Solid Waste Management Notes
Solid Waste Management Notes
Review Questions 19
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3.1. Learning Objectives 21
3.2. Introduction 21
Waste
Review Questions 75
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CHAPTER ONE
1.2 Introduction
Solid wastes are all the wastes arising from human and
animal activities that are normally solid and are discarded as
useless or unwanted. The term solid waste as used in this text
is all- inclusive, encompassing the heterogeneous mass of
throwaways from the urban community as well as the more
homogeneous accumulation of agricultural, industrial, and
mineral wastes. Because of their intrinsic properties,
discarded waste materials are often reusable and may be
considered as a resource in another setting. Integrated solid
waste management is the term applied to all of the activities
when burned.
4. Other wastes: demolished materials, abandoned cars, and
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Review Questions
CHAPTER TWO
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CLASSIFICATION, GENERATION
RATE AND COMPOSITION OF SOLID
WASTE
waste.
3. describe the advantages of determining the solid waste
generation rate.
4. list factors that determine the generation rate of solid waste.
5. determine the quantity and volume of solid wastes.
6. explain the composition of solid wastes.
2.2 Introduction
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A. Putrescible wastes
- Are solid wastes that can be easily decomposed by bacterial
action
- Result from the growing, handling, preparation, cooking and
consumption of food.
- Their quantities are varying throughout the year, being
greatest in amount during the summer months when
vegetable wastes are more abundant.
- Require careful handling with frequent removal and adequate
disposal.
- Are the most valuable component yielding fertilizers, or soil
conditioners, through composting processes and used as
animal/hog feed (e.g. garbage).
1. Measures of quantities
a. Volume measurement.
b. Weight measurement
2. Statistical Analysis
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A. Physical Composition
Knowing the physical composition of solid waste is important
for the selection and operation of equipment facilities, to
assess the possibility or feasibility of energy recovery and to
design disposal facilities. Its analysis may contain individual
component study, moisture content study and density.
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B. Chemical Composition
It is very important to study the nature and value of solid
waste to plan different disposal and recovery options. These
studies include the assessment of moisture content,
volatility, ash content, etc. The moisture content of
municipal solid wastes varies depending on composition of
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Wood 20
Glass 1-4 2
Tin cans 2-4 3
Nonferrous 2-4 3
metals
Ferrous metals 2-6 3
Dirt, Ash, Brick, 6-12 8
Stone
Review Questions
solid waste?
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CHAPTER THREE
FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS OF SOLID WASTE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
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management program.
2. identify requirements of solid waste storage
containers.
3. realize that collection process of solid wastes
is complex.
4. compare sanitary land fill and incinerators.
5. identify common dead body disposal
methods.
6. describe common solid waste disposal
methods.
3.2 Introduction
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A. On-Site Handling
On-site handling methods and principles involve public
attitude and individual belief, and ultimately affects the
public health. It is an activity associated with the handling of
solid waste until it is placed in the containers used for its
storage before collection. This may take place at any time
before, during or after storage.
1. Storage containers
Garbage and refuse generated in kitchens and other work
areas should be collected and stored in properly designed
and constructed water-proof garbage cans (waste bins). The
cans or receptacles can be constructed from galvanized iron
sheet or plastic materials. They should have tightly fitting
covers. They must be of such size that, when full, they can be
lifted easily by one man. They should be located in a cool
place on platforms at least 30 centimeters above ground
level. After putting in garbage, they should be kept covered.
The bins must be emptied at least daily and maintained in
clean conditions. A typical example of garbage can,
constructed from galvanized iron sheet, dimensions:
diameter 45 cm and height 75 cm, is shown in figure 1 below.
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1. Collection process
Involves five different phases.
Phase 1 - House to dustbin
Phase 2 - Dustbin to truck
Phase 3 - Truck from house to house
Phase 4 - Truck to transfer station
Phase 5 - Truck to disposal
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2. Collection services
People must understand that a good refuse-collection service
requires citizen cooperation in the provision and use of
proper receptacles in order to keep the community clean and
essentially free of rats, flies, and other vermin.
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2. Macro-routing is:
- large scale routing to the disposal site and the establishment
of the individual route boundaries.
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Unit operations
1. Pick-up - refers to the time spent driving to the next
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Some property owners are willing to pay for this extra service.
Bulky wastes should be collected every 3 months.
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4. Collection equipment
Mechanical collection systems have been developed to
reduce collection cost. The system requires use of a special
container, truck container pick-up equipment, and
replacement of the container.
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for tires and bulky items. Separate bins for paper, glass, and
aluminum may also be provided.
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1. Plastic
Plastic is not a natural material. It is synthesized from
petrochemicals to create a long, complicated chain of atoms
called polymers. Bacteria and fungi that would usually live on
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2. Tires
Discarded tires pose two particular vector health threats to a
community: rats and mosquitoes. Tires create an excellent
breeding place for rats and mosquitoes, which in turn carry
diseases to humans.
3. Paper
Paper is the single most frequently seen item in most
landfills, taking up more land space. It accounts for more
than 40% of a landfill's contents. Newspapers alone may take
up as much as 13 to 30% of the space in landfills. It is not
enough to just change from paper grocery bags to recyclable
cloth bags. Garbage archeologists from the University of
Arizona have discovered that most materials buried deep in a
landfill change very little. Newspapers from the 1950s could
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waste
2. chemical volume reduction by incineration
3. mechanical size reduction by shredding, grinding and milling
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areas.
Generally there are several methods of solid waste disposal that
can be utilized. These methods are:
1. Open Dumping
Some components of solid waste such as street sweepings,
ashes and non combustible rubbish are suitable for open
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dumping. Garbage and any other mixed solid wastes are not
fit or suitable because of nuisance and health hazard
creation. Generally, solid waste is spread over a large area,
providing sources of food and shelter for flies, rats and other
vermin. It causes unsightly odor and smoke, nuisance and
hazards. Carefully selected rubbish must be disposed in order
to prevent fire accidents that might occur. The location of
open dumping must be carefully chosen so that there will be
a minimum chance of complaints from nearby residents.
vermin.
3. It creates of smoke, odor and nuisance.
4. It makes the lands and other surrounding areas useless.
5. It leads to cuts and wounds.
6. It attracts scavengers, both humans and animals.
land
4. Distance that flies can travel from disposal site to living
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2. Controlled tipping/burial
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3. Hog Feeding
The feeding of garbage to hogs has been practiced for many
years in different parts of the world. But there is surprising
high incidence of trichinosis among hogs which are fed with
uncooked garbage.
Pickling, salting and smoking also kill the larva when done
thoroughly. Garbage feeding is profitable if properly handled
by farmers and if they are willing to collect it themselves.
They should collect it daily and furnish clean cans. While
garbage is the most potential valuable element or component
of solid waste, it is the most difficult to handle in a sanitary
manner and is responsible for the majority of nuisances and
health hazards associated with the disease. To use garbage
for hog feeding, it has to be cooked at a temperature of 100 0
C for 30 minutes just to be on safe side. Cooking the garbage
before hog feeding will not reduce the food value.
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4. Incineration
Incineration is a process of burning the combustible
components of garbage and refuse. Disposal of solid waste by
incineration can be effectively carried out on a small scale in
food service establishments as well as in institutions such as
hospitals, schools etc.
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On-site Incineration
This term applies to incineration of refuse at home, office,
apartment house, commercial building, hospital or industrial
site. Refuse collection and disposal could be reduced
satisfactorily by using on-site incineration. Generally,
airpollution can be expected.
Advantages of an incinerator
1. Less land is required for landfills
2. A central location is possible, allowing short hauling for
or power is possible.
Disadvantages of an incinerator
1. Initial cost is high during construction.
2. Operating cost is relatively high.
3. Skilled employees are required for operation and
maintenance.
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Figure 4. Single chambers onsite Incinerator (Source: Gabre-Emanuel Teka (1997): Solid Waste Disposal From Food Premise, In
Food Hygiene.)
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5. Sanitary Landfill
One of the most widely used means of solid waste disposal is
the sanitary landfill. A properly operated sanitary landfill
eliminates insects, rodents, safety hazards, fire hazards, and
other problems that exist in open dumping.
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water contamination.
5. avoid main traffic arteries by trucks.
6. no obstruction of normal drainage channels.
7. avoid areas subjected to flooding.
8. available land areas.
9. impact of processing and resource recovery.
• preliminary study
• engineering design
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• cost situations
• environmental impact assessment
1. Area method
The area method is a method where solid waste is dumped,
spread, compacted and covered with covering materials.
Enough cover should be excavated to provide a 1.8 meter
layer daily and a final layer of 7.3 meter, compacted well to
eliminate breeding by rodents, flies and other vermin.
2. Trench method
Trench method is used when level ground is available. There
are three variations of trench method. These are:
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B. Single trench
One single trench is dug. Excavated material is placed on both
sides for use as a cover.
C. Dual trench
One trench is excavated on the length of the site and refuse is
dumped into it. Cover materials come from parallel trench
excavated two or more meters from the first trench
depending on the soil formation.
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it encourages erosion.
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Remarks:
1. A separate trench or pit may be desirable for disposal
of small dead animals, spoiled food stuffs and other large
quantities of untraceable materials.
2. Generally, the rate of decomposition of refuse in a
landfill prevents the reuse of the same location for many
years. In some areas, decomposition of materials is a
achieved after a period of 10 to 15 years, although there are
reports of reuse of landfills after a period of about 30 years
without insect or odor nuisance.
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a. access roads
b. equipment shelters
c. scales to weigh wastes, as needed
d. storage site for special wastes
e. top soil stockpile sites
f. landfill area and extension
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A. Operation schedule
• arrival sequence for collection vehicles
• traffic patterns at the site
• time sequence to be followed in the filling operation
• effects of wind and other climatic conditions
• commercial and public access
B. Equipment requirement
The type, size and amount of equipment required for sanitary
landfill will be governed by size of community served, the
nature of site selected, the size of the landfill and the
methods of operation.
1. crawler 2. scrapers
3. compactors 4. water trucks
C. Personnel
If there is advanced mechanical equipment without the
facilities for a sanitary landfill serving less than 10,000
persons, the equipment operator would be the only person
employed at the site.
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D. Accessory Facilities
In addition to the equipment and personnel indicated above,
certain facilities are required at the site. These are:
6. Leachate in landfills
Leachate may be defined as liquid that has percolated
through solid waste and has extracted dissolved and
suspended materials from it. In most landfills, a portion of the
leachate is composed of the liquid produced from the
decomposition of the wastes and liquid that has entered the
landfill from external sources, such as surface drainage,
rainfall, ground water and water from ground sprays.
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the population.
4. It may result in low collection cost, as it permits
other purposes.
8. Unsightliness, health hazards and the nuisance of open
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decomposition of refuse.
3. An adequate supply of good earth cover may not be
readily accessible.
4. If not properly located, seepage from landfills into
personnel.
6. If not properly done, it can deteriorate into open
dumping.
(ordinary dumping)
7. Special equipment is required.
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6.
Composting
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composting.
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A. Types of Composting
The three main types of composting are: windrow, static pile,
and in-vessel.
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1.8 meter and not less than 1.07 meter to 1.2 meter.
Width at the bottom of the windrow is 2.44 meter to 3.6
meters.
5. Turning - An aerobic condition is maintained by frequent
decomposition
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materials
9. organisms involved
10. use of inoculate
11. physical or chemical reaction
12. climatic conditions (temperature, wind, rainfall)
13. destruction of pathogenic organisms
14. time required for composting
15. fly control
16. reclamation of nitrogen and other nutrients
17. testing and judging the condition of compost
18. quality of composts, which depends on nature of the
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disease.
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G. Health Importance
• Compost presents no health hazards.
• The heat produced will kill pathogenic bacteria and eggs
of parasites.
• When composting is processed, fly breeding can be
expected due to the mere fact it is done in a slightly open
condition.
H. Compost Pit
It can be designed for individual houses or institutions. It is the
easiest method of solid waste management system, if it is well
managed. It is the most ideal method of dealing with wastes in
homes and institutions like schools.
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1. Household grinders
They contribute no difficulties in sewer collection systems. Of
course it may lead to an increase of solids in sewage
treatment plants.
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8. Recycling
One of the economically feasible and environmentally sound
technologies of disposing of solid waste is the recycling
method. Recycling can be defined as the process of
converting unwanted waste into useful material for re-use. In
the recycling method, wastes generated are sorted out into
their constituent parts, and then they are recycled into new
useful materials.
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1. Embalming
This delays the decay process of dead bodies by injection of
preservatives.
2. Cremating
Burning of dead bodies is practiced in certain religions. It is
considered to be the best and most sanitary method. In
addition, it helps in conservation of land. It is cheap as far as
cost is concerned. It is not an acceptable method culturally in
Ethiopia.
4. Ground Burial
This is the most common, old and traditional method
practiced in areas where there is no digging or land problem.
The minimum depth for such a method is 2 meters. Burial pits
should not be used for subsequent burials; new pits should
be dug as needed.
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Review Questions
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CHAPTER FOUR
HAZARDOUS WASTE
MANAGEMENT
institution waste.
8. describe the treatment and disposal methods
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4.2. Introduction
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2. Corrosivity
It is the ability of the waste to cause skin and mucosal
membrane damages: burns and erosions, and dissolves or
corrodes metallic surfaces. Such wastes have pH value of:
2.5<pH>12.5 at normal room temperatures (25 0C). The
corrosion rate for material damage is at 0.625 meters per
year at 550C. Examples: acid sludge, battery acid wastes,
caustic waste water, alkaline cleaning wastes, rust remover
waste, etc.
3. Reactivity
A waste that reacts violently with water with the formation of
toxic fumes, gases, or aerosols (Strong acids and HCN when
mixed with water); and explodes when mixed with water.
Such incidents can also occur when the waste is mixed with
other chemicals producing the same effect. Wastes
containing unstable chemicals are also in this category.
Examples: Cyanide plating wastes, wastes containing strong
oxidizers such as chlorine, ozone, peroxides, permanganates,
HCl, etc.
4. Toxicity
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5. Infectivity
A waste with a potential cause for infectious diseases, such as
hepatitis B. Example: medical wastes containing microbial
cultures, pathological wastes, contaminated human blood
and its products, sharps, skin-piercing objects, contaminated
animal wastes, contaminated exudates and secretions.
6. Radioactivity
Wastes containing radioactive elements. Such wastes are
mainly from biomedical training and research institutes.
Wastes may include radioactive elements of uranium,
molybdenum, cobalt, iodine.
7. Bioaccumulation effect
Wastes that are not easily degraded when exposed with the
environment. Examples: polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),
dioxin.
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2. Labeling:
Each container is labeled and marked. The transporting
vehicle is labelled before waste is transported from the
generating site. Companies post warning labels such as:
explosive, strong oxidizer, compressed gas, flammable liquid,
corrosive material, and poisonous or toxic substances.
3. Haulers:
Because of the dangers involved, haulers of hazardous waste
are subject to operator training, insurance coverage, and
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3. Control approaches
a) Waste management hierarchy includes: source reduction >
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b) Government and Public Involvement
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d) Ocean dumping: was mostly practiced from 1945 to
2. Health hazards:
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cases of infection with a wide variety of pathogens have
resulted from exposure to improperly managed health -care
institution wastein developing countries.
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Source: WHO (1999): Safe Management of Waste from
Health- Care Activities
There were insufficient data on other infections linked to healthcare institution waste to
allow any conclusions to be reached. On the basis of the figures for HBV, however, it is
recommended that all personnel handling health-care institution waste should be
immunized against that disease.
In any health-care establishment, nurses and housekeeping personnel are the main
groups at risk of injuries; annual injury rates are 10-20 per 1000 workers. Highest rates
of occupational injury among all workers who may be exposed to health-care institution
waste are reported by cleaning personnel and waste handlers; the annual rate in the
USA is 180 per 1000. Although most work-related injuries among health-care workers
and refuse collectors are sprains and strains caused by overexertion, a significant
percentage are cuts and punctures from discarded sharps.
Sharps may not only cause cuts and punctures but also infect these wounds if they are
contaminated with pathogens. Because of this double risk of injury and disease
transmission, sharps are considered as a very hazardous waste class. The principal
concerns are infections that may be transmitted by subcutaneous introduction of the
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causative agent (e.g. viral blood infections). Hypodermic needles constitute an
important part of the sharps waste category and are particularly hazardous because
they are often contaminated with patients' blood.
Disinfectants are particularly important members of this group: they are used in large
quantities and are often corrosive. It should also be noted that reactive chemicals may
form highly toxic secondary compounds.
Obsolete pesticides, stored in leaking drums or torn bags, can directly or indirectly affect
the health of anyone who comes into contact with them. During heavy rains, leaked
pesticides can seep into the ground and contaminate the groundwater. Poisoning can
occur through direct contact with the product, inhalation of vapors, drinking of
contaminated water, or eating of contaminated food. Other hazards may include the
possibility of fire and contamination as a result of inadequate disposal such as burning
or burying.
Chemical residues discharged into the sewerage system may have adverse effects on the
operation of biological sewage treatment plants or toxic effects on the natural
ecosystems of receiving waters. Similar problems may be caused by pharmaceutical
residues, which may include antibiotics and other drugs, heavy metals such as mercury,
phenols, and derivatives, and disinfectants and antiseptics.
3. Sources:
a) Medical wastes: These wastes are usually produced in patient rooms, treatment
rooms and nursing stations. The operating room may also be a contributor, and
items include soiled dressings, bandages, catheters, swabs, plaster casts receptacles,
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and masks. The hazardous waste is generated from both OPD and inpatient wards as
a result of diagnosing, treating, or handling the patient.
b) Surgical and autopsy (Pathologic wastes): These wastes may be produced in
surgical or autopsy rooms. Items that may be included are placenta, tissues and
organs, amputated limbs, fetus and similar material.
c) Laboratory wastes: These wastes are produced in diagnostic or research
laboratories. Items that may be included are cultures, spinal-fluid samples, dead
animals, and animal bedding.
d) Infectious solid wastes: proportion of medical waste that is infectious
4. Management of Health Care Institution Solid Wastes The need for infectious and
medical waste management now reaches beyond hospitals and medical centers to
smaller waste generators such as clinics, colleges and universities, diagnostic
laboratories, funeral homes, doctors' offices, and other health facilities. Infectious and
medical waste produce occupational risks such as direct exposure to blood products,
needle sticks, and infectious dressings by patients, visitors, and workers. Environmental
risks include the possibility of pollution of groundwater, surface water, or air. Even small
amounts of laboratory solvents can leach into drinking water. Incinerated medical waste
may not destroy infectious agents, releasing them into the air, in the ash or via scrubber
effluent.
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• Good management and control practices: apply particularly to the purchase and use
of chemicals and pharmaceuticals.
• Waste segregation: careful segregation (separation) of waste matter into different
categories helps to minimize the quantities of hazardous waste.
Waste minimization usually benefits the waste producer: cost for both the purchase of
goods and for waste treatment and disposal are reduced and the liabilities associated
with the disposal of hazardous waste are lessened.
All health-service establishments employees have a role to play in this process and
should therefore be trained in waste minimization and the management of hazardous
materials. This is particularly important for the staff of departments that generate large
quantities of hazardous waste.
Reducing the toxicity of waste is also beneficial; by reducing the problems associated with its
treatment or disposal.
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hypodermic needles is not recommended, it may be necessary in establishments that
cannot afford disposable syringes and needles. Plastic syringes and catheters should not
be thermally or chemically sterilized; they should be discarded.
Certain types of containers may be reused provided that they are carefully washed and
sterilized. Containers of pressurized gas, however, should generally be sent to specialized
centers to be refilled. Containers that once held detergent or other liquids may be
reused as containers for sharps waste (if purpose-made containers are not affordable)
provided that they are puncture-proof and correctly and clearly marked on all sides.
Recycling is usually not practiced by health-care facilities apart, perhaps, from the
recovery of silver from fixing baths used in processing X-ray films. However, recycling of
materials such as metals, paper, glass, and plastics can result in savings for the health-
care facility, either through reduced disposal cost or through payments made by the
recycling company.
The most appropriate way of identifying the categories of health-care facility waste is by
sorting out the waste into colorcoded plastic bags or containers.
In addition to the color coding of waste containers, the following practices are recommended:
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• General health-care facility waste should be part of the stream of domestic refuse for
disposal.
• Sharps should all be collected together, regardless of whether or not they are
contaminated. Containers should be puncture-proof (usually made of metal or high-
density plastic) and fitted with covers. They should be rigid and impermeable so that
they safely retain not only the sharps but also any residual liquids from syringes. To
discourage abuse, containers should be tamper-proof (difficult to open or break) and
needles and syringes should be rendered unusable. Where plastic or metal containers
are unavailable or too costly, containers made of dense cardboard are recommended;
these fold for ease of transport and may be supplied with a plastic lining.
• Bags and containers for infectious waste should be marked with the international
infectious substance symbol.
• Highly infectious waste should, whenever possible, be sterilized immediately by
autoclaving. It therefore needs to be packaged in bags that are compatible with the
proposed treatment process: red bags, suitable for autoclaving, are recommended.
• Small amounts of chemical or pharmaceutical waste may be collected together with
infectious waste.
• Large quantities of obsolete or expired pharmaceuticals stored in hospital wards or
departments should be returned to the pharmacy for proper disposal.
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Thick gloves
Mask
Long-sleeved shirt
Plastic apron
Trousers
Boots
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• Public acceptability;
• Regulatory requirements.
Several treatment technologies are available to dispose of health care establishment waste.
1. Incineration Technology
Incineration uses controlled, high-temperature combustion process to destroy organics in
waste materials. Modern incineration systems are well engineered; high-technology
processes designed to maximize combustion efficiency and completeness with a minimum
of emissions of waste.
2. Open dumps
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remains unchanged. Although needles, syringes, blood bags, and the like, are sterilized,
they also are recognizable. This has the effect of making much of the waste unacceptable
for disposal in a landfill or other disposal means. Also, compacting autoclaved waste
tends to break open waste bags and other containers, exposing and spilling their
contents. Consequently, waste haulers and landfill operators may not be willing to
accept autoclaved waste in spite of its sterile condition.
Review Questions
1. What is a hazard?
2. What are the common features of hazardous waste?
3. How does your community assist in the collection and disposal of hazardous wastes
waste?
10. Who are at risk of health-care waste?
11. How can you dispose of health care waste?
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GLOSSARY
Aerobic: organisms which need free oxygen; living or active only in the presence of free
oxygen.
Anaerobic: unable to live in the presence of free oxygen, but obtaining oxygen by
breaking down complex organic compounds.
Ash residue: waste products of coal and other fuels. They are non putrescible.
Composting: the controlled biological decomposition of organic solid waste under aerobic
conditions.
Domestic waste: kitchen wastes, ashes from fires, broken utensils and worn-out clothing.
Garbage: putrescible solid waste including animal and vegetable wastes resulting from
the handling, storage, sale, preparation, cooking, or serving of foods.
Health-care facility waste: includes all the waste generated by health-care
establishments, research facilities, and laboratories. In addition, it includes the
waste originating from "minor" or "scattered" sources, such as that produced in
the course of health care undertaken in the home.
Incineration: process of burning wastes in an incinerator, to reduce the volume of the waste.
Incinerator: a facility designed to reduce the volume and weight of solid waste by a
combustion process with or without a waste heat recovery system. It is an
apparatus which enables refuse to be burnt with the minimum expenditure of
fuel.
Industrial waste: waste resulting from manufacturing processes. Some of these wastes
are putrescible and cause obnoxious odor and may create health hazard.
Infectious waste: a waste (solid), that is suspected to contain pathogens (bacteria,
viruses, parasites, or fungi) in sufficient concentration or quantity to cause
disease in susceptible hosts.
Night soil: excreta that have been collected from box, toilets and privies.
Recycling: a resource recovery method involving the collection and treatment of a waste
product for use as
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raw material in the manufacture of the same or another produce.
Resource recovery: a term describing the extraction and utilization of materials that
can be used as raw material in the manufacturing of new products, or that can
be converted into some form of fuel or energy source.
Rubbish: all non-putrescible wastes except ash. It consists of both combustible and non-
combustible wastes.
Source reduction: refers to reducing the amount of waste generated that must
eventually to be discarded, including minimizing toxic substances in products,
minimizing volume of products, and extending the useful life of products.
Source separation: the segregation of various materials from the waste stream at point
of generation for recycling.
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4. Monroe T. Morgan (1997): Environmental Health; Morton Publishing Company.
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