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Research Methods
1.1. Concepts and definition of research
The term research is perceived, defined, and classified differently among
procedures and customers.
Research refers to a search for knowledge.
Research means a scientific and systematic search for certain information
on a specific topic.
Research is a process for collecting, analyzing and interpreting
information to answer questions.
Research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures.
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Characteristics of research
It originates with questions.
It requires a clear articulation of a goal.
It follows a clear articulation of procedure.
It is guided by the specific research problem, question and hypothesis.
It accepts certain critical assumptions.
It requires the collection and interpretation of the data in attempting to
resolve the problem.
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1.2. Dimension of Research
Research can be classified in a number of different ways: by its
purpose, by its research technique and time dimension.
The dimensions of research loosely overlap with each other.
Based on the research techniques or methods can be classified as
descriptive, explanatory, basic (fundamental), and applied research.
Based on time dimension research could be categorized as cross-
sectional and longitudinal research.
Research could also be classified as quantitative and qualitative
research based on the sources of data collection.
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a) Basic research versus Applied research
i. Basic Research
Basic research is the source of most new scientific ideas and ways of
thinking about the world.
It involves developing and testing theories and hypothesis .
It involves discovery (where a totally new idea or explanation
emerges) or innovation (where a new technique or method is
created).
Basic research is the source of most of the tools- methods,
theories, and ideas that applied researchers use.
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ii. Applied Research
The central aim is to discover a solution for some pressing
practical problems.
And it is conducted to solve the practical problems such as for
policy formulation, administration, and the enhancement of
understanding of a phenomenon.
Applied research is problem-oriented as the research is carried out to
solve a specific problem that requires a decision.
Applied researchers conduct a study to address a specific concern or to
offer solutions to a problem of their employer, a club or organization.
Action research is an example of applied research.
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b) Descriptive versus Explanatory research:
i. Descriptive research
The main characteristic of this research is only report what has
happened or what is happening.
Descriptive research usually uses a survey method to accurately
and precisely describe the research population.
Exploring new issues or explaining why something happens is less of a
concern for descriptive researchers than describing how things are.
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ii. Explanatory Research:
Explanatory research attempts to clarify why and how there is a
relationship between two aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
This type of research is involved in explaining why something
happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables.
c) Quantitative versus Qualitative
Based on the type of information sought research can be classified as
quantitative or qualitative.
i. Quantitative Research:
Quantitative Research is based on the measurement of quantity or
amount.
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It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of
quantity.
The research design is determined prior to the start of data collection
and is not flexible.
This type of study need to adhere to the standards of strict sampling
and research design.
ii. Qualitative research
Qualitative research is generally used to explore values, attitudes,
opinions, feelings and behaviors of individuals and understand how
these affect the individuals in question.
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Researchers using qualitative methods are concerned with individuals’
perceptions of specific topics, issues or situations and the meanings they
assign to their lives.
d) Cross sectional research versus Longitudinal research
Based on time dimension research could be categorized as cross-
sectional and longitudinal research.
i. Cross-Sectional Research
Cross-sectional studies are those in which data is gathered once, during a
period of days, weeks or months.
Researchers observe study subjects at one point in time.
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It is also called prevalence study (survey study).
It is the major type of descriptive study designs.
ii. Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data collection at
multiple points in time.
Longitudinal studies will often be more time consuming and
expensive than cross-sectional studies, they are more likely to
identify causal relationships between variables.
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Types of longitudinal research are
Trended study (Time series research) is a longitudinal study in
which the same type of information is collected on a group of people
or other units across multiple time periods.
Panel study observes exactly the same people, group, or
organization across time periods.
Cohort study is similar to the panel study, but rather than observing
the exact same people, a category of people who share a similar life
experience in a specific time period is studied. The focus is on the
cohort, or the category, not on specific individuals.
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e) Retrospective research versus Prospective:
i. Retrospective research
Retrospective studies investigate a phenomenon, situation, problem or
issue that has happened in the past.
They are usually conducted either on the basis of the data available for
that period or on the basis of respondents’ recall of the situation.
ii. Prospective research:
Prospective studies refer to the likely prevalence of a phenomenon,
situation, problem, attitude or outcome in the future.
Such studies attempt to establish the outcome of an event or what is
likely to happen.
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1.3. Statement of the Research Problem
The focal point of every research activity is a research problem.
It elaborates about the problem.
Identify some of the main an unanswered question : “What is the gap
that needs to be filled?” and/or “What is the problem that needs to be
solved?”
It is a description of the type of information expected to result from
the project and how this information will be used to help solve the
problem.
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Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is
undertaken:
Is the Problem Researchable? (The problem must be stated in workable
research questions that can be answered empirically).
Is the Problem New? (It is useful to avoid duplication; the researcher has
to go through the records of previous studies in a given field).
Is the Problem Significant?
Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?
In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:
Research competencies of the Researcher, Interest and enthusiasm of the
Researcher , Financial consideration in the Project, Time requirement for
the Project, Administrative considerations in the Project.
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1.4. Objectives of the study
The objective of the study should be clearly stated and in nature.
This section includes a statement of both your study's general and
specific objectives.
i. General objectives of the study :
The main/general objective indicates the central thrust of your study.
ii. Specific objectives:
Identify the specific issues you propose to examine.
Each specific objective should delineate only one issue.
Use action oriented verbs such as to determine, to find out, to
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ascertain in formulating specific objectives.
1.5. Literature Review
Literature review is one of the essential preliminary tasks of a
researcher.
The process of reviewing the related literature comprises, among other
things, active reading, careful record keeping, and selective note taking
and critical evaluation of the information.
A literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge
accumulates and those learns from and build on what others have done.
The production of new knowledge is fundamentally dependent on past
knowledge.
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Scientific research is not an activity of isolated hermits who ignore
other’s findings.
Rather, it is a collective effort of many researchers who share their
results with one another and who pursue knowledge as a community.
In short, Literature review is a standalone review (overview) of the
body of knowledge relevant to your research problem.
Use of literature review
It prevents you from duplicating work that has been done before.
It increases your knowledge on the problem you want to study and this
may assist you in refining your "statement of the problem".
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It gives you confidence why your particular research project is
needed.
To be familiar with different research methods.
To learn from others and develop new ideas.
Sources of information
Card catalogues of books in libraries.
Organizations (institutions).
Published information (books, journals, etc.).
Unpublished documents (studies in related fields, reports, etc.)
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1.6 Research Design
Research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data.
Research design is making research as efficient as possible yielding
maximal information with minimal expenditure of effort, time and
money.
A detailed outline of how an investigation will take place.
A research design will typically include how data is to be collected, what
instruments will be employed, how the instruments will be used and the
intended means for analyzing data collected.
It is, therefore, an efficient and appropriate design must be prepared
before starting research operations.
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The overall research design includes the following parts:
Study design
Source Population /Study population / Sampling specifications
Sample size needed
Instrumentation
Specific procedures
Study design:
A study design is a specific plan or protocol for conducting the study,
which allows the investigator to translate the conceptual hypothesis into
an operational one.
The study design should be clearly stated.
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Source Population :
It is a collection of items that have something in common for which we
wish to draw conclusions at a particular time.
Study Population:
It is a part of target population and actually accessible and legitimate for
data collection.
Sample size:
It is important to mention in the protocol what would be the minimum
sample required and how it is arrived.
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Important Concepts Relating to Research Design
Variables of the study
A variable is a characteristic that takes different values.
Response (dependent) variables are variables which can be affected
by explanatory variable and it is the outcome of a study.
Independent (explanatory) variables are any variables that explain
the response variable.
Statistical Models: Statistical model is a tool for quantifying the
evidence in data about a particular truth.
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1.7 Research proposal writing
What is a Research Proposal?
It is a document that presents a plan for the research project.
It is an overall plan, structure and strategy design to obtain answers to
research problems or questions.
A good research proposal is based on scientific facts and on the art of clear
communication .
Purpose of Proposals writing
Justify and plan a research project.
Show how your project contributes to existing research.
Organising and developing your topic ideas.
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Convincing other people of the merit of your idea.
Components of research proposal
Title
Introduction
Background of the study
Statement of the Problem
Objective of the study
Significance of the Study
Literature Review
Research Methodology
Ethical considerations
Work plan
Cost of the project
References
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Title
It should provide sufficient information about the nature of the study.
The title should not be too lengthy or too short.
The research topic or title should be specific and clear.
Should be in line with your general objective.
It is the focus of your research.
Introduction
Describe background of the study
Generally introduce the problem to the readers.
Historical perspective of the problem you want to study.
Discuss the magnitude of the problem.
State the objective and significance of the study.
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Research methodology
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research
problem.
The research methodology section should describe the overall
approach and practical steps you will take to answer your research
questions.
In this section the details about sampling procedure, the data collecting
tools, methods of analysis and administration of the instruments are
described.
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Work plan
A work plan can serve as:
a tool in planning the details of the project activities and later the
project funds.
a management tool showing what activities are planned, their timing,
and when various members will be involved
a tool for monitoring and evaluation, when the current status of the
project is compared to what was fore seen in the work plan.
Work plan summarizes (in a table, chart, graph) the various components
of a research project and how they fit together.
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Cost of the project (Budget)
How should a budget be prepared?
It is necessary to use the work plan as a starting point.
Specify, for each activity in the work plan, what resources are
required.
Determine for each resource needed the unit cost and the total cost.
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Referencing
Referencing is a standardised method of acknowledging sources of
information and ideas that you have used in your assignment in a
way that uniquely identifies their source.
Direct quotations, facts and figures, as well as ideas and theories,
from both published and unpublished works, must be referenced.
'Citing' means acknowledging ideas or data from other authors, but
not using their exact words. Instead, we summarise the ideas using
our own words.
'Quoting' means including in your document the actual words or data
taken directly from another source, without changing it.
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Why is it important to cite references:
Shows where you got your information.
Allows other researchers to trace your sources of information quickly
and easily.
Acknowledges the work of other researchers.
Protects you against accusations of plagiarism.
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How to search an article for reference
Once you get a key word, search in the internet using search engines.
Google scholar, PubMed and Endnote are some of the search engines
(are important internet areas to download).
By putting the key words, you will find articles.
If it is your area of interest, you should further read the abstract, and
decide whether it may be useful.
If the abstract seems useful, try your best to find and read the whole
article.
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Which system to use?
There are various referencing systems
Vancouver (number)
Harvard - (author, date), etc.
The Vancouver system
In this method, the numbering occurring in the body of the paper refers
to the order of the bibliographic descriptions in the list (Numeric
System).
This type of system is most often seen in journals as it uses less space
than other methods, yet still allows a brief acknowledgement to an
author when their ideas or words have been used.
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The Harvard System
The Harvard referencing system is commonly used in most journals and
in many disciplines.
Using the Harvard system, reference to sources is made at an
appropriate place in the text by stating:
Surname (of author(s);
year of publication;
page number(s), (optional)
This system utilizes the author’s name (without initials) and the year of
publication of the text within brackets, e.g. (Assefa, 2014).
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Appendix
It contains any additional pictures and/or material you wish to
include.
As an attachment, add any bulky but important
documents/information like tables, graphs questionnaire etc.
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1.8. Sections of Research report
Title page
Table of content
Acknowledgement
Abstract
Introduction (Background, statement of problem, objective, significance of the study)
Literature review
Methodology (Materials and Methods)
Results
Discussions
Conclusions and Recommendations
References
Appendix
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Title:
To provide a brief , informative summary that will attract your target
audience.
Abstract
The abstract will be the first (and for busy decision makers most likely
the only) part of your study that will be read.
To highlight key points from the major sections of the manuscript.
Remember that only few words are allowed to be included in the
abstract (usually 250-300 words).
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Components of the abstract
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Results
To describe the results of data analysis that are relevant to the study.
Systematic presentation of your findings in relation to the research
objective is crucial.
It should contain an explanation and description of the data, including
any qualitative observations you made during the study.
Tell the reader exactly what you found, what patterns, trends, or
relationships were observed.
Illustrations in the results section may contain of graphs, photographs,
or diagrams that visually depict your results.
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Discussion
In the discussion section:
You should interpret, critically evaluate, and compare to other
reports.
You examine the amount and possible sources of variability in your
data, including experimental error.
You have to state clearly whether your hypothesis was valid or
invalid.
Be sure to relate your findings to other studies and cite those studies.
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Conclusions & recommendations
Bring together the outcomes in a statement that addresses the research
question about the generalization of your findings to the population of
which you drew your sample.
Write up your conclusion and state your recommendation for the
responsible body.
Draw positive conclusions from your study whenever possible.
Finish with specific justified suggestions for future research projects.
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