Module 2

INTRODUCTION TO AGRICULTURE AND THE ECOSYSTEM

I. Overview
An agricultural ecosystem is an ecosystem managed with a purpose, usually
to produce crops or animal products. Agricultural ecosystems are designed by
humans and are based on a long chain of experience and experiments. Everything
that is around us. It can be living or non- living things. It includes physical, chemical,
and other natural forces. An agricultural society, also known as an agrarian society,
is a society that constructs social order around a reliance upon farming. More than
half the people living in that society make their living by farming.
This module will introduce the interconnectivity of the various components of
an ecosystem relating its properties and their measurements to give an initial
glimpse on how sustainability be attained Since agriculture occupies the biggest land
area in terms of land use, its impact to the environment is tremendous. The impacts
either positive or negative will be discussed to serve as a warning for the students to
protect the environment with the practice of green productivity strategies which will
be taken in the core or highly specialized courses they will.

II. Learning Objectives

1. To discuss the relationship of agriculture to the environment and the
society

III. Learning Concept /Topics

1. Agriculture and the environment
2. Agriculture and society
3. sustainable agriculture

1.0 AGRICULTURE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

Agriculture
Is an art, science and business with the raising of plants and animals
for economic purposes. Need farm records.

Environment
Is everything that is around us. It can be living or non- living things. It
includes physical, chemical and other natural forces.

1.1 Properties of an Ecosystem

• Stability

This is the ability of the system to maintain some form of equilibrium in the
presence of perturbations in a farm or agro-ecosystem; this is exemplified by
constancy of production under a given set of environmental, economic, and
management conditions.
• Resilience

This is the ability to maintain or re-establish structure and behaviour when

disturbed or the rate of return to equilibrium after disturbance. In agro-
ecosystem, this is the ability to maintain productivity in the face of stresses or
disturbances.

• Self-organization

This is the ability to maintain itself through mutually reinforcing interactions

or cybernetic feedbacks.

• Diversity (Complexity)

Diversity refers to the number of species or biotic richness of an

ecosystem while complexity refers both to the number of system components
and the number and nature of their interactions. This is considered as the
structural or functional variability of an ecosystem.

• Efficiency (Productivity)

This describes the output per unit of input applied in the system.
Ecological efficiency, on the other hand, is the conversion of food resources to
biomass by organisms.

 Equitability

This represents the evenness of both product distribution and access to

inputs with an ecosystem. In an agro-ecosystem, the products are not limited to
the final and subsequent income generated among producers, but include the
sum of goods and services shared among the communities.

• Sustainability

This is not the paradigm for development but it simply refers to the ability
of an ecosystem to maintain structure and functions indefinitely or the long term
stability.

Agriculture vs. Environment

Agriculture remains the major activity that relates us to Environment.

 It led to environmental degradation.

 Has a great impact to the environment as compared to hunting.
 Requires 2.6 of Americans energy budget; consumer of the nation’s
8% of oil.
 Has a big role in food production which require a minimum of 4%
annual increase necessary to feed the present world population.
Environmental Issues in Agriculture
1. CLIMATE CHANGE
 Climate Change and Agriculture
Interrelated processes which take place on a global scale.
 Global Warming
Projected to have significant impact on conditions affecting
agriculture, including temperature, precipitation and run-off.
These conditions determine the carrying capacity of the biosphere to
produce enough food for the human population and domesticated
animals.
 Rising Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Its effect to agriculture can both be detrimental and beneficial,
on crop yield. The overall effect of climate change on agriculture will
depend on the balance of these effects
Assessing of the effects to global climate change on agriculture
might help to properly anticipate and adapt farming to maximize
agricultural production.
 Effects of Agriculture to Climate Change
Production and release of greenhouse gasses such as carbon
dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. Altering the Earth’s land cover,
which can change its ability to absorb or reflect heat and light, thus
contributing to radioactive forcing.
Land use change such as deforestation and desertification,
together with use of fossil fuels, are the major anthropogenic sources
of carbon dioxide. Agriculture itself is the major contributor to
increasing methane and nitrous oxide concentrations in earth’s
atmosphere.
2. DEFORESTATION
 Causes of Deforestation
Clearing of land for pasture or crops. According to British
environmentalist Norman Myer, 5% of deforestation is due to cattle
ranching. 19% due to over-heavy logging. 22% due to growing sector
of palm oil plantation. 54% due to slash-and-burn farming.
3. GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Genetic Engineering
Refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s
characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way. Seed contamination is
problematic.
4. INTENSIVE FARMING
 Intensive Farming
Are practices including growing high yield crops, using fertilizers
and pesticides and keeping animals indoor. Defined by using less area
of land, but have a large amount of fertilizers and machinery, as well as
it requires large labour and capital inputs for farming.
Disadvantages
1. Limit or destroy the natural habitat of most wildlife, and leads to soil
erosion.
2. Use of fertilizers can alter the biology of rivers and lakes.
3. Pesticides generally kill useful insects as well as those that destroy
crops.
 4. Generally not sustainable –often results in desertification or, in a
worst case scenario, land that is so poisonous and eroded that
nothing else grow.
5. Requires large amount of energy input to produce, transport, and
apply chemical fertilizer/pesticides.
6. Use of chemicals on fields creates run-off, excess runs off into river
and lakes causing pollution.
7. Use of pesticide have numerous negative health effects in workers
who apply them, people that live nearby the area of application or
downstream/ downwind from it, and consumers who eat the
pesticides which remain on their food.
5. IRRIGATION
 Complications
Depletion of underground aquifers through over drafting. Under
irrigation gives poor soil salinity control which leads to increased soil
salinity with consequent build-up of toxic salts on soil surface in areas
with high evaporation. Under irrigation requires either leaching to
remove the salts and a method of drainage to carry the salts away.
Over irrigation may lead to water pollution because of poor distribution

uniformity or management wastes water, and chemicals. Deep

drainage (from over-irrigation) may result in rising water tables which in
some instances will lead to problems of irrigation salinity. Irrigation with
saline or high-sodium water may damage soil structure.
6. POLLUTANTS
 Pollutants
A wide range of agricultural chemicals are used and some
become pollutants through misuse or ignorance. Spray drift Pesticides,
especially those based on organo chloride.
7. WASTE
 Plasticulture
The use of plastic materials in agriculture, raises problems
around how to carry out the recycling of agricultural plastics.

2.0 AGRICULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Role of Agriculture in Modern Society

Agriculture provides the basis of subsistence for the population by
production of food and raw materials. By division of work and specialization,
increased in output and productivity of agriculture could be achieved. Today
only part of the production process takes place on the farm. Agriculture uses
industrial products such as fertilizer, pesticides, machinery and equipment,
the services of the tertiary sector like banking, insurance etc. and hands its
products over to other sectors for packing, processing, or distribution. Today,
agriculture is deeply interwoven with other sectors of economy. Many people
from rural areas migrated to the cities and filled the ranks of workers in the
secondary and tertiary sector. For the remaining rural population, agriculture
changed from a way of life to a profession in which technical know-how plays
an ever increasing role. New forms like part-time farming arose. In areas with
 a very tiny holdings and poor soil, rural urban migration reached the stage
where only the aged live in the village.
Changes in Agriculture
The process of agriculture production has become increasingly
complex and requires therefore scientific help in research and extension. The
need for optimizing the allocation of inputs has given agriculture economics
importance, especially in the field of farm management. Necessary changes
in the agrarian structure require special studies. The application of inputs in
agriculture have created new task in fields like agricultural chemistry and
engineering, and the process of food has become a new area of
specialization. Finally, the provision of food for the population with so many
contributors and interest-groups can be achieved only with a functioning
marketing and distribution system as well as a sound agricultural policy.

How did agriculture change human society?

It enabled a more diverse range of jobs for people. Farming also
enabled people to stay in one place for much, much longer than nomadic
people do, which, in turn, enabled people to build cities, houses, industrial
areas, etc., and thus create new opportunities for new jobs.

What is an agriculture-based economy?

An agriculture-based economy is an economy in which everything
starts with how well agriculture in that society is. An example of this is the
Ancient Mesopotamia society in which a surplus caused by agriculture led to
job specialization, which in turn led to more manufacturing, which led to more
trade, which would then lead to a richer economy. If farming is not producing
enough food, then more workers will have to work in agriculture which leads
to less manufacturing/specialized jobs, which in turn leads to less trade, and
then a poorer economy.

Table 2. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues of High Value Agriculture

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES

Vast areas for cultivation endanger Vast areas needed for cultivation restricting land
valuable habitats and biodiversity rights of indigenous peoples
Promoting cultivation of less suitable Salaries generated may alleviate malnutrition if food
crops that require extensive amounts can be purchased locally, also may improve
of water, fertilizers, pesticides, or education, health and other conditions
space or the processing of which
requires a great deal of energy or
pollute the environment
Water and soil pollution, harm to Employment of minorities, undocumented workers
ecosystems, and public health risks and immigrants who are not aware of, or not in a
due to excessive application of position to demand, safe, working environments and
fertilizers, herbicides and pesticides equitable salaries
Migration of women into cities and towns to work in
factories and warehouses
Consequent effects of women's employment on child
and home-care and subsistence/cash crop
production
Employment of child labor particularly in very poor
 areas
Access by women, minorities and other
disadvantaged groups to employment and other
project opportunities
Occupational health risks due to dust, materials
handling, noise, or other process operations, and
safety of workers in factories/plantations
Table 3. Environmental and Social Issues on Smallholder Agriculture

SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

Lack of well-developed extension service Lack of experience or capacity of grazers
or other outreach institutional structure to understand optimal stocking rates and
for education and technical assistance carrying capacity of rangelands
Insecure land tenure or lack of other Loss of valuable natural habitats which
forms of ownership, which discourages a decreases biodiversity due to the
sense of responsibility for the resource(s)clearance of forests for agriculture
purposes
Practices required for loans or credits Modification of natural species diversity
involves structures or equipment beyond as
the means of the owners in a small-scale result of the transformation to
operations monoculture
practices
Dislocation or involuntary resettlement of Wind and water erosion, dust storms,
people from farmlands may result in a drifting sand, and loss of soil fertility due
long walk to arable land everyday to poor agricultural practices
Increasing population pressure can make Dispersal of water pollution and nutrient
previously successful farming methods load from the fields due to lack of buffer
such as slash and burn, no longer strips and wetlands along streams
sustainable
Lack of attention to the differential
access of male and female farmers to
technologies and inputs
Impact of sickness and death from
HIV/AIDS and malaria is limiting labour
available for agriculture
Installation and maintenance of irrigation
works require planting high- value crops
to defray costs
Table 4. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues on Livestock Development and
Rangeland Management

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES

Clearing intact forest areas for grazing Increased involvement of pastoralists in
purposes commodity markets
Deforestation as a result of destroying Lack of understanding of the concept of
saplings in natural pastures optimal stocking rates
Erosion and land degradation due to Transformations of indigenous tenure
overgrazing systems and organizations
Fire increases forage yield and Changes in people's traditional access to
palatability of grasses and forbs but resources
accidental burning can be disastrous
for the vegetation and soils, and can
lead to increase soil erosion
Impediments to movements of Changes overtime of traditional local rules
migrating wildlife caused by long fences for regulating access to common property
resources
Shift to intensive production techniques Highly skewed livestock ownership in most
such as animal feedlots, without rangelands and skewed intra- household
accompanying technical assistance in property rights based on gender and age
areas such as waste management
Contamination of land and water with Risk of zoonosis (animal diseases that can
manure, eutrophication of water bodies be caught by man)
due to poor manure handling and
storage systems and lack of
transportation means
Table 5. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues on Agro-enterprise and forest-
based enterprise development

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES

Degradation of water bodies due to Access by women and other disadvantaged
discharge of polluting wastes from facility groups to employment and other project
complex opportunities
Aggravation of solid waste problems in the Violation of resources and land rights of IPs
areas of processing plants
Air pollution, gaseous and odor emissions Constraints (cultural, skills, legal rights,
from processing operations bureaucratic processes) faced by women and
other disadvantaged groups to own, manage,
or work in enterprises
Accidental release of polluting or In-migration of people into the area drawn by
hazardous solvents from the plants prospects for employment in agro- and forest-
based enterprises
Environmental problems related to Consequent effect of women employment on
transportation of raw materials and child- and home-care and subsistence/cash
products crop production

Table 6. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues on Fisheries Development

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES

Biological over fishing that damages Weak property rights over common fish
natural fish stocks and ecosystems resources resulting in over fishing in both
marine and inland fisheries
Damaging methods of fishing such as Economic over-fishing reducing net
use of explosives or trawling; may benefits to an increasing fishing population
cause long term damage to stocks due to expanding exploitation of depleting
and environment resources
Spreading fish diseases and pollution Conflict between industrial and small-
from fish farms scale fishers as industrial vessels
encroach on grounds reserved for
community fisheries
Negative impacts of farmed species on Different access to productive activities
natural species and the ecosystem according to gender or social status may
or may not be a problem
Establishment of farms often preceded Effects on human nutrition, especially
by environmental destruction in poor communities
Incidence of water-borne or water-
related diseases harmful to local
human population
Table 6. Environmental and Socio-economic Issues on Forestry Development

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES SOCIOECONOMIC ISSUES

Inefficient institutional capacities at national Uncontrolled in-migration and
and regional levels may lead to uncontrolled poaching with opening of roads to
use of forest resources forest area
Inadequate forest policy and strategy Dislocation or involuntary
development and poor enforcement of resettlement of people leading to
regulations may lead to over-exploitation of socioeconomic disruption and
forest resources and environmental decrease in the standard of living of
degradation resettled people
Projects may include major infrastructure Loss of historic or cultural features
development, be located at or near an of
environmentally critical/sensitive areas, alter the land, e.g. ancestral lands of IPs
the
pattern of land use, or cause land use conflicts
Degradation of valuable habitats and Impairment of recreational and
biodiversity due to disturbance ecotourism opportunities
Spreading introduced tree and scrub species Land use pressures from outside
and disappearance of certain local species forcing local and IPs who depend
requiring intact forest cover for regeneration on intact nature to change their
traditional way of life and sources of
incomes
Land degradation due to clearance prior to
reforestation including soil erosion, disruption
of hydrological cycle, loss of nutrients, and
decline in soil fertility
Shifting cultivation may follow logging and, if
practiced in moist and semi- arid areas, may
degrade the land
Decline of wildlife stocks as a result of habitat
fragmentation, fencing and competing
livestock breeding
Increase in peak and flood flows and surface
runoff during rains, consequent increase in soil
erosion, landslides, mudflows, and siltation
Decreasing non-timber natural resources
valuable to the local population
Poor forest fire control and capacity for fire
suppression may lead to major forest fires
3.0 SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE

Sustainable agriculture
Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways, which means
meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the
ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on
an understanding of ecosystem services
Green agriculture is the application of the sustainable development
principles to agriculture: ensuring the production of food, wood and fibers while
respecting the ecological, economic and social limits that ensure the durability of
this production. For instance, sustainable farming minimises the use of pesticides
that can harm the health of farmers and consumers.

Key principles are linked to sustainable agriculture:

1. Develop efficient, self-sufficient and economical production systems
that provide decent incomes
2. Preserve and protect biodiversity and territories
3. Optimize the use of natural resources
4. Manage the quality of air, water and soil
5. Increase energy efficiency in food production and distribution

What is sustainable agricultural practice?

Sustainable agriculture is a type of agriculture that focuses on
producing long-term crops and livestock while having minimal effects on the
environment. Sustainable agriculture also focuses on maintaining economic
stability of farms and helping farmers improve their techniques and quality of
life.

Sustainable farming methods include:

1. Crop Rotation and Diversity
Crop rotation is the practice of growing variety of different crops on the
same plot in sequenced season. Polyculture is an important element of the
soil fertility management and pest, and there for an asset of increasing yields.

2. Cover Crops
 Cover crop is an intermediate culture between two production culture.
Its main function is to protect the land against erosion and enhance soil
quality. The use of cover crops reduces the need for chemicals such as
fertilizers.

3. No-till Farming
Reducing or avoiding tillage allows to grow crops without disturbing the
soil arrangement and thus reduce soil erosion, but also increase the amount
of infiltration of water, boosts organic matter retention and nutient cycle.

4. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

IPM is based on experimentation and observation, allowing to develop
the crops in harmony with their environment and make them profitable. It
takes into account biological methods of plant protection and ensures their
integration, in order to control the development of pests while minimizing the
used of chemical pesticides.

5. Agroforestry and Natural Animal Raising

Agroforestry is the association of trees and crops or animals on the
same plot. This ancestral practice allows a better resources, greater biological
diversity and the creation of a micro climate favourable yield increase.
Likewise, a smart integration of animal production can be a recipe for more
efficient crops and profitable farms.
6. Renewable Energy Use
For agriculture to be a sustainable, using clean, efficient and renewable
energies is crucial. Example of renewable energies and energy in agro
industry system include solar irrigation, geothermal heating and drip irrigation
Sustainable Agriculture Advantages

Environmental Protection
The first advantage of sustainable agriculture is the
protection of the environment, reducing erosion and
natural resource degradation, improving air and water
quality, increasing biodiversity, as well as decreasing
carbon emissions.

Public Health Improvement

Sustainable agriculture don’t use hazardous pesticides
and fertilizers. As a result, farmers are able to produce
safer and healthier food for consumers and surrounding
communities

Economic And Social Equity

Another benefit of sustainable farming methods is that
they provide decent income, but also jobs, food and
other goods and services for the majority of people now
living in poverty. Besides, it allows to boost rural
territories and create social links between the rural and
urban world

Sustainable Agriculture Challenges

1. Food security and productivity
Sustainable agriculture will have to prove itself facing with intensive agriculture. Even
though it is more reasonable, it cannot offer the same short-term returns. With the
growing population and the persistently high levels of hunger and malnutrition,
sustainable agriculture yields need to address the food security issue by producing
more in less time, while using fewer natural resources
2. Natural resources availability
The other big challenge that green agriculture is facing is undoubtedly the rapid
degradation and depletion of natural resources
Sustainable Agriculture Solutions
IV. Study Question

1. Relate an interaction between a rice plant and the weeds around it in terms of
utilization of sunlight, nutrients, water, etc.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____

2. Explain the impact of fertilizers in an agro-ecosystem. Give the various

processes that might takes place once it is applied to the soil.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____

3. What are the environmental and socio-economic issues in establishing a

livestock enterprise or rangeland/pasture?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____

4. Despite that there are many graduates of agriculture, why is it that extension
service in the country in general is still inadequate both in high value and
smallholder agriculture?
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____

5. Differentiate sustainability and stability.

______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____

6. Give an example of a condition in an ecosystem where resiliency can be

observed.
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
_____
 .

V. Summary
In this module, the land as a basic natural resource for use in any
economic activity has been the central focus It was emphasized that it is an
ecosystem itself with components interacting with each other. Ecosystem
properties were fully elucidated and how these are observed and measured
was taken. Since the agriculture sector occupied the largest area and
because of the multi-faceted activities, tremendous impacts might be
observed if the land users themselves do not employ environment friendly
strategies. Environmental and socio-economic issues were presented for the
students to relate in their everyday lives.
Some of the environmental issues that are related to agriculture are
climate change, deforestation, dead zones, genetic engineering, irrigation
problems, pollutants, soil degradation, intensive farming and waste.
Sustainable agriculture is farming in sustainable ways, which means
meeting society's present food and textile needs, without compromising the
ability for current or future generations to meet their needs. It can be based on
an understanding of ecosystem services
Green agriculture is the application of the sustainable development
principles to agriculture: ensuring the production of food, wood and fibers while
respecting the ecological, economic and social limits that ensure the durability of
this production. For instance, sustainable farming minimises the use of pesticides
that can harm the health of farmers and consumers.

VI. References
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%20materials.&text=The%20more%20people%20live%20in,prices%20became%20a
%20political%20issue.
2. https://www.google.com/search?
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