the time spent at the disposal site and

includes the time spent waiting to unload as well as the

time spent in loading.
4. Off-site - includes the time spent on activities that are

nonproductive from the point of view of the overall

collection system.

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Solid Waste Management

3 Frequency of solid waste collection

The frequency of collection depends on the quantity of solid
waste, time of year, socioeconomic status of the area served,
and municipal or contractor responsibility. In business
districts, refuse, including garbage from hotels and
restaurants, should be collected daily except on Sundays.

In residential areas, twice-a-week for refuse collection during

warm months of the year and once a week at other times
should be the maximum permissible interval. Slum areas
usually require at least twice-a-week collection. The
receptacle should be either emptied directly into the garbage
truck or carted away and replaced with a clean container.

Refuse transferred from can to can will cause spilling, which

results in pollution of the ground and attraction of flies. If
other than curb pickup is provided, the cost of collection will
be high.

Some property owners are willing to pay for this extra service.
Bulky wastes should be collected every 3 months.

Garbage - should be collected at least two times weekly in

residential sections in summer and winter. However, most
commercial establishments should be accorded daily collection
service throughout the year.

Rubbish - is generally collected weekly in residential areas and

daily in business sections.

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Solid Waste Management

Mixed refuse - should be collected twice daily from most

commercial concerns.

The provision of frequent collection services is important in

the prevention of fly breeding in garbage, because irregular
collections can contribute to the nuisances and hazards which
result under poor storage conditions and in chances the
amount greater than the expected requirement from
households.

4. Collection equipment
Mechanical collection systems have been developed to
reduce collection cost. The system requires use of a special
container, truck container pick-up equipment, and
replacement of the container.

From an economic point of view, such equipment are most

unlikely to be applied in Ethiopian situation.

Collection equipment that simplifies the collection of refuse

and practically eliminates cause for legitimate complaint is
available. The tight-body open truck with a canvas or metal
cover has been replaced in most instances by the automatic
loading truck with packer to compact refuse dumped in the
truck during collection, except for the collection of bulky
items. Compactiontype bodies have twice the capacity of
open trucks and a convenient loading height. Low-level
closed-body trailers to eliminate the strain of lifting cans are
also available.
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Solid Waste Management

The number and size of the collection vehicles and the

number of pickups in residential and business areas for
communities of different population will vary with location,
affluence, and other factors. The average refuse truck holds
6,000 to 8,000 kilograms.

The solid waste collection vehicle should be covered and able

to compact the refuse collected. It may load from the rear,
side, or top. The storage areas in these vehicles should be
kept relatively clean and water-tight.

5. Organization of solid waste collection program

Many cities and towns require homeowners to use certain

types of receptacles. Collectors usually pick up at the curb in
front of the dwelling. In some neighborhoods the collectors
pick up the receptacles in the backyard, as the people who
live there consider receptacles too bulky to handle and
unsightly in front of their dwellings.

Haul distance to the disposal facility must be taken into

consideration in making a cost analysis. In some highly
urbanized areas it is economical to reduce haul distance by
providing large, specially designed trailers at transfer
stations. In suburban and rural areas, container stations can
be established at central locations. These stations may
include a stationary compactor for ordinary refuse and a bin

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Solid Waste Management

for tires and bulky items. Separate bins for paper, glass, and
aluminum may also be provided.

Labor requirements for the collection of solid waste depend

on both the type of service provided and the collection
system used:

1. For hauled container system: one person, two for safety,

and a driver to drive the vehicle load and unload

containers and empty the container at the disposal site.
2. For stationary container system the labor requirement

for mechanically loaded ones are essentially the same

with hauled container system. Occasionally, a driver and
two helpers are used.

For manually loaded systems, the number of collectors may

vary from one to three, depending on the type of service and
the type of collection equipment, Curb collection needs less
persons than backyard collection, which may require a
multiperson crew.

3.5 Transfer and Transport

Transfer stations are used to collect the refuse at a central

location and to reload the wastes into a vehicle where the
cost per kilogram-kilometer ton-mile will be less for the
movement of the ultimate waste to the disposal site. Transfer
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Solid Waste Management

stations are employed when the disposal site is situated at

significant distance from the point of collection.

A transfer station can reduce the cost of transporting refuse

by reducing manpower requirement and total kilometers.
When a collection vehicle goes directly to the disposal site,
the entire crew, driver plus laborers, are idle. For a transfer
vehicle, only one driver is needed. As the distance from the
centers of solid waste generation increases, the cost of direct
haul to a site increases. Ideally, the transfer station should be
located at the center of the collection service area.

A transfer station may include stationary compactors,

recycling bins, material recovery facility, transfer containers
and trailers, transfer packer trailers, or mobile equipment.

A transfer station should be located and designed with

drainage of paved areas and adequate water hydrants for
maintenance of cleanliness and fire control and other
concerns like land scaling, weight scales, traffic, odor, dust,
litter, and noise control. Transporting vehicles could be a
modern packer truck (trailer), motor-tricycles, animal carts
(appropriate for developing countries), hand carts and
tractors.

Transfer and transport station should provide welfare

facilities for workers (lockers, toilets, showers); small stores
for brooms, shovels, cleaning materials, lubricants, parking

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Solid Waste Management

facilities for hand trucks, sweepers, refuse collectors, and

office and telephone for the district inspector.

3.6 Resource Recovery and Processing

Resource recovery is a partial solid waste disposal and

reclamation process. It can be expected to achieve about 60%
reductions in future landfill volume requirements. Resource
recovery must recognize what is worth recovering and the
environmental benefits.

Resource recovery and processing is a complex, economical

and technical system with social and political implications, all
of which require critical analysis and evaluation before a
commitment is made. They demand capital cost, operating
cost, market value of reclaimed materials and material
quality, potential minimum reliable energy sales, assured
quantity of solid wastes, continued need for a sanitary landfill
for the disposal of excess and remaining unwanted materials
and incinerator residue, a site location close to the center of
the generators of solid wastes.

Products That Can Be Recycled

1. Plastic
Plastic is not a natural material. It is synthesized from
petrochemicals to create a long, complicated chain of atoms
called polymers. Bacteria and fungi that would usually live on
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Solid Waste Management

the decaying waste of natural food, fauna, and flora cannot

digest these recovery polymers.

Instead, toxic cadmium and lead compounds used as binders

can leach out of plastics and ooze into groundwater and
surface water in unlined or failed landfills. Unfortunately,
plastic is one of the most common non-biodegradable wastes
deposited in landfills.

There are a number of plastic items that create great

decomposition problems. Among them are diapers, grocery
bags and balloons. Today only 3% of all plastic containers are
recycled.

Plastic threatens the lives of millions of marine animals who

get entangled in plastic netting. Autopsied marine animals
have revealed that their intestines were full of
nonbiodegradable plastic. Marine mammals and birds have
suffocated, strangled, and been poisoned by the plastic waste
such as can rings or balloons that have been expelled into the
oceans and into the air. Fishermen currently dump around
175,000 tons of plastic into the oceans each year. It is
thought that as many as a million sea birds and 100,000
marine mammals in the Northern Pacific Ocean die each year
from eating or becoming entangled in plastic waste.

Many more marine lives are poisoned in the Atlantic Ocean

by raw sewage, chemical waste, and pesticide waste flowing
from rivers into these water bodies.
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Solid Waste Management

2. Tires
Discarded tires pose two particular vector health threats to a
community: rats and mosquitoes. Tires create an excellent
breeding place for rats and mosquitoes, which in turn carry
diseases to humans.

An automobile tire contains about 10 liters of oil, which has

the potential to produce enough electricity to serve a small
town. Unfortunately, when tires burn in an uncontrolled
environment, they are extremely difficult to contain or
extinguish.

There are actually some tire graveyards that have been

burning for years. Although 15 million old tires are recycled
each year, the number of recycled tires is actually going down
each year as new blends of rubber and steel-belted tires
cannot use recycled tires.

3. Paper
Paper is the single most frequently seen item in most
landfills, taking up more land space. It accounts for more
than 40% of a landfill's contents. Newspapers alone may take
up as much as 13 to 30% of the space in landfills. It is not
enough to just change from paper grocery bags to recyclable
cloth bags. Garbage archeologists from the University of
Arizona have discovered that most materials buried deep in a
landfill change very little. Newspapers from the 1950s could

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Solid Waste Management

still be read in 1992. Paper in landfills does not biodegrade; it

mummifies.

Paper may be one of the most recyclable waste products. To

establish a newsprint recycling mill, it takes three to five
years and costs from $300 to $500 million to build. Can the
capital investment be recouped if there is no community plan
to market the recycled paper? If economic incentives were
given to creative entrepreneurs, more products could easily
be developed.

Techniques involved in resource recovery

1. compaction, which mechanically reduces the volume of solid

waste
2. chemical volume reduction by incineration
3. mechanical size reduction by shredding, grinding and milling

4. component separation by hand-sorting, air separation,

magnetic separation and screening

3.7 Disposal of Solid Waste

Until relatively recently, solid waste was dumped, buried, or

burned, and some of the garbage was fed to animals. The
public was not aware of the links of refuse to rats, flies,
roaches, mosquitoes, fleas, land pollution, and water
pollution. People did not know that solid waste in open
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Solid Waste Management

dumps and backyard incinerators support breeding of

diseases vectors including typhoid fever, endemic typhus
fever, yellow fever, dengue fever, malaria, cholera, and
others. Thus, the cheapest, quickest, and most convenient
means of disposing of the waste were used. Rural areas and
small towns utilized the open dump or backyard incinerator.
Larger towns and cities used municipal incinerators. Later,
land filling became the method of choice for disposing of solid
waste.

In solid waste management, disposal is one of basic programs

that has to be done with maximum precautions. If it is not
done effectively and efficiently, the whole program will not
be satisfactory.

Strictly speaking the task of solid wastes disposal is normally

handled by municipal, city or town authorities, if such service
exists.

Disposal of solid waste has to be accomplished without the

creation of nuisance and health hazards in order to fulfill the
objectives of solid waste management program. These are: -
improvement of esthetic appearance of the environment -
avoidance of smells and unsightliness.

- reduction of disease by curtailing fly and rodent breeding

- prevention of humans and stray dogs from scavenging

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Solid Waste Management

In disposal of solids wastes, it is recommended that the following

be done to avoid any risks:

1. The disposal site should be 30 meters from water sources in

order to prevent possible contamination

2. Radioactive materials and explosives should not be together.

3. The site should be fenced to keep way scavengers.

4. All surfaces of the dump should be covered.
5. All wastes should be dumped in layers and compacted.
6. The disposal site should be about 500 meters from residential

areas.
Generally there are several methods of solid waste disposal that
can be utilized. These methods are:

1. Ordinary open dumping

2. Controlled tipping/burial
3. Hog feeding
4. Incineration
5. Sanitary landfill
6. Composting
7. Grinding and discharge into sewer
8. Recycling
9. Dumping into water bodies
10. Disposal of corpses

1. Open Dumping
Some components of solid waste such as street sweepings,
ashes and non combustible rubbish are suitable for open
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Solid Waste Management

dumping. Garbage and any other mixed solid wastes are not
fit or suitable because of nuisance and health hazard
creation. Generally, solid waste is spread over a large area,
providing sources of food and shelter for flies, rats and other
vermin. It causes unsightly odor and smoke, nuisance and
hazards. Carefully selected rubbish must be disposed in order
to prevent fire accidents that might occur. The location of
open dumping must be carefully chosen so that there will be
a minimum chance of complaints from nearby residents.

Advantages of open dumping

1. It can take care of all types of solid wastes except garbage.
2. It causes less health problems if proper site is selected.
3. It needs less labor and supervision.

Disadvantage of open dumping

1. It attracts flies, mosquitoes and other insects as well as stray

dogs, rats, and other animals.

2. It creates breeding sites for rodents, arthropods and other

vermin.
3. It creates of smoke, odor and nuisance.
4. It makes the lands and other surrounding areas useless.
5. It leads to cuts and wounds.
6. It attracts scavengers, both humans and animals.

The following points should be kept in mind and must be

considered before selection and locating sites for open
dumping:
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Solid Waste Management

1. Sources of water supply and distance from it

2. Direction of wind
3. Distance from nearest residents, nearby farm areas and main

land
4. Distance that flies can travel from disposal site to living

quarters as well as the distance that the rodents can travel

from disposal areas and living quarters.

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Solid Waste Management

Negligence to these and some other factors would lead

unforeseen health problems; if at all this method is selected.

Figure 3. Uncontrolled solid waste disposal. (Source: Sandra J. Cointreau:

Environmental Management Of Urban Solid Wastes in Developing Countries.)

2. Controlled tipping/burial

Indiscriminate dumping of garbage and rubbish creates

favorable conditions for fly-breeding, shelter and food for
rodents, nuisances etc. In order to avoid such problems,
garbage and rubbish should be disposed of under sanitary
conditions.

One of the simpler and cheaper methods is burning garbage

and rubbish under controlled conditions. Controlled or
engineered burial is known as Controlled Tipping or Sanitary
Solid Waste Management

45

Landfill System. In places where there is no organized service,

this system can be done by digging shallow trenches, laying
down the generated waste in an orderly manner, compacting
the waste manually or mechanically, and covering with
adequate depth of earth or ash at the end of each day’s work.
The process is repeated each day systematically at
appropriate locations. If properly done, this system can
prevent fly-breeding, rodent shelter, mosquito-breeding and
nuisances. It can be applied in areas where appropriate land
is available for such practice. This system can be considered
an adaptation of what is technically called the sanitary landfill
system in municipal solid wastes management service.

Principally it consists of the following steps:

a. Choosing a suitable site, usually wasteland, to be

reclaimed within reasonable distance from habitation.

b. Transporting the generated wastes to the site by

appropriately designed vehicles.

c. Laying the wastes in appropriate heap to a pre-
determined height.
d. Compacting the layer mechanically.
e. Covering the compacted layer with a thin layer of earth

22 cm depth at the end of each work day. The same steps

are repeated for each work period.

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Solid Waste Management

3. Hog Feeding
The feeding of garbage to hogs has been practiced for many
years in different parts of the world. But there is surprising
high incidence of trichinosis among hogs which are fed with
uncooked garbage.

Consumption of insufficiently cooked meat from hogs is

believed to be the main source of trichinosis. Hogs which are
fed on garbage containing hogs' scraps and slaughter-house
offal are very likely to be infected. Also rats living around the
slaughter-house are infected and there is the possibility that
hogs eats dead rats.

The Trichinosis worm is easily killed only at a temperature of

580 C. So pork should be cooked until this temperature is
obtained. Refrigeration at -350C for a period of 30 days will
also kill the larva.

Pickling, salting and smoking also kill the larva when done
thoroughly. Garbage feeding is profitable if properly handled
by farmers and if they are willing to collect it themselves.
They should collect it daily and furnish clean cans. While
garbage is the most potential valuable element or component
of solid waste, it is the most difficult to handle in a sanitary
manner and is responsible for the majority of nuisances and
health hazards associated with the disease. To use garbage
for hog feeding, it has to be cooked at a temperature of 100 0
C for 30 minutes just to be on safe side. Cooking the garbage
before hog feeding will not reduce the food value.

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Solid Waste Management

4. Incineration
Incineration is a process of burning the combustible
components of garbage and refuse. Disposal of solid waste by
incineration can be effectively carried out on a small scale in
food service establishments as well as in institutions such as
hospitals, schools etc.

The disadvantage of this method is that only combustible

materials are incinerated, hence there is a need for
separation of the waste into combustible and non-
combustible. The noncombustible waste needs separate
disposal. Generally there are two types of incinerators, the
open and the closed systems.

In the open system the refuse is incinerated in a chamber

open to the air; while the closed system contains a special
chamber designed with various parts to facilitate
incineration. It requires a chimney of appropriate height to
provide a good flow of air through the combustion chamber.
There are varieties of designs for small scale incinerators. A
typical example of design is shown in Figure 4. The size can be
varied depending on the volume of the refuse to be
incinerated.

- The combustion chamber is laid with iron grids, at the

bottom of which are air inlets in front and at the back.
- The front and back walls are with provision for installing a
chimney.
- The feeding door has a baffle wall to facilitate refuse
feeding.

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Solid Waste Management

- The base below the combustion chamber is for collecting.

On-site Incineration
This term applies to incineration of refuse at home, office,
apartment house, commercial building, hospital or industrial
site. Refuse collection and disposal could be reduced
satisfactorily by using on-site incineration. Generally,
airpollution can be expected.

Advantages of an incinerator
1. Less land is required for landfills
2. A central location is possible, allowing short hauling for

the collection service.

3. Ash and other residue produced are free of organic

matter, nuisance- free, and acceptable as fill material.

4. Many kinds of refuse can be burned. Even
noncombustible materials will be reduced in bulk.
5. Climate or unusual weather does not affect it.
6. Flexibility is possible - no restriction for its operation.
7. Getting income through the sale of waste heat for steam

or power is possible.

Disadvantages of an incinerator
1. Initial cost is high during construction.
2. Operating cost is relatively high.
3. Skilled employees are required for operation and

maintenance.

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Solid Waste Management

4. There may be difficulty in getting a site.

Figure 4. Single chambers onsite Incinerator (Source: Gabre-Emanuel Teka (1997): Solid Waste Disposal From Food Premise, In
Food Hygiene.)

An example of this type is commonly seen in some

institutions in Ethiopia. A typical design consists of the
following dimensions: width = 110 cm; length =110cm; height
in front = 135cm; height at back =150cm. Concrete base
(chamber)= 60cm by 75cm by 10cm; top fueling door = 60cm
by 60cm square, with thickness 5cm. With proper
management and little fuel the incinerator can effectively
burn dry as well as wet materials.

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Solid Waste Management

5. Sanitary Landfill
One of the most widely used means of solid waste disposal is
the sanitary landfill. A properly operated sanitary landfill
eliminates insects, rodents, safety hazards, fire hazards, and
other problems that exist in open dumping.

Sanitary landfill is an effective and proven method for a

permanent disposal of refuses. The sanitary landfill method
can be used in any community where sufficient suitable land
is available. It is especially suitable for cities of less than
100,000 people because sufficient land is more likely to be
available in these areas.

The sanitary landfill method of solid waste disposal consists

basically of four steps:

1. depositing of refuse in planned and controlled manner

2. compacting the refuse in thin layer to reduce its volume
3. covering the refuse with a layer of earth
4. compacting the earth cover

The sanitary landfill, in most cases, has proved to be the

answer for safe and economical solid waste disposal. Refuse
should be well compacted in 1.8 to 3.7 meter layers. The fill
should not exceed more than 1.8 to 2.4 meter in depth and
each day's accumulation of refuse should be sealed with 0.6
meter of cover, and the entire fill finally sealed with 0.67
meter of soil.

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Solid Waste Management

A. Site selection for sanitary landfills

The location of sanitary landfill should be based on:
1. distance from the sources of waste so that the hauling

distance not too great.

2. availability of suitable access roads and bridges.
3. type of soil for seal (covering) - sand or soil is the most

desirable. Avoid rock and clay soil.

4. avoid contact to the water table in order to prevent

water contamination.
5. avoid main traffic arteries by trucks.
6. no obstruction of normal drainage channels.
7. avoid areas subjected to flooding.
8. available land areas.
9. impact of processing and resource recovery.

10. soil condition and topography

11. geologic and hydrologic condition
12. surface water hydrology
13. local environmental condition
14. local climatic condition

Final selection of a disposal site usually is based on the result

of:

• preliminary study
• engineering design

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Solid Waste Management

• cost situations
• environmental impact assessment

B. Location of sanitary landfills

1. 30 meter from all property lines
2. 152 meter from all residences
3. 152 meter from all wells determined to be down gradient

and used as a source of drinking water by humans or

livestock
4. 61 meter from normal boundaries of springs, lakes, and

other bodies of water

C. Method of sanitary landfill construction Basically,

there are two methods and the choice will be made according
to the surrounding land available.

1. Area method
The area method is a method where solid waste is dumped,
spread, compacted and covered with covering materials.
Enough cover should be excavated to provide a 1.8 meter
layer daily and a final layer of 7.3 meter, compacted well to
eliminate breeding by rodents, flies and other vermin.

2. Trench method
Trench method is used when level ground is available. There
are three variations of trench method. These are:

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Solid Waste Management

A. Single progressive trench

The trench is dug for one day's solid waste, and cover
material is obtained by further trenching.

B. Single trench
One single trench is dug. Excavated material is placed on both
sides for use as a cover.

C. Dual trench
One trench is excavated on the length of the site and refuse is
dumped into it. Cover materials come from parallel trench
excavated two or more meters from the first trench
depending on the soil formation.

Trench method operation

a. Dig the trench on the windward side and ramp on the

wind ward side of the trench to reduce blowing of papers.

b. The average trench depth is about 2.4 meters to include

cover, but may be dug deep (1.8 meter to 3 meter) if the

soil is loose and land is scarce.
The trench is usually twice the track width but may be wider,
to permit two or more trucks dumping at once.

2. Compaction of sanitary landfills

The objectives of compaction in the trench method are to:

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Solid Waste Management

1. reduce settlement problem

2. prevent fire
3. eliminate odor
4. kill flies
5. conserve trench space
6. provide a solid field for truck travel and future use

Methods to obtain the best compaction:

1. Spread refuse thin, and mix garbage with refuse.
2. Hard materials from old furniture leftover, building

materials and other bulky materials should be buried

deep to eliminate rat shelters.

3. Increase the cover of refuse when the fill is complete (7.3

meter) and daily base 1.8 meter.

4. After the compaction and the fill is established,

continuous maintenance program should be carried out

to ensure repair crack, erosions and depressions of the
surface and side slope.
5. The final level of the fill should be half to one percent

slope to allow adequate drainage.

6. Much steeper than a 1% slope should be avoided because

it encourages erosion.

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Solid Waste Management

Remarks:
1. A separate trench or pit may be desirable for disposal
of small dead animals, spoiled food stuffs and other large
quantities of untraceable materials.
2. Generally, the rate of decomposition of refuse in a
landfill prevents the reuse of the same location for many
years. In some areas, decomposition of materials is a
achieved after a period of 10 to 15 years, although there are
reports of reuse of landfills after a period of about 30 years
without insect or odor nuisance.

3. Characteristics of Sanitary Landfills

If the refuse is buried chemical, physical and biological
changes occur in about 4 days. After burial about 0.9 meters
below the surface, the temperature rises to 54-66 0C within
60 days. After 10 months, this temperature falls to normal air
temperature. Within 12 months, most of the final settlement
occurs. By the end of 2 years, most fills complete the
settlement process.

Among the reactions, the most important are:

• biological decay of organic, putrescible material
aerobically or anaerobically with evolution of gases that
include air,
NH3, CO2, CO, H2, H2S, CH4, and N2 and liquids
• chemical oxidation of materials

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Solid Waste Management

• the escape of gases from the fill and lateral diffusion of

gases through the fill
• the dissolving and leaching of organic and inorganic
materials by water and leachate moving through the fill
• the movement of dissolved material by osmotic pressure
and concentration gradient
• the uneven settlement caused by consolidation

The decomposition and stabilization in landfill depend on:

• compaction of the waste
• degree of compaction
• amount of moisture present
• presence of inhibiting materials
• rate of water movement
• temperature

4. Landfill Operation Site Layout

In planning the layout of a sanitary landfill site, the location of
fill must be determined by:

a. access roads
b. equipment shelters
c. scales to weigh wastes, as needed
d. storage site for special wastes
e. top soil stockpile sites
f. landfill area and extension

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 Solid Waste Management

A. Operation schedule
• arrival sequence for collection vehicles
• traffic patterns at the site
• time sequence to be followed in the filling operation
• effects of wind and other climatic conditions
• commercial and public access

B. Equipment requirement
The type, size and amount of equipment required for sanitary
landfill will be governed by size of community served, the
nature of site selected, the size of the landfill and the
methods of operation.

The types of equipment that have been used at sanitary

landfill include:

1. crawler 2. scrapers
3. compactors 4. water trucks
C. Personnel
If there is advanced mechanical equipment without the
facilities for a sanitary landfill serving less than 10,000
persons, the equipment operator would be the only person
employed at the site.

On large scale operations, it is desirable to employ a

supervisor. In this case, the supervisor should be able to
operate the equipment in order to replace the employed
operator in case of absence.

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Solid Waste Management

D. Accessory Facilities
In addition to the equipment and personnel indicated above,
certain facilities are required at the site. These are:

1. shade or shelter for equipment and personnel

2. rest room facilities
3. signs to direct trucks
4. portable or semi portable fencing
5. scale for weighing of trucks
6. hand sprayer for insecticide application
7. portable pump for removal of accumulated surface water

5. Uses of fill lands

Sanitary landfills can be used to improve eroded areas,
marshy and other marginal lands. After settling, such lands
could be used as parks, golf/sport fields, other recreational
areas, and sometimes for airports, parking lots and small
construction sites, etc.

6. Leachate in landfills
Leachate may be defined as liquid that has percolated
through solid waste and has extracted dissolved and
suspended materials from it. In most landfills, a portion of the
leachate is composed of the liquid produced from the
decomposition of the wastes and liquid that has entered the
landfill from external sources, such as surface drainage,
rainfall, ground water and water from ground sprays.

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Solid Waste Management

In general, it has been found that the leachate increases with

the increase of the external water entering the landfills. If a
landfill is constructed properly, the production of measurable
quantities of leachate can be eliminated. When sewage
sludge is to be added to increase Methane gas production,
leachate control facilities must be provided.

Advantages of sanitary landfill

1. It is a relatively economical and acceptable method.
2. Initial investment is low compared to other proven
methods.
3. The system is flexible; it can accommodate increases in

the population.
4. It may result in low collection cost, as it permits

continued collection of refuse. All types of refuse may be

disposed of.
5. The site may be located close to or in populated areas,

thus reducing the hauling cost of collection.

6. It enables the reclaiming of depression and sub-marginal

lands for use and benefits of the community.

7. Completed landfill areas can be used for agricultural and

other purposes.
8. Unsightliness, health hazards and the nuisance of open

dumping can be eliminated.

9. It may be quickly established.

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Solid Waste Management

10. Several disposal sites may be used simultaneously.

Disadvantages of Sanitary Landfills:

1. Sometimes suitable land within economical hauling

distance may not be available.

2. Relatively large areas of land are required due to slow

decomposition of refuse.
3. An adequate supply of good earth cover may not be

readily accessible.
4. If not properly located, seepage from landfills into

streams may increase the chance for stream pollution.

5. It needs careful and continuous supervision by skilled

personnel.
6. If not properly done, it can deteriorate into open
dumping.
(ordinary dumping)
7. Special equipment is required.

Sanitary landfills Incinerators

Low initial cost High initial cost
May change locations Fixed location
Low operational cost Variable, may cost much money

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Solid Waste Management

Complete and final Ash, cans, bottles, etc. disposed

disposal for all refuses of separately
Needs large land area Does not need large land area

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Solid Waste Management

Comparison of Landfills versus Incinerator

6.
Composting

Composting is an effective method of solid waste disposal. In

composting, biodegradable materials break down through
natural processes and produce humus. The metabolism of
micro-organisms breaks down the waste aerobically or
anaerobically.

Materials that are non- biodegradable must be separated from

the degradable materials and disposed of in some other manner.
Some common non biodegradable materials are glass, plastics,
rubber products, and metals. Once non-
biodegradable materials have been removed and only
biodegradable waste has been established, it is brought to a

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Solid Waste Management

grinder. Grinding increases the surface area of the waste and

enhances biological degradation.

Most modern compost systems are aerobic rather than

anaerobic for several reasons:

1. Aerobic processes are not accompanied by the foul

stench present at an unsealed anaerobic composting

operation
2. In crop production industries, composting is safer

because temperatures do not reach that of pasteurization

temperatures which exceed the thermal death point of
most plants, animals and parasites.
3. Aerobic composting is more rapid than anaerobic

composting.

An aerobic compost operation ideally is an optimal

environment for the growth of aerobic organisms. The
material to be composted is food. Therefore the “food”
should have a carbon:nitrogen ratio favorable for
decomposition. The microbes require a C: N of 25:1 to 30:1. If
the C: N is too low (120:1), the ammonium compounds will
volatilize into the air, causing an unpleasant odor. Various
groups of organisms have different optimum temperatures
(some prefer 25 0c, some 37 0c, and others 55 0c), though the
optimal temperature for a process as a whole integrates the
optimums of the various microbes.

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Solid Waste Management

The pH of aerobic composting varies depending on the

organisms’ need for oxygen. Aeration is important and is
provided by turning the compost mechanically to expose it to
oxygen to speed decomposition.

Microbes must have moisture, and such is the case in

composting. The amount of moisture needed varies with the
composition of the material being composted. The moisture
content should be approximately 45% to 50%. If the moisture
is too low, microbial activity slows, and biological activity
ceases at a moisture content of about 12%. If the moisture
content is too high, it reduces the amount of free oxygen
present and slows the process so that it may become
anaerobic. Many times, sludge is added to waste for
composting to provide microbial food and trace elements.

A. Types of Composting
The three main types of composting are: windrow, static pile,
and in-vessel.

1. Windrow: A sludge/refuse mixture configured in long

rows (windrows) that are aerated by convection air

movement and diffusion, or by turning periodically
through mechanical means to expose the organic matter
to ambient oxygen.

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Solid Waste Management

2. Static pile: A stationary mixture is aerated by a forced

aeration system installed under the pile.

3. In-vessel composting: Composting takes place in

enclosed containers in which environmental conditions

can be controlled. The waste decomposes into a harmless
organic material that can be used as a soil conditioner
and enhancer for agricultural applications.

B. Operation Steps in Composting

1. Removal of non-compostable wastes, (i.e. cans, glasses).
2. Grinding and shredding
- Helps to speed up bacterial action.
- Raw refuse is shredded before placed in piles, bins
and digested before decomposition.
3. Blenching or proportioning of materials
- This is also to speed up the bacterial action.
- The optimum carbon nitrogen has to be 30 - 35:1
- Generally blending is considered to be unnecessary if
the ratio is 25 - 30:1
- The optimum moisture content for aerobic
composting is 40 - 60% depending on the character of
the material.
4. Placement for composting - It can be placed on ground as

open piles or windrows in a shallow pit. Height of

windrows or piles should not be greater than 1.5 meter to

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Solid Waste Management

1.8 meter and not less than 1.07 meter to 1.2 meter.
Width at the bottom of the windrow is 2.44 meter to 3.6
meters.
5. Turning - An aerobic condition is maintained by frequent

turning. If the moisture content is high, it requires turning

every 2 -3 days.
6. Temperature - It is an important factor and should range

5070 0 C; usually 600C is satisfactory. Temperature will

be the highest in the middle of pile or windrow. Excessive
temperature (710C) is injurious to bacterial action.
Excessive temperature is controlled by lowering the
height of piles or windrows. If the area is cool, raise the
height in order to maintain optimum temperature. If
temperatures drop, the condition will be anaerobic.

C. Factors in Composting Operation

The most important factors in composting operations are:
1. segregation of refuse and salvage
2. grinding or shredding of the material
3. carbon-nitrogen ratio
4. blending or proportioning of wastes
5. moisture content
6. placement of materials in the composting pit
7. maintain temperature level to obtain rapid, nuisance-free

decomposition

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Solid Waste Management

8. aeration to reduce high moisture content in composting

materials
9. organisms involved
10. use of inoculate
11. physical or chemical reaction
12. climatic conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall)
13. destruction of pathogenic organisms
14. time required for composting
15. fly control
16. reclamation of nitrogen and other nutrients
17. testing and judging the condition of compost
18. quality of composts, which depends on nature of the

material being composted

19. economic aspects of composting

The final product of composting is compost - a mixture

composed mainly of decayed organic matter, used as a fertilizer.

D. Uses and Constraints

Compost improves soil moisture retention. It is a good soil
conditioner.

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Solid Waste Management

Compost, depending on the waste source and its

composition, may be used as a soil amendment for
agricultural soil and landscaping in municipal parks.

The two most important purposes for composting organic

wastes are:

a. reclamation or conservation of the nutrient and fertilizer

values of the waste

b. sanitary treatment and disposal to prevent the spread of

disease.

Compost is a brown material, the main constituents of which

are humus. It has the following physical properties when
applied to the soil:

• the lightening of heavy soil

• improvement of the texture of light sandy soil
• increased water retention
• enlarging root systems of plants

Compost may also be used as a landfill cover, land

reclamation, animal litter, and possibly animal feed. It may
also be used as an additive to fertilizer as fuel, or in building
materials.

The presence of toxic levels of pesticides, heavy metals, and

pathogens should be determined and evaluated to ensure

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Solid Waste Management

that the levels are compatible to the intended use of the

compost.

The total composting time is determined by the material,

process used, and exposure to the elements. Two weeks to as
much as 18 months may be required for complete
stabilization. For pathogen reduction purposes, the
temperature of the mixture must be not less than 55 0C for at
least 3 consecutive days.

E. Moisture Content of the Compost

• Moisture content is a critical factor in aerobic
composting.
• If water content falls below 40% the speed of the process
declines.
• If it falls below about 20% decomposition ceases.
• If it exceeds 55% water begins to fill the interstices
between the particles of wastes, reducing interstitial
oxygen and causing anaerobic conditions. This results in a
rapid fall in temperature and the production of offensive
odors.

F. Character and Value of the Compost

Compost material is stable. It may undergo little or no further
decomposition. It has a slightly musty or earthy odor.
Colorwise, it must be grayish or blackish. Its value is to serve

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Solid Waste Management

as soil conditioner, lightness to the soil, promotes aeration

and helps retain moisture by adding humus.

G. Health Importance
• Compost presents no health hazards.
• The heat produced will kill pathogenic bacteria and eggs
of parasites.
• When composting is processed, fly breeding can be
expected due to the mere fact it is done in a slightly open
condition.

H. Compost Pit
It can be designed for individual houses or institutions. It is the
easiest method of solid waste management system, if it is well
managed. It is the most ideal method of dealing with wastes in
homes and institutions like schools.

Waste is normally deposited in the pit and covered within 24

hours with a thin layer of earth. When it is full, it is left for
bacteria to act upon it, which decomposes leaving humus
that can be used as soil conditioner in farms. To be
economical, operating a twin pit is the best, as when one fills
the other one is used as a component of the first humus.

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Solid Waste Management

Table 4. The ideal size of compost pit for

home and institutions.
Parameter Home Institution
Length 4 meters 6 meters
Width 3 meters 4 meters
Depth 1 meter 1 meter
Volume 12 meter cube 24 meter cube

7. Grinding and Discharge into Sewer Lines Following

are the methods for the disposal of garbage into sewers:

1. Household grinders
They contribute no difficulties in sewer collection systems. Of
course it may lead to an increase of solids in sewage
treatment plants.

2. Municipal grinding stations

The location of central grinding stations at convenient points
along the sewer system or at the sewage treatment plant is
required. It requires the separation of garbage from the
refuse by households prior to collection to the disposal areas.
Central grinding stations should not be objectionable
although care should be taken to provide treatment of odor
that arises from the accumulated garbage. If at all garbage of
all contributing population is discharged into sewer lines,
there will be an increase of suspended solids to 50% or less.
The water consumption with grinders will be about four liters
per capita per day.

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Solid Waste Management

8. Recycling
One of the economically feasible and environmentally sound
technologies of disposing of solid waste is the recycling
method. Recycling can be defined as the process of
converting unwanted waste into useful material for re-use. In
the recycling method, wastes generated are sorted out into
their constituent parts, and then they are recycled into new
useful materials.

The recycled goods must be weighed against the additional

costs required for organization systems. For example, waste
foodstuff and other organic waste can be composted into
fertilizer, or processed into animal feeds. Paper, cardboard,
glass, metals, rags and other commercial wastes are principal
elements of refuse having marketable value from time to
time. Even though markets are subject to wide fluctuation,
if clean paper can be reclaimed, it can be reused in
manufacturing cardboard. Glass has some value, especially if
they can be hand sorted according to size and color. The
same thing is true for salvageable cloths, leather pieces,
wooden materials, cardboard and cartons.

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Solid Waste Management

Figure 5. Recycling by Municipal refuse workers and private pickers at dump

9. Dumping
into Water
sites during unloading of collection equipment (Source: Sandra J. Cointreau:
Bodies
Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in Developing Countries)

The dumping of solid waste into water bodies such as

streams, rivers, lakes, seas, and oceans was once one of the
means of disposal. This is still practiced in some cities and
towns located on banks of rivers or seashores, even though it
can be ineffective due to the washing of the wastes to the
shores and interference of sanitation of the bathing area.

Such a disposal method would be effective if the risk to

marine life is taken into consideration and direction of wind
blow observed before dumping.

10. Disposal of Dead Bodies

There are putrification methods that can be practiced in
relation to disposal of dead bodies.

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Solid Waste Management

1. Embalming
This delays the decay process of dead bodies by injection of
preservatives.

2. Cremating
Burning of dead bodies is practiced in certain religions. It is
considered to be the best and most sanitary method. In
addition, it helps in conservation of land. It is cheap as far as
cost is concerned. It is not an acceptable method culturally in
Ethiopia.

3. Disposal into water bodies.

This method is usually practiced by travelers in sea water
such as fishermen and naval forces.

4. Ground Burial
This is the most common, old and traditional method
practiced in areas where there is no digging or land problem.
The minimum depth for such a method is 2 meters. Burial pits
should not be used for subsequent burials; new pits should
be dug as needed.

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 Solid Waste Management

Review Questions

1. What problems of waste disposal have been created due

to urbanization and industrialization?

2. What are the primary risks to human health associated
with
solid waste dumping?
3. If you could design a recycling program for your community,
what would be the primary components?
4. What would be the personal, political, and social factors
associated with changing behavior of others in terms of
solid waste disposal?
5. How do you recycle, reuse and reduce solid waste in your
community?
6. What are the common solid waste disposal methods that
are practiced in your community, college or university?

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Solid Waste Management

CHAPTER FOUR

HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT

4.1 Learning Objectives

By the end of this chapter, the students will be able to:
1. define hazardous waste.
2. discuss the characteristics of hazardous waste.
3. explain basic control measures for the
movement of hazardous wastes.
4. describe disposal methods for hazardous
wastes.
5. define health-care institution waste.
6. list the major characteristics of health-care
institution waste.
7. list the public health importance of health-care

institution waste.
8. describe the treatment and disposal methods

for healthcare institution waste.

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 Solid Waste Management

4.2. Introduction

The concern towards hazardous waste management was

stimulated by undesired massive health effects that were
noticed in the neighborhood of Niagara Falls in New York
State in the United States in the 1970s. Following is a brief
history:

1. The Hooker Electrochemical Manufacturing Company

bought an abandoned canal called Love Canal (named

after the landowner) in 1940.
2. The Company had completed all necessary legal
transactions for the permission for dumping toxic wastes
arising from the manufacturing of chemicals by 1942.
3. Hooker sold the canal for $1 to the Board of Education in

1953 after dumping about 19,000 tons of chemical wastes

contained in metallic drums (55 gallon capacity). Hooker
had repeatedly given a written testimony to the Board
that the Canal had toxic wastes that would cause health
effects if their content were disturbed and exposed to
people. The Hooker Company had also declared that it
would not take any risks arising from such exposure.
4. Various federal agencies continued to dump additional

toxic chemicals in the Canal. The overall cumulative

wastes meanwhile grew to 200,000 tons from 82

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Solid Waste Management

different chemicals. Health effects from some chemicals

wastes were known: benzene (leukemia and anaemia),
chloroform (also carcinogenic), trichloroethylene (toxic to
CNS), lindane (CNS, GI tract poison), and many other
chemicals.
5. The City of Niagara Falls began to be constructed in 1957.

The Board of Education also constructed elementary

schools and playgrounds in the vicinity of Love Canal. The
dump site of Love Canal was heavily disturbed for the
construction of homes, basements, and underground
sewerage systems.
6. People around the Love Canal complained of bad unusual

odour coming from the Love Canal in 1976. Heavy rain

occurred in 1977 that washed the toxic waste into
underground water level. The storm water also
contaminated the surface area of the buildings, homes,
playgrounds.
7. Unusual increased numbers of miscarriages, nerve

damage, deformities in newborns, cancer rates, rectal

bleedings, skin lesions, epilepsy, etc, were observed
among the residents in the Love Canal starting in 1976.
8. The cause of the health crisis was identified to be

leakages from the toxic waste drums. There were sharp

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Solid Waste Management

dialogues between politicians and scientists about the

incident.
9. President Carter declared a State of Emergency in the

Love Canal in 1976. $37 million were spent for the

relocation of families, schools, etc.
10. The Government adopted two strict hazardous waste

management regulations in 1976 and 1980.

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Solid Waste Management

4.3 The Concern about Hazardous Waste

Management
1. cause of mass life and material damage and
loss
(disability, death, fire, explosion);
2. cause of environmental damages: potential

water, solid, and air pollution (underground

and surface drinking water);
3. cause of potential increased chemical
bioaccumulation that is hard for
biodegradability (chlorine containing
chemicals);
4. cause of long term irreversible health risks

(mutagenicity, teratogenicity, and

carcinogenicity)
5. high concern of trans-boundary movement of
toxic wastes;
6. cause of massive toxic health damages.

4.4 Characteristics of Hazardous Waste

The Environmental Protection Agency of America (EPA)

defines the characteristics of hazardous waste as:

solvent washes, waste oil, alcohols, aldehydes, paint wastes,

petroleum wastes, cleaning solvents, etc. Flash point of a
liquid is the lowest temperature at which it gives off enough
vapour to form an ignitable mixture with the air in its surface.

2. Corrosivity
It is the ability of the waste to cause skin and mucosal
membrane damages: burns and erosions, and dissolves or
corrodes metallic surfaces. Such wastes have pH value of:
2.5<pH>12.5 at normal room temperatures (25 0C). The
corrosion rate for material damage is at 0.625 meters per
year at 550C. Examples: acid sludge, battery acid wastes,
caustic waste water, alkaline cleaning wastes, rust remover
waste, etc.

3. Reactivity
A waste that reacts violently with water with the formation of
toxic fumes, gases, or aerosols (Strong acids and HCN when
mixed with water); and explodes when mixed with water.
Such incidents can also occur when the waste is mixed with
other chemicals producing the same effect. Wastes
containing unstable chemicals are also in this category.
Examples: Cyanide plating wastes, wastes containing strong
oxidizers such as chlorine, ozone, peroxides, permanganates,
HCl, etc.

4. Toxicity
Solid Waste Management

A waste that is likely to produce mass acute and chronic

poisoning; long-term health effects (mutagenicity,
teratogenicity, carcinogenicity). The following guideline can
be used for determining whether acute and chronic toxicity
may occur: if a waste contains an amount greater than ten
times its standard in drinking water, or a hundred times more
than in its standard in drinking water, or a hundred times
more than in its standard for water used for recreational
purposes.

5. Infectivity
A waste with a potential cause for infectious diseases, such as
hepatitis B. Example: medical wastes containing microbial
cultures, pathological wastes, contaminated human blood
and its products, sharps, skin-piercing objects, contaminated
animal wastes, contaminated exudates and secretions.
6. Radioactivity
Wastes containing radioactive elements. Such wastes are
mainly from biomedical training and research institutes.
Wastes may include radioactive elements of uranium,
molybdenum, cobalt, iodine.

7. Bioaccumulation effect
Wastes that are not easily degraded when exposed with the
environment. Examples: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
dioxin.

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Solid Waste Management

4.5. List of Hazardous Chemicals

The following hazardous chemicals selected as require priority

consideration:
1.Arsenic and its compounds 2) Mercury and its compounds; 3)
Cadmium and its compounds; 4) Thallium and its compounds
5) Beryllium and its compounds 6) Chromium (VI) compounds;
7) Lead and its compounds; 8) Phenolic compounds; 9)
Antimony and its compounds; 10) Cyanide compounds; 11)
Isocyanates; 12) Organohalogenated compounds except inert
polymeric materials; 13) Chlorinated solvents; 14) Organic
solvents; 15) Biocides and phytopharmaceutical substances;
16) Tarry materials from refining and tar residues from
distilling; 17) Pharmaceutical compounds; 18) Peroxides,
chlorates, perchlorates, and azides 19) Ethers; 20) Chemical
laboratory materials, not identifiable and/or new, with
unknown effects on the environment; 21) Asbestos 22)
Selenium and compounds 23) Tellurium and compounds 24)
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 25) Metal carbonyls 26)
Soluble copper compounds 27) Acids and/or basic substances
used in the surface treatment and finishing of metals.

4.6. Transportation and Disposal of Hazardous

Waste
The transportation of hazardous waste can pose a threat to
the public. To promote safety and protect the public's health,
companies follow four basic control measures for the
movement of hazardous waste from a source to disposal site;

1. Hazardous waste manifest:

The concept of a cradle-to-grave tracking system is
considered key to proper management of hazardous waste.
Manifest copies accompany each barrel of waste that leaves
the site where it is generated, and are signed and mailed to

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 Solid Waste Management

the receiving sites to indicate the transfer of waste from one

location to another.

2. Labeling:
Each container is labeled and marked. The transporting
vehicle is labelled before waste is transported from the
generating site. Companies post warning labels such as:
explosive, strong oxidizer, compressed gas, flammable liquid,
corrosive material, and poisonous or toxic substances.
3. Haulers:
Because of the dangers involved, haulers of hazardous waste
are subject to operator training, insurance coverage, and

85

special registration of vehicles transporting hazardous waste.

Handling precautions include restrictive use of the transport
trucks and the use of gloves, face masks, and coveralls for the
workers' protection.

4. Incident and accident reporting:

Accidents involving hazardous waste must be reported
immediately to the state regulatory agency, as well as local
health departments. Necessary information that will help
responders contains the material that should be made
available.

4.7. Control of Hazardous Waste

1. Whom or what to control?

Solid Waste Management
 Solid Waste Management
2.
How do you classify whether the waste is
hazardous or not?
- Use the defined list of criteria.
- Identify the components of the waste.
- Review literature about the inherent characteristics of
components of the waste. For example, various WHO
documents include: toxic substances registry,
environmental health criteria, international chemical safety
program documentation, etc.

3. Control approaches
a) Waste management hierarchy includes: source reduction >

waste avoidance>waste minimization>waste recycling >

waste treatment>waste disposal. The approach is based
on resource use maximization (efficiency) and cost
effectiveness.

Waste Minimization Program

Source reduction Waste Recycling
• Technological • Direct use
efficiency • Reclamation
• Material substitute
• Good management
practice

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b) Government and Public Involvement
Solid Waste Management

• The national and regional governments need to adopt

waste management guidelines and regulations. Allocation
of adequate resources is also desired.
• The public and the community need to be involved in the
waste management hierarchy.
• Public education is important.
• The UN agencies; (WHO, UNIDO, and UNEP) involvement
in the adoption of National Waste Management Program
and control of transboundary movement of wastes should
be appreciated and acknowledged.

4. Hazardous Waste Treatment

Different technical options and alternative methods can be
employed for the treatment. The end result needs to focus on
making the waste non-harmful or less hazardous, reduce its
volume and texture, separate for re-use, and isolate it for final
disposal.

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Solid Waste Management

D. Thermal methods: incineration, boiling, autoclaving, UV

treatment, microwave use, etc.

5. Hazardous Waste Disposal:

The hazardous waste, after treatment, can be ultimately
disposed using the following methods:

a) Land farming: the treated waste can be used as a

fertilizer or soil conditioner with the approval of

concerned
regulatory entities;
b) Deep well injection: a special kind of drilled well is

prepared for such purposes. Brine (40% salt solution) is

usually disposed in this manner. Precautions for water
pollution need to be a concern.
c) Surface impediment: encapsulation, fixation, or
containment of the waste. This method involves arresting
or demobilizing the movement or migration of the waste
by containing it in a hard core: clay soil, thermoplastics
polymers, non-corrosive metallic containers (carbon-steel
tanks), cement, lime, fire glass, rocks.

87
d) Ocean dumping: was mostly practiced from 1945 to

the 1970s. Despite the existing public protest, this

method continuous to be an alternative for the waste
generators.

4.8 Health-Care Institution Solid Waste

Solid Waste Management

1. Classification of health-care institution

waste:
Health-care institution waste can be divided into two main
categories: regular medical waste and infectious waste.
Regular medical wastes is generally everything else used in
the facility. This might include administrative waste, paper, or
foodwaste from cafeterias.

Between 75% and 90% of the waste produced by health-care

institution providers is non-risk or "general" health-care
institution waste, comparable to domestic waste. The
remaining 10 - 25% of health-care institution waste is
regarded as hazardous and may create a variety of health
risks. This chapter is concerned almost exclusively with
hazardous healthcare institution waste also known as
"health-care institution risk waste".

Infectious waste includes human blood and blood products,

cultures, stocks of infectious agents, pathological wastes,
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contaminated sharps (hypodermic needles, scalpel blades,
capillary tubes), contaminated laboratory wastes,
contaminated wastes from patient care, discarded biologicals,
contaminated animal carcasses and body parts infected with
human pathogens such as in research and training,
contaminated equipment and miscellaneous infectious waste.

2. Health hazards:
Solid Waste Management

Health-care workers (particularly nurses) are at greatest risk of

virus infections such as HIV/AIDS and hepatitis B and C, through
injuries from contaminated sharps (largely hypodermic
needles). Other hospital workers and wastemanagement
operators outside health-care establishments are also at
significant risk, as are individuals who scavenge at waste
disposal sites (although these risks are not well documented).
The risk of this type of infection among patients and the public
is much lower. Certain infections, however, spread through
other media or are caused by more resilient agents, may pose a
significant risk to the general public and to hospital patients.

Individual cases of accidents and subsequent infections

caused by health-care institution waste are well documented.
The overall situation, however, remains difficult to assess,
especially in developing countries. It is suspected that many

89
cases of infection with a wide variety of pathogens have
resulted from exposure to improperly managed health -care
institution wastein developing countries.

Table 5. Risk of infection after hypodermic needle puncture

Infection Risk of infection

HIV 0.3%
Viral hepatitis B 3%
Viral hepatitis C 3-5%

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Source: WHO (1999): Safe Management of Waste from
Health- Care Activities

There were insufficient data on other infections linked to healthcare institution waste to
allow any conclusions to be reached. On the basis of the figures for HBV, however, it is
recommended that all personnel handling health-care institution waste should be
immunized against that disease.

If these data are to be extrapolated to developing countries like Ethiopia, it should be

borne in mind that supervision and training of personnel exposed to waste in those
countries may be less rigorous, with the result that more people are likely to be exposed
to health-care institution wastes, both within and outside health-care establishments.

In any health-care establishment, nurses and housekeeping personnel are the main
groups at risk of injuries; annual injury rates are 10-20 per 1000 workers. Highest rates
of occupational injury among all workers who may be exposed to health-care institution
waste are reported by cleaning personnel and waste handlers; the annual rate in the
USA is 180 per 1000. Although most work-related injuries among health-care workers
and refuse collectors are sprains and strains caused by overexertion, a significant
percentage are cuts and punctures from discarded sharps.

The existence in health-care establishments of bacteria resistant to antibiotics and

chemical disinfectants may also contribute to the hazards created by poorly managed
healthcare waste. It has been demonstrated, for example, that plasmids from laboratory
strains contained in health-care waste were transferred to indigenous bacteria via the
waste disposal system. Moreover, antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli have been shown
to survive in an activated sludge plant, although there does not seem to be significant
transfer of this organism under normal conditions of wastewater disposal and
treatment.

Concentrated cultures of pathogens and contaminated sharps (particularly hypodermic

needles) are probably the waste items that represent the most acute potential hazards
to health.

Sharps may not only cause cuts and punctures but also infect these wounds if they are
contaminated with pathogens. Because of this double risk of injury and disease
transmission, sharps are considered as a very hazardous waste class. The principal
concerns are infections that may be transmitted by subcutaneous introduction of the

91
causative agent (e.g. viral blood infections). Hypodermic needles constitute an
important part of the sharps waste category and are particularly hazardous because
they are often contaminated with patients' blood.

Many of the chemicals and pharmaceuticals used in healthcare establishments are

hazardous (e.g. toxic, corrosive, flammable, reactive, explosive, shock-sensitive). These
substances are commonly present in small quantities in health-care waste; larger
quantities may be found when unwanted or outdated chemicals and pharmaceuticals
are disposed of. They may cause intoxication, either by acute or by chronic exposure,
and injuries, including burns. Intoxication can result from absorption of a chemical or
pharmaceutical through the skin or the mucous membranes, or from inhalation or
ingestion. Injuries to the skin, the eyes, or the mucous membranes of the airways can be
caused by contact with flammable, corrosive, or reactive chemicals (e.g. formaldehyde
and other volatile substances).

The most common injuries are burns.

Disinfectants are particularly important members of this group: they are used in large
quantities and are often corrosive. It should also be noted that reactive chemicals may
form highly toxic secondary compounds.

Obsolete pesticides, stored in leaking drums or torn bags, can directly or indirectly affect
the health of anyone who comes into contact with them. During heavy rains, leaked
pesticides can seep into the ground and contaminate the groundwater. Poisoning can
occur through direct contact with the product, inhalation of vapors, drinking of
contaminated water, or eating of contaminated food. Other hazards may include the
possibility of fire and contamination as a result of inadequate disposal such as burning
or burying.

Chemical residues discharged into the sewerage system may have adverse effects on the
operation of biological sewage treatment plants or toxic effects on the natural
ecosystems of receiving waters. Similar problems may be caused by pharmaceutical
residues, which may include antibiotics and other drugs, heavy metals such as mercury,
phenols, and derivatives, and disinfectants and antiseptics.

3. Sources:
a) Medical wastes: These wastes are usually produced in patient rooms, treatment

rooms and nursing stations. The operating room may also be a contributor, and
items include soiled dressings, bandages, catheters, swabs, plaster casts receptacles,

92
 and masks. The hazardous waste is generated from both OPD and inpatient wards as
a result of diagnosing, treating, or handling the patient.
b) Surgical and autopsy (Pathologic wastes): These wastes may be produced in

surgical or autopsy rooms. Items that may be included are placenta, tissues and
organs, amputated limbs, fetus and similar material.
c) Laboratory wastes: These wastes are produced in diagnostic or research

laboratories. Items that may be included are cultures, spinal-fluid samples, dead
animals, and animal bedding.
d) Infectious solid wastes: proportion of medical waste that is infectious

(dressings, lab and pathological wastes, contaminated blood, discarded equipments,

etc.)

e) Domestic/general wastes: offices, kitchen wastes

(nonhazardous)
f) Radioactive wastes: radiating residues produced as a result of radiotherapy and
diagnosis.

4. Management of Health Care Institution Solid Wastes The need for infectious and
medical waste management now reaches beyond hospitals and medical centers to
smaller waste generators such as clinics, colleges and universities, diagnostic
laboratories, funeral homes, doctors' offices, and other health facilities. Infectious and
medical waste produce occupational risks such as direct exposure to blood products,
needle sticks, and infectious dressings by patients, visitors, and workers. Environmental
risks include the possibility of pollution of groundwater, surface water, or air. Even small
amounts of laboratory solvents can leach into drinking water. Incinerated medical waste
may not destroy infectious agents, releasing them into the air, in the ash or via scrubber
effluent.

A. Waste minimization, recycling, and reuse

1. Waste minimization
Significant reduction of the waste generated in health-care establishments and research
facilities may be encouraged by the implementation of certain policies and practices,
including the following:

• Source reduction: measures such as purchasing restrictions to ensure the selection of

methods or supplies that are less wasteful or generate less hazardous waste.
• Recyclable products: use of materials that may be recycled, either on-site or off-site.

93
• Good management and control practices: apply particularly to the purchase and use
of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
• Waste segregation: careful segregation (separation) of waste matter into different
categories helps to minimize the quantities of hazardous waste.

Careful management of stores will prevent the accumulation of large quantities of

outdated chemicals or pharmaceuticals and limit the waste to the packaging (boxes,
bottles, etc.) plus residues of the products remaining in the containers. These small
amounts of chemical or pharmaceutical waste can be disposed of easily and relatively
cheaply, whereas disposing of larger amounts requires costly and specialized treatment,
which underlines the importance of waste minimization.

Waste minimization usually benefits the waste producer: cost for both the purchase of
goods and for waste treatment and disposal are reduced and the liabilities associated
with the disposal of hazardous waste are lessened.

All health-service establishments employees have a role to play in this process and
should therefore be trained in waste minimization and the management of hazardous
materials. This is particularly important for the staff of departments that generate large
quantities of hazardous waste.

Suppliers of chemicals and pharmaceuticals can also become responsible partners in

waste minimization program. The health service unit can encourage this by ordering
only from suppliers who provide rapid delivery of small orders, who accept the return of
unopened stock, and who offer off-site waste management facilities for hazardous
wastes.

Reducing the toxicity of waste is also beneficial; by reducing the problems associated with its
treatment or disposal.

2. Safe Reuse and Recycling

Medical and other equipment used in a health-care establishment may be reused

provided that it is designed for the purpose and will withstand the sterilization process.
Reusable items may include certain sharps, such as scalpels and hypodermic needles,
syringes, glass bottles and containers, etc. After use, these should be collected separately
from nonreusable items, carefully washed and sterilized (particularly in the case of
hypodermic needles, in which infectious droplets could be trapped). Although reuse of

94
hypodermic needles is not recommended, it may be necessary in establishments that
cannot afford disposable syringes and needles. Plastic syringes and catheters should not
be thermally or chemically sterilized; they should be discarded.

Certain types of containers may be reused provided that they are carefully washed and
sterilized. Containers of pressurized gas, however, should generally be sent to specialized
centers to be refilled. Containers that once held detergent or other liquids may be
reused as containers for sharps waste (if purpose-made containers are not affordable)
provided that they are puncture-proof and correctly and clearly marked on all sides.

Recycling is usually not practiced by health-care facilities apart, perhaps, from the
recovery of silver from fixing baths used in processing X-ray films. However, recycling of
materials such as metals, paper, glass, and plastics can result in savings for the health-
care facility, either through reduced disposal cost or through payments made by the
recycling company.

In temperate climates, the heat generated by on-site incinerators may be an attractive

and cost-effective option for heating hospital premises.

In determining the economic viability of recycling, it is important to take into account

the cost of alternative disposal methods and not just the cost of the recycling process
and the value of the reclaimed material.

B. Handling, Storage, and Transportation of Health-Care Facility Waste

1. Waste segregation and packaging
The key to minimization and effective management of healthcare waste is segregation
(separation) and identification of the waste. Appropriate handling, treatment, and
disposal of waste by type reduce cost and does much to protect public health.
Segregation should always be the responsibility of the waste producer, should take
place as close as possible to where the waste is generated, and should be maintained in
storage areas and during transport. The same system of segregation should be in force
throughout the country.

The most appropriate way of identifying the categories of health-care facility waste is by
sorting out the waste into colorcoded plastic bags or containers.

In addition to the color coding of waste containers, the following practices are recommended:

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• General health-care facility waste should be part of the stream of domestic refuse for
disposal.
• Sharps should all be collected together, regardless of whether or not they are
contaminated. Containers should be puncture-proof (usually made of metal or high-
density plastic) and fitted with covers. They should be rigid and impermeable so that
they safely retain not only the sharps but also any residual liquids from syringes. To
discourage abuse, containers should be tamper-proof (difficult to open or break) and
needles and syringes should be rendered unusable. Where plastic or metal containers
are unavailable or too costly, containers made of dense cardboard are recommended;
these fold for ease of transport and may be supplied with a plastic lining.
• Bags and containers for infectious waste should be marked with the international
infectious substance symbol.
• Highly infectious waste should, whenever possible, be sterilized immediately by
autoclaving. It therefore needs to be packaged in bags that are compatible with the
proposed treatment process: red bags, suitable for autoclaving, are recommended.
• Small amounts of chemical or pharmaceutical waste may be collected together with
infectious waste.
• Large quantities of obsolete or expired pharmaceuticals stored in hospital wards or
departments should be returned to the pharmacy for proper disposal.

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 Thick gloves

Mask

Long-sleeved shirt

Plastic apron

Trousers

Boots

Figure 6. Recommended protective clothing for health care waste

transportation. (Source: WHO (1999): Safe Management of Waste From
Health Care Facility Activities.)

C. Treatment and Disposal Technologies for Health-Care Facility Waste

The final choice of treatment system should be made carefully, on the basis of various
factors, many of which depend on local conditions:

• Disinfection and sterilization efficiency;

• Health and environmental considerations;
• Volume and mass reduction;
• Occupational health and safety considerations;
• Quantity of wastes for treatment and disposal/capacity of the system;
• Types of waste for treatment and disposal;
• Infrastructure requirements;
• Locally available treatment options and technologies;
• Options available for final disposal;
• Training requirements for operation of the method;
• Operation and maintenance consideration;
• Available space;
• Location and surroundings of the treatment site and disposal facility;
• Investment and operating cost;

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• Public acceptability;
• Regulatory requirements.

Several treatment technologies are available to dispose of health care establishment waste.

1. Incineration Technology
Incineration uses controlled, high-temperature combustion process to destroy organics in
waste materials. Modern incineration systems are well engineered; high-technology
processes designed to maximize combustion efficiency and completeness with a minimum
of emissions of waste.

2. Open dumps

• uncontrolled and scattered deposit of wastes at a site

• leads to acute pollution problems, fires, high risks of disease transmission, open
access to scavengers and animals.

3. Sanitary landfills (see chapter 3)

4. Safe burial on health-care premises

Certain basic rules should be fulfilled:
• Access to the disposal site should be restricted to authorized personnel only.
• The burial site should be lined with a material of low permeability, such as clay.
• Only hazardous health-care facility waste, including placenta, should be buried.
• Large quantities (greater than>1 kg) of chemical wastes should not be buried at one time.
• The burial site should be managed as a landfill process, with each layer of waste being
covered with a layer of earth to prevent odors, as well as to prevent rodent and insect
breeding.
5. Steam Sterilization
The advantages of steam sterilization, or autoclaving are relatively low capital
investment, operating cost, relatively small space requirements, and simplicity of
operation. Disadvantages include limited capacity, the requirement of special waste
packaging and handling, and odor and drainage problems. Autoclaving is not
recommended for pathological wastes, waste with high liquid content, and waste
contaminated with volatile chemicals. After autoclaving, the appearance of waste

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remains unchanged. Although needles, syringes, blood bags, and the like, are sterilized,
they also are recognizable. This has the effect of making much of the waste unacceptable
for disposal in a landfill or other disposal means. Also, compacting autoclaved waste
tends to break open waste bags and other containers, exposing and spilling their
contents. Consequently, waste haulers and landfill operators may not be willing to
accept autoclaved waste in spite of its sterile condition.

Review Questions

1. What is a hazard?
2. What are the common features of hazardous waste?
3. How does your community assist in the collection and disposal of hazardous wastes

found in the home and in the community in general?

4. Are there any hazardous waste sites in your community? Why have they been classified

as hazardous waste sites?

5. What precautions should be taken during the transportation of hazardous wastes?

6. How can you dispose of hazardous waste?

7 What is health- care facility waste?
8. What are the type of health care establishment wastes?
9. What are potential health risks that can be associated with handling of health-care facility

waste?
10. Who are at risk of health-care waste?
11. How can you dispose of health care waste?

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GLOSSARY
Aerobic: organisms which need free oxygen; living or active only in the presence of free
oxygen.

Anaerobic: unable to live in the presence of free oxygen, but obtaining oxygen by
breaking down complex organic compounds.

Ash residue: waste products of coal and other fuels. They are non putrescible.

Composting: the controlled biological decomposition of organic solid waste under aerobic
conditions.

Contamination: the presence of an agent of infection on a body, articles or substance.

Domestic waste: kitchen wastes, ashes from fires, broken utensils and worn-out clothing.

Garbage: putrescible solid waste including animal and vegetable wastes resulting from
the handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking, or serving of foods.
Health-care facility waste: includes all the waste generated by health-care
establishments, research facilities, and laboratories. In addition, it includes the
waste originating from "minor" or "scattered" sources, such as that produced in
the course of health care undertaken in the home.

Incineration: process of burning wastes in an incinerator, to reduce the volume of the waste.

Incinerator: a facility designed to reduce the volume and weight of solid waste by a
combustion process with or without a waste heat recovery system. It is an
apparatus which enables refuse to be burnt with the minimum expenditure of
fuel.

Industrial waste: waste resulting from manufacturing processes. Some of these wastes
are putrescible and cause obnoxious odor and may create health hazard.
Infectious waste: a waste (solid), that is suspected to contain pathogens (bacteria,
viruses, parasites, or fungi) in sufficient concentration or quantity to cause
disease in susceptible hosts.

Integrated solid waste management: a practice of disposing of solid waste that

utilizes several complementary components, such as source reduction, recycling,
composting, waste - to - energy, and landfill.

Leachate: a liquid resulting from precipitation and percolating through landfills

containing water, decomposed waste and bacteria.

Night soil: excreta that have been collected from box, toilets and privies.

Putrescible wastes: wastes that are decomposable by bacterial actions.

Recycling: a resource recovery method involving the collection and treatment of a waste
product for use as

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 raw material in the manufacture of the same or another produce.

Refuse: all putrescible or non-putrescible waste material that is discarded or rejected,

including garbage, rubbish, incinerator residue, street cleanings, dead animals,
and offal.

Resource recovery: a term describing the extraction and utilization of materials that
can be used as raw material in the manufacturing of new products, or that can
be converted into some form of fuel or energy source.

Rubbish: all non-putrescible wastes except ash. It consists of both combustible and non-
combustible wastes.

Sanitary landfill: a method of disposing of refuse on land without creating nuisances

or hazards to public health or safety.

Solid waste: are waste materials not including liquid wastes.

Solid waste management: the process by which workable alternative programs and
plans are developed to solve solid waste problems.

Source reduction: refers to reducing the amount of waste generated that must
eventually to be discarded, including minimizing toxic substances in products,
minimizing volume of products, and extending the useful life of products.

Source separation: the segregation of various materials from the waste stream at point
of generation for recycling.

Transfer station: a facility with structures, machinery, or devices that receives

deliveries of solid waste by local collection vehicles, and provides for transfer to
large

vehicles that delivers the waste recycling, treatment or disposal site.

Waste: any movable material that is perceived to be of no

further use and that is permanently discarded.
References
1. World Health Organization (1999):Safe Management of Wastes Ffrom Health Care

Activities; A. Pruss, E.Giroult, P. Rushbrook

2. Gabre-Emanuel Teka (1997): Solid Waste Disposal From Food Premise; In Food

Hygiene: Principles and Methods of Food-borne Disease Control with Special

Reference to Ethiopia, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Community Health, Addis
Ababa University.
3. Patricia A. Reagan and Jodi B. Fisher (1997): Community Health in The 21 st Century; by

Allyn and Bacon, A Viacom Company.

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4. Monroe T. Morgan (1997): Environmental Health; Morton Publishing Company.

5. Green and Ottoson (1994): Community Health; 7 th edition;

6. Tchobanoglous, Theisen and Vigil (1993): Integrated Solid Waste Managemen.

Engineering Principles and

Management Issues. McGraw-Hill, Inc.
7. Kebede Faris, Tssew Berhe, and Haile Mariam Churko (1993): Solid Waste Problem,

Collection and Disposal Program in Jimma TowN, Ethiopian Journal of Health

Development, Volume 7(2)
8. Sandra J. Cointrreau (1986): Environmental Management of Urban Solid Wastes in

Developing Countries; A Project Guide.

9. Joseph A. Salvato (1982): Environmental Engineering and Sanitation; 3rd Edition.

10. P.Walton Pardon (1980): Environmental Health; 2nd Edition.

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