Chapter 1

Vector and Vector Space

Contents
1.1 Scaler and Vectors in R2 and R3 3

1.2 Vector Addition and Scaler Multiplication 5

1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection, and Direction
Cosines 7
1.3.1 Norm of a Vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Scalar Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.3 Angle between two vectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.4 Orthogonal Projection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.3.5 Directional angles and cosines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1.4 The Vector product 15

1.5 Lines and planes in R3 21

1.6 Vector Space and Subspace 29

1.7 Linear Dependence and Independence 31

1.8 Bases and dimension of a vector space 33

1.9 Exercise 35

Vectors can be used by air-traffic controlers when tracking planes, by meteorologists to describe wind
conditions, and also it helps to computer programmers to design virtual world. In this chapter, applications
of vectors which are commonly used in the study of physics: work, torque and magnetic force will be
presented along with the concept of vector and vector space.

1.1 Scaler and Vectors in R2 and R3

Definition 1.1.1 A Physical quantities that is described by its magnitude only is called scalar.

Definition 1.1.2 A physical quantities that is described using both magnitude and direction is called
vector.
 Example 1.1 Temperature, Mass, area, density, volume, etc, are examples of scalars because they are
completely described by a number that tells "How Much" like 10o C and length of 5 m whereas force,
displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc are examples of vectors. 

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2 Vector and Vector Space

Definition 1.1.3 Vectors in R2 and R3 


v1
A vector in the plane R2 can be described as v = (v1 , v2 ) or v = , where v1 , v2 ∈ R. Similarly,
v2
 
w1
a vector in the space R3 can be described as a triple of numbers w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) or w =  w2 ,
w3
where w1 , w2 , w3 ∈ R.

Definition 1.1.4 A number x can be used to represent a point on a line. A pair of numbers or a couple
of numbers (x, y) can be used to represent a point in the plane. A triple of numbers (x, y, z) can be used
to represent a point in space.

We can say that a single number represents a point in 1-space or on a line, a couple of numbers represents a
point in 2-space or on a plane and a triple of numbers represents a point in 3-space or on a space. Although
we cannot draw a picture to go further, a quadruple of numbers (x, y, z, w) or (x1 , x2 , x3 , x4 ) represent a
point in 4-space.

Figure 1.1: Representation of a point on a line, plane and space

Definition 1.1.5 Vectors in n–space,

Every pair of distinct points P and Q in Rn determines a directed line segment with initial point at
−→
P and terminal point at Q. We call such a directed line segment a vector and denote it by PQ. The
−→
length of the line segment is the magnitude of the vector. Although PP has zero length, and strictly
speaking, no direction, it is convenient to view it as a vector. It is called a zero or a null vector. It is
→
−
often denoted by 0 .

Definition 1.1.6 A position vector is a vector whose initial point is at the origin otherwise it is a
located vector.

Definition 1.1.7 Two non–zero vectors v and w of the same dimension are said to be parallel if they
are scaler multiples of one another. In other words, the two vectors v and w are said to be parallel,
denoted by v//w if there is a scaler k such that v = kw and if k > 0, then they have the same direction
and if k < 0, then they are in the opposite direction.
→
−
The vector 0 is parallel to every vector v in the same dimension, since it can be expressed as the scaler
multiple 0 = 0v. Although, zero vectors has no natural direction, it can be assigned any direction that is
convenient for the problem at hand.
 Example 1.2 Consider P1 = (3, 7), P2 = (5, 1), Q1 = (−4, 2) and Q2 = (−16, −14) are points on a
−−→ −−→
plane. Then P1 Q1 = Q1 − P1 = (−7, −5) and P2 Q2 = Q2 − P2 = (−21, −15) = 3(−7, −5). Therefore,
−−→ −−→
P1 Q1 and P2 Q2 are parallel and have the same direction, since 3 > 0. 

Example 1.3 Vector v = (1, 2, 3) and w = (−2, −4, −6) are parallel vectors because of w = −2v, but
have opposite direction. 

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1.2 Vector Addition and Scaler Multiplication 3

Definition 1.1.8 Two vectors v and w will be considered to be equal(or equivalence), v = w, if they
have the same magnitude and direction even though they may be located in different position. That is,
if v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) in R2 , v = w if and only if v1 = w1 and v2 = w2 .

Figure 1.2: Equal Vectors

The definition of equality of two vectors does not require that the vectors have the same initial and terminal
points. Rather it suggests that we can move vectors freely provided we make no change in magnitude and
direction.

1.2 Vector Addition and Scaler Multiplication

Definition 1.2.1 If v and w are any two vectors, then the sum v + w is the vector determined as follows;
position the vector w so that its initial point coincides with the terminal point of v. The vector v + w is
represented by the arrow from the initial point of v to the terminal point of w.

Figure 1.3: The sum of vector v and w

More than two vectors can also be added by joining the terminal point of the first to the initial point of the
second and so on, finally the result will be a vector from the initial point of the first to the terminal point
of the last vector.
Definition 1.2.2 If v is a non-zero vector and k a non-zero real numbers(scalar), then the product kv is
defined to be the vector whose length is |k| times the length of v and whose direction is the same as
that of v if k > 0 and opposite to that of v if k < 0. We define kv = 0 if k = 0 or v = 0.

Note that the vector (−1)v has the same length as v but is oppositely direction. Thus (−1)v is just the
negative of v.

Figure 1.4: -v is in the opposite direction of v

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4 Vector and Vector Space

Vectors in Coordinate System

Let v be any vectors in the plane, that v has been positioned. So, its initial point is at the origin of
a rectangular coordinates system. The coordinates (v1 , v2 ) of the terminal point of v are called the
components of v and we write v = (v1 , v2 ). An order pair consists of two terms the abscissa(horizontal,
usually x) and the ordinate(vertical, usually y) which define the location of a point in two-dimensional
rectangular space.
The operation of vector addition in terms of components for v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ), then

Figure 1.5: The location of a point in two dimensional rectangular space

v + w = (v1 + w1 , v2 + w2 )

Figure 1.6: The sum of vector v and w component wise

Definition 1.2.3 If v = (v1 , v2 ) and k is any number or scaler. Then kv is a vector and defined as
kv = (kv1 , kv2 ).

Figure 1.7: Scalar multiple vector

 Example 1.4 If u = (4, 3, 2) and α = 2, then αu = 2(4, 3, 2) = (8, 6, 4). 

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1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection, and Direction Cosines5

If a vector v in 3-space is positioned. So its initial point is at the origin of rectangular coordinate
system, the coordinates of the terminal point are called the components of v, and we write v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ).

Figure 1.8: Position Vector

Definition 1.2.4 If v and w are any two vectors, then the difference of w from v is defined by

v − w = v + (−w)

Figure 1.9: The difference of vector v and w

Example 1.5 Consider v = (1, 2, 4) and w = (3, 1, 2). Find v + w, 2v and v − 2w.
Solution: From the definition of vector addition and scalar multiplication
v + w = (1, 2, 4) + (3, 1, 2) = (4, 3, 6)
2v = 2(1, 2, 4) = (2, 4, 8)
v − 2w = (1, 2, 4) − 2(3, 1, 2) = (−5, 0, 0)


Properties of Vector addition and Scaler Multiplication

Let u, v and w be vectors in R2 and α and β are scalers. Then
1. v + w ∈ R2 (R3 )
2. v + w = w + v
→
− → − →
−
3. u + 0 = 0 + u = u, where 0 = (0, 0) ∈ R2
→
−
4. There exist w ∈ R2 , such that u + w = 0 for every u ∈ R2
5. (u + v) + w = u + (v + w)
6. α(β u) = (αβ )u
7. (α + β )u = αu + αu
8. 1 · u = u
→
−
The properties described above also hold true for every vectors in R3 , where 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ R3 and
→−
generally is also true in Rn , where 0 = (0, 0, 0, · · · , 0) ∈ Rn .

1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection,

and Direction Cosines
1.3.1 Norm of a Vector

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6 Vector and Vector Space

Definition 1.3.1 Let v = (v1 , v2 ) be a vector in R2 . Then the norm or magnitude of v, denoted by kvk
is defined by q
kvk = v21 + v22

Similarly, for a vector w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) be a vector in R3 . Then the magnitude of w, denoted by kwk
is defined by q
kwk = w21 + w22 + w23

Example 1.6 Find the norm of a vector u = (2, 3, 5, 4).

Solution: From the definition of norm
p
kuk = 22 + 32 + 52 + 42
√
= 4 + 9 + 25 + 16
√
= 54

Example 1.7 If kvk = 6, find x such that v = (−1, x, 5).

Solution: From the definition of norm
q
kvk = (−1)2 + x2 + 52
q
6 = (−1)2 + x2 + 52
36 = 1 + x 2 + 52
2
x = 10
√
x = ± 10

Remark 1.3.1 • kvk 6= 0 if v 6= 0.

• kvk = k − vk

Theorem 1.3.2 If k ∈ R, then kkcvk = |k|kvk.

Proof: Suppose that v ∈ Rn , then
q
kvk = (kv1 )2 + (kv2 )2 + · · · + (kvn )2
q
= k2 (v21 + v22 + · · · + v2n )
√ q
= k2 v21 + v22 + · · · + v2n
= |k|kvk

 Example 1.8 Let v = (1, 3, 5). Then find the norm or magnitude of the vector −3v.

Solution: From the definition and properties of the norm

k − 3vk = | − 3|kvk
p
= 3 12 + 32 + 52
√
= 3 1 + 9 + 25
√
= 3 35

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1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection, and Direction Cosines7

Definition 1.3.2 A vector u satisfying kuk = 1 is called a unit vector.

−1
 Example 1.9 The vector (0, 1), (−1, 0), ( √1 , √ ), (1, 0, 0) are examples of unit vectors 
2 2
Example 1.10 Find a unit vector in the same direction as w = (3, −4).
Solution: First, note that
q √
kwk = k(3, −4)k = 32 + (−4)2 = 25 = 5

A unit vector in the same direction as w is then u = 1

kwk w = 15 (3, −4) = ( 53 , −4
5 ). 

Example 1.11 Find a unit vector in the same direction as (1, −2, 3) and write (1, −2, 3) as the product
of its magnitude and a unit vector.
Solution: First, we find the magnitude of the vector
q √
k(1, −2, 3)k = 12 + (−2)2 + 32 = 14

The unit vector having the same direction as (1, −2, 3) is given by

1 1 −2 3
√ (1, −2, 3) = ( √ , √ , √ )
14 14 14 14
√
Furthermore, (1, −2, 3) = 14( √114 , √−2
14
, √314 ). 

Remark 1.3.3 • All unit vectors in R2 are of the form (cos θ , sin θ ), where θ ∈ [0, 2π].
• For any non-zero vector w, the unit vector u corresponding to w in the direction of w can be
w
obtained as u = kwk .
• For two points P1 = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and P2 = (x2 , y2 , z2 ) on the plane R3 , we calculate the distance
d(P1 , P2 ) between the two points as
−−→
q
d(P1 , P2 ) = kP1 P2 k = (x2 − x1 )2 + (y2 − y1 )2 + (z2 − z1 )2

−−→
where P1 P2 is the vector with initial point P1 and terminal point P2 ; that is,
−−→
P1 P2 = (x2 − x1 , y2 − y1 , z2 − z1 )

Figure 1.10: Vector

1.3.2 Scalar Product

Definition 1.3.3 Suppose v and w be two vectors in R2 or R3 and θ ∈ [0, π] represents the angle

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8 Vector and Vector Space

between them. Then scalar product of v and w is the number defined by


kvkkwk cos θ if v 6= 0 and w 6= 0
v·w =
0 if v = 0 or w = 0
The scalar product of the two vectors is a scaler quantity and its value is maximum when θ = 0o and
minimum if θ = 180o and the scalar product is also called a dot product or inner product and its value are
scalar.
Let v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) be two non zero vectors. If θ is the angle between v and w, then the law
of cosines yields

Figure 1.11: The dot product of two vectors

kv − wk2 = kvk2 + kwk2 − 2kvkkwk cos θ

⇒ 2kvkkwk cos θ = kvk2 + kwk2 − kv − wk2
= kvk2 + kwk2 − kw − vk2
1
⇒ kvkkwk cos θ = [kvk2 + kwk2 − kv − wk2 ]
2
1
⇒ v·w = [kvk2 + kwk2 − kv − wk2 ]
2
1 2
= [v + v22 + w21 + w22 + 2v1 w1 + 2v2 w2 − v21
2 1
−v22 − w21 − w22 ]
1
= [2v1 w1 + 2v2 w2 ]
2
= v1 w1 + v2 w2
Therefore, the dot product of the two vectors v = (v1 , v2 ) and w = (w1 , w2 ) are vectors in R3 , the dot
product cab be
v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2
Similarly, if v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ) are non zero vectors in R3 , the dot product can be
v · w = v1 w1 + v2 w2 + v3 w3

Properties of Scaler Product

If u, v and w are vectors in the same dimension and α ∈ R, then
1. u · u = kuk2
2. v · w = w · v
3. u · (v + w) = u · v + u · w
4. 0 · u = 0
5. (αv) · w = α(v · w) = w · (αv)
6. u · u ≥ 0 and u · u = 0 if and only if u = 0
Example 1.12 If v = (1, −2, 3) and w = (0, 1, −5), then find v · v, v · w and (v + w) · v.
Solution: From the definition of dot product and properties of dot product
v·v = (1, −2, 3) · (1, −2, 3) = 14
v·w = (1, −2, 3) · (0, 1, −5) = −17
(v + w) · v = ((1, −2, 3) + (0, 1, −5)) · (0, 1, −5)
= 9

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1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection, and Direction Cosines9

1.3.3 Angle between two vectors

If θ is the angle between two vectors v and w, then the angle between the two vectors can be obtained by
v·w v·w
cos θ = ⇒ θ = cos−1 ( )
kvkkwk kvkkwk

where θ ∈ [0, π]
Example 1.13 Find the angle between the vectors v = (2, 0, −2) and w = (2, 2, 0).
Solution: Let θ be the angle between the two vectors, then
v·w 4
cos θ = =√ √
kvkkwk 8· 8

From this, θ = cos−1 ( 12 ) = π3 . 

Definition 1.3.4 Two non-zero vectors v and w are said to be orthogonal(perpendicular) if and only if
v · w = 0; that is, θ = π2 .

 Example 1.14 Find the value(s) of x such that the vectors v = (1, 4, 3) and w = (x, −1, 2) are orthogonal.

Solution: From the definition of orthogonality

v·w = 0
⇒ (1, 4, 3) · (x, −1, 2) = 0
⇒ x−4+6 = 0
⇒ x = −2

Remark 1.3.4 If v is orthogonal to w, then it is also orthogonal to any scaler multiple of w.

Definition 1.3.5 If P and Q are points in 2 or 3 space, the distance between P and Q, by using dot
product, denoted by kP − Qk is given by
p
kP − Qk = (P − Q) · (P − Q)

Theorem 1.3.5 Given two vectors v and w in space, kv + wk = kv − wk if and only if v and w are
orthogonal vectors.
Proof:(⇒:) Given kv + wk = kv − wk, we want to show v and w are orthogonal

kv + wk2 = (v + w) · (v + w)
= kvk2 + 2vw + kwk2
kv − wk2 = (v − w) · (v − w)
= kvk2 − 2vw + kwk2

By hypothesis kv + wk = kv − wk implies that kvk2 + 2vw + kwk2 = kvk2 − 2vw + kwk2 . From this,
4v · w = 0. Therefore, v and w are orthogonal.
Proof:(:⇐) Given v and w are orthogonal, we want to show kv + wk = kv − wk

kv + wk2 = kvk2 + 2vw + kwk2

kv − wk2 = kvk2 − 2vw + kwk2

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10 Vector and Vector Space

since v and w are orthogonal, v · w = 0. Therefore, kv + wk = kv − wk.

Theorem 1.3.6 Pythagoras Theorem

If v and w are orthogonal vectors, then kv + wk2 = kvk2 + kwk2 .
Proof: kv + wk2 can be rewritten as

kv + wk2 = (v + w) · (v + w)
= kvk2 + 2v · w + kwk2
= kvk2 + kwk2 , since v · w = 0

 Example 1.15 Find any unit vectors that are orthogonal to the vector v = (6, 8).
√
Solution: Let w = (a, b) be a unit vector orthogonal to v, then kwk = 1 = a2 + b2 and v · w = 6a + 8b = 0.
By using simultaneous equation, w = ( −4 3 4 −3
5 , 5 ) or w = ( 5 , 5 ). 

π
√
 Example 1.16 If the angle between the vector v and w is θ =
6 with each other and kvk = 3 and
kwk = 1, then calculate the cosine of the angle between the vectors v + w and v − w.
Solution: Let A = v + w and B = v − w. Now we need to find the angle between A and B. If φ is the angle
between A and B, then

A·B
cos φ =
kAkkBk
(v + w) · (v − w)
=
kv + wkkv − wk
1
= √
7
1
⇒φ = cos−1 ( √ )
7

Since

kv + wk2 = kvk2 + 2v · w + kwk2

√ π
= 3 + 2( 3)(1) cos + 1
6
= 7
√
kv + wk = 7
kv − wk = 1
(v + w) · (v − w) = kvk2 − kwk2 = 1

Example 1.17 Let v and w be a pair orthogonal vectors such that kvk = t and kwk = r. Find the angle
between the vector p = tw+rv
t+r and the vector v.
Solution: Let θ is the angle between the vector p and v. Then

p·v
cos θ =
kvkkpk
(tw + rv) · v
=
(t + r)kvkkpk
tv · w + rkvk2
=
(t + r)tkpk
rt
= since v · w = 0 and kvk = t
(t + r)kpk

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1.3 Norm of vector and Scalar Product, Orthogonal Projection, and Direction Cosines
11

But

ktw + rvk2
kpk2 =
(t + r)2
t 2 kwk2 + 2tr(v · w) + r2 kvk2
=
(t + r)2
2(tr)2
= since v · w = 0
(t + r)2
√
2rt
kpk =
t +r
√ √
rt (t+r)
Thus, cos θ = √
(t+r) 2rt = √1
2
= 2
2 ; that is, θ = cos−1 ( 2 π
2 ) = 4. 

1.3.4 Orthogonal Projection

−→
Definition 1.3.6 Suppose S is the foot of the perpendicular from R to the line containing PQ, then the
−
→
magnitude of the vector with representation PS is called the component of w along v and is denoted by
Compv w; that is,

Compv w = kwk cos θ

where θ is the angle v and w
v·w v·w
= kwk since cos θ =
kvkkwk kvkkwk
v·w
=
kvk

Figure 1.12: Component of w along v

Definition 1.3.7 The projection of w on to v is defined to be the vector w in the direction of vector v,
which is denoted by Projv w; that is,
v·w v
Projv w = ( )
kvk kvk
v·w
= v
kvk2

v·w v v·w
Projv w = ( ) = v
kvk kvk kvk2

 Example 1.18 Find the component of v along w and the projection of v on to w, where v = (1, 2) and
w = (3, 4).

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12 Vector and Vector Space

Solution: Since
v·w
Compw v =
kwk
1×3+2×4
=
5
11
=
5
Similarly,
v·w w
Projw v = ( )
kwk kwk
11 3 4
= ·( , )
5 5 5
33 44
= ( , )
25 25


Remark 1.3.7 Compv w 6= Compw v and Projv w 6= Projw v

Theorem 1.3.8 Let u be a non-zero vector, then for any other vector w
w·u
v = w− ·u
kuk2

is orthogonal to u.
Proof:
w·u
v·u = (w − · u) · u
kuk2
w·u
= w·u− kuk2
kuk2
= w·u−w·u
= 0

Example 1.19 Find an orthogonal vector to u = (0, 2, 0, 2, 1).

Solution: Let w = (0, −1, 0, −1, 0), then
w·u
v = w− ·u
kuk2
1
= (0, −1, 0, −1, 0)
9
is orthogonal(perpendicular) to u. 

Theorem 1.3.9 Cauchy-Schwarz inequality

For any two vectors v and w
v · w ≤ kvkkwk
Equality holds if and only if either v is a scalar multiple of w or one of v or w is 0.
Proof: Let p is the end point of projw v; that is, p = projw v and let d is the distance from the terminal
v·w
point of v to the terminal point of the vector projw v from the figure below, d = kv − kwk 2 wk.

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1.4 The Vector product 13

So, from the above assumption, the square of the distance from the line to the origin to be

v·w 2 (v · w)2 (v · w)2

kv − wk = v·w−2 +
kwk2 w·w w·w
(v · w)2
= kvk2 −
kwk2
1
= (kwk2 kwk2 − (v · w)2 )
kwk2

Since the number is a square, it can not be negative. Hence

(v · w)2 ≤ kvk2 kwk2

⇒ v · w ≤ kvkkwk

Figure 1.13: The distance from a point on vector v to a point p on vector w

Theorem 1.3.10 Triangular Inequality

For vectors v and w in space
kv + wk ≤ kvk + kwk
Proof: kv + wk2
= (v + w) · (v + w) = kvk2 + 2v · w + kwk2
By the cauchy-schwarz inequality, we have

kv + wk2 = kvk2 + 2v · w + kwk2

≤ kvk2 + 2kvkkwk + kwk2
≤ (kvk + kwk)2

Hence,
kv + wk ≤ kvk + kwk

1.3.5 Directional angles and cosines

Let u = u1 i + u2 j + u3 k be a vector positioned at the origin in R3 , making an angle of α, β and γ with the
positive x, y and z − axis respectively. Then the angles α, β and γ are called the directional angles of u,
and the quantities cos α, cos β and cos γ are called the directional cosines of u, which can be computed as
u1
• cos α = kuk , α ∈ [0, π]
u2
• cos β = kuk , β ∈ [0, π]
u3
• cos γ = kuk , γ ∈ [0, π]

Remark 1.3.11 cos2 α + cos2 β + cos2 γ = 1

1.4 The Vector product

Given two non zero vectors v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w = (w1 , w2 , w3 ), it is very useful to be able to find a non
zero vector u that is perpendicular to both v and w. If u = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) is such a vector, then u · v = 0 and

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14 Vector and Vector Space

Figure 1.14: Directional angles

u·w = 0
u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + u3 v3 = 0 (1.1)

u · w = u1 w1 + u2 w2 + u3 w3 = 0 (1.2)
To eliminate u3 multiply (1.1) by w3 and multiply (1.2) by v3 and subtract the second equation from the
first, then
u1 (w3 v1 − v3 w1 ) + u2 (w3 v2 − v3 w2 ) = 0 (1.3)
Equation (1.3) has the form pu1 + qu2 = 0, where the solution for u1 = q and u2 = −p. So, the solution
of equation (1.3) is
u1 = (v2 w3 − v3 w2 ) and u2 = (v3 w1 − v1 w3 ) (1.4)
Substituting equation (1.1) and (1.2), we get

u3 = (v1 w2 − v2 w1 ) (1.5)

That means a vector perpendicular to both v and w is

(u1 , u2 , u3 ) = ((v2 w3 − v3 w2 ), (v3 w1 − v1 w3 ), (v1 w2 − v2 w1 )) (1.6)

The resulting vector is called the cross product of v and w denoted by v × w.

Definition 1.4.1 The cross product(or vector product) v × w of two vectors v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) and w =
(w1 , w2 , w3 ) is defined by

v × w = ((v2 w3 − v3 w2 ), (v3 w1 − v1 w3 ), (v1 w2 − v2 w1 ))

Or, v × w = nkvkkwk sin θ , where n is the unit vector in the direction of v × w and θ ∈ [0, π] is the
angle between v and w.

The cross product of two vectors is a vector.

Example 1.20 Compute (1, 2, 3) × (4, 5, 6).
Solution: From the definition of vector product, we have

(1, 2, 3) × (4, 5, 6) = ((2 × 6 − 3 × 5), (3 × 4 − 1 × 6), (1 × 5 − 2 × 4))

= (−3, 6, −3)

Standard Unit Vectors

Consider the vectors
i = (1, 0, 0), j = (0, 1, 0), k = (0, 0, 1)

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1.4 The Vector product 15

These vectors each have length 1 and lie along the coordinate axis. They are called the standard unit
vectors in R3 . Every vector v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) in R3 is expressed in terms of i, j and k since we can write

v = (v1 , v2 , v3 )
= v1 (1, 0, 0) + v2 (0, 1, 0) + v3 (0, 0, 1)
= v1 i + v2 j + v3 k

Figure 1.15: Standard unit vectors

Example 1.21 Compute (2, 1, 3) × (1, 3, 2).

Solution: From the definition of vector product, we have

(2, 1, 3) × (1, 3, 2) = i(1 × 2 − 3 × 3) − j(2 × 2 − 3 × 1) + k(2 × 3 − 1 × 1)

= −7i − j + 5k
= (−7, −1, 5)

Remark 1.4.1 For two non zero vectors v and w,

1. v × w is a vector which is orthogonal to both v and w
2. v × w is not defined for v, w ∈ R2 ; that is, cross product is defined only in R3 . There is no
corresponding operation for vectors in R2 .
3. • i × j = −( j × i) = k but i × i = 0
• j × k = −(k × j) = i but j × j = 0
• k × i = −(i × k) = j but k × k = 0
The cross product of two consecutive vectors going clockwise is the next vector around, and
the cross product of two consecutive vectors going counterclockwise is the negative of the next
vector around.

Figure 1.16: The cross product of two consecutive standard unit vectors

Properties of Cross Product

Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 and α be any scaler. Then

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16 Vector and Vector Space
→
− → − →
− →
−
1. u × 0 = 0 × u = 0 , where 0 = (0, 0, 0)
2. v × w = −(w × v)
3. u × (v × w) 6= (u × v) × w
4. (αv) × w = v × (αw) = α(v × w)
5. u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w)
6. v · (v × w) = w · (v × w) = 0
7. If v and w are parallel, then v × w = 0
8. kv × wk = kvkkwk sin θ , θ ∈ [0, π]
9. kv × wk2 = kvk2 kwk2 − (v · w)2
10. v × w = nkvkkwk sin θ , where n is the unit vector in the direction of v and w and θ ∈ [0, π] is the
angle between v and w.

kv×wk
Remark 1.4.2 The angle θ between v and w can be obtained by sin θ = kvkkwk for two non zero
vectors v and w.

Definition 1.4.2 Let u, v and w be vectors in R3 . Their scaler triple product is given by

u · (v × w) = v · (w × u) = w · (u × v)

which is a scalar.

Application of Cross Product

1. Area
Let v and w be vectors and consider the parallelogram that the two vectors make. Then the area of
the Parallelogram is given by

kv × wk = kvkkwk| sin θ |

Since

Area = (Base)(Altitude)
= kvkkwk sin θ
= kv × wk

Figure 1.17: Area formed by vector v and w

Remark 1.4.3 The direction of v × w is a right angle to the parallelogram that follows the right
hand rule.
 Example 1.22 Find the area of the parallelogram with two adjacent sides formed by the vectors
v = (2, 1, 3) and w = (4, 2, 3).

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1.4 The Vector product 17

Solution: From the definition of vector product, we have

v×w = (2, 1, 3) × (4, 2, 3)
= i(1 × 3 − 2 × 3) − j(2 × 3 − 3 × 4) + k(1 × 2 − 4 × 1)
= −3i + 6 j − 2k
q
kv × wk = 32 + 62 + (−2)2
√
= 49
= 7
Therefore, the area of the parallelogram is given by 7. 

Remark 1.4.4 The area of the triangle formed by v and w as its adjacent sides is given by
Area = 21 kv × wk
√
 Example 1.23 Let u = (−1, 3, 0), v = (1, −1, 1) and w = (0, 1, −2) be vectors in space. Then
find
(a) The unit vector in the opposite direction of u.
(b) The area of the parallelogram formed by u and w.
(c) The angle between u × v and u − v.
Solution:
(a) The unit vector in the opposite direction of u is given by
√
−u 1 − 3
= ( ,− , 0)
kuk 2 2
(b) The area of the parallelogram is given by
√
Area = ku × wk = 6
(c) Since the u × v is orthogonal to both u and v, it also orthogonal to u − v

√
 Example 1.24 If the area of an equilateral triangle with adjacent sides v and w is 50 3cm2 , then
find v · w.
Solution: Since it is an equilateral triangle, the angle between v and w is θ = π3 . The area A of the
triangle is
1
Area = kv × wk
2
1 π
= kvkkwk sin
2 √ 3
1 3
= kvkkwk
2√ 2
3
= kvkkwk
4
4
⇒ kvkkwk = √ Area
3
4 √
= √ 50 3
3
= 200
Therefore,
π
v · w = kvkkwk cos
3
1
= 200( ) = 100
2


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18 Vector and Vector Space

 Example 1.25 Find the area of the triangle having vertex at P = (3, −2, −1), Q = (1, 3, 2) and
S = (−2, 1, 3).
−→ −
→
Solution: Let v = PQ = (−2, 5, 3) and w = PS = (−5, 3, 4), then
1
Area = kv × wk
2
1
= k(−11, −7, 19)k
2
1√
= 531
2


2. Distance
Let d represent the distance from the point Q to the line through the points P and R. From the
elementary trigonometric, we have
−→
d = kPQk sin θ

Figure 1.18: The distance from point Q to the vector PR

−→ −
→
Where θ is the angle between PQ and PR. Again, we have
−→ − → −→ − →
kPQ × PRk = kPQkkPRk sin θ
−→
= kPRkd
Solving this for d, we get
−→ − →
kPQ × PRk
d= −→
kPRk
 Example 1.26 Find the distance from the point Q = (2, 1, 3) to the line through the point

P = (1, 3, 2) and R = (1, 4, 3).

−→ −
→ −→
Solution: First, we need position vectors corresponding to PQ and PR; that is, PQ = (1, −2, 1) and
−→
PR = (0, 1, 1). So,
−→ − →
PQ × PR = (1, −2, 1) × (0, 1, 1)
= i(−2 × 1 − 1 × 1) − j(1 × 1 − 1 × 0) + k(1 × 1 − (−2) × 0)
= −3i − j + k
We then have
−→ − →
kPQ × PRk
d = −
→
kPRk
√
11
= √
2
r
11
=
2


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1.5 Lines and planes in R3 19

3. Volume
For any three non-coplanar vectors u, v and w. Consider the parallelepiped formed using the vectors
as three adjacent edges.

Figure 1.19: Volume formed by vectors u, v and w

The volume of such a solid is given by

Volume = (Area of base)(Altitude)

Further, since two adjacent sides of the base are formed by the vector u and v, we know that the
area of the base is given by ku × vk and the altitude is given by
w · (u × v)
|Compu×v w| = | |
ku × vk
The volume of the parallelepiped is then
 
 w · (u × v) 
Volume = ku × vk · 
 
ku × vk 
= |w · (u × v)|

Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped spanned by three vectors u, v and w in R3 is given by
the triple product:
Volume = |u · (v × w)| = |v · (w × u)| = |w · (u × v)|
 Example 1.27 Find the volume of the parallelepiped with the vectors u = (1, 0, 1), v = (2, 1, 4)
and (0, 1, 1) as three of its edges.
Solution: The volume of the parallelepiped V is the absolute value of the triple scalar product of
the three vectors u, v and w. Thus,

V = |u · (v × w)| = 1cubic unit

 Example 1.28 Find the volume of the parallelepiped with three adjacent edges formed by the

vectors u = (1, 2, 3), v = (4, 5, 6) and w = (7, 8, 0).

Solution: The volume of the parallelepiped V is the absolute value of the triple scalar product of
the three vectors u, v and w. Thus,

V = |u · (v × w)| = 1cubic unit

= |7(2 × 6 − 5 × 3) − 8(1 × 6 − 4 × 3) + 0(1 × 5 − 2 × 4)|
= |27|
= 27

Therefore, the volume of the parallelepiped is 27. 

1.5 Lines and planes in R3

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20 Vector and Vector Space
−−→
Definition 1.5.1 A vector v = (a, b, c) is said to be parallel to a line ` if v is parallel to P0 P1 for any
two distinct points P0 and P1 on l.

Equation of a line
Let P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) be a given point on a line ` and P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on l. If v = (a, b, c)
is parallel to l, then
1. The parametric equation of a line ` is given by
• x = x0 + at
• y = y0 + bt
• z = z0 + ct,t ∈ R, where t is called the parameter.

Figure 1.20: The line ` parallel to vector v

2. The symmetric equation of a line ` is given by

x − x0 y − y0 z − z0
= =
a b c
Here, in the equation of a line, a, b or c may be zero but it doesn’t mean undefined. For instance
b = 0, the symmetric equation of a line ` is given by
x − x0 z − z0
= , y = y0
a c
and the line ` is parallel to xz–plane.
3. The vector equation of ` is written as
r − r0 = tv
where t ∈ R, r0 = x0 i + y0 j + z0 k and r = xi + y j + zk.
 Example 1.29 Find the parametric and symmetric equation of the line passing through the point

(2, 3, −4) and parallel to the vector (−1, 2, 5).

Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on a line ` which contain a point P0 = (2, 3, −4). So
−→
P0 P = tv where v is a vector parallel to ` and t is some parametric value.
−→
P0 P = tv
⇒ (x − 2, y − 2, z + 4) = t(−1, 2, 5)
= (−t, 2t, 5t)
⇒ x − 2 = −t
y−2 = 2t
z+4 = 5t 
x = 2−t 
⇒ y = 2 + 2t Parametric form of `
z = −4 + 5t


From parametric form of equation of a line we have symmetric form of the equation of a line. Hence
x−2 y−2 z+4
= =
−1 2 5

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1.5 Lines and planes in R3 21

is symmetric form of the equation of a line. 

 Example 1.30 Find equation of a line through P1 = (0, 1, 2) and P2 = (−1, 1, 1).
−→
Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on a line `, then the vector P1 P is parallel to the vector
−−→
P1 P2 = v; that is
−→
P1 P = tv
Since, a point P1 on the line ` and a vector v parallel to the vector formed by two point of the line. Take P1
and v = P2 − P1 .
−→
P1 P = tv
⇒ (x − 0, y − 1, z − 2) = t(−1, 0, −1)
= (−t, 0, −t)
⇒x = −t
y−1 = 0
z−2 = −t 
x = −t 
⇒ y=1 Parametric form of `
z = 2−t


From the parametric form of the equation of the line by giving distinct values for t we will obtain distinct
points on the line and from the parametric form of the equation of the line we will have a symmetric form
of the equation of a line

x = t(−1), y − 1 = t(0), z − 2 = t(−1)

x y−1 z−2
⇒ = = =t
−1 0 −1
x y−1 z−2
⇒ = =
−1 0 −1
y−1
is a symmetric form of the equation of a line. Here in the equation of a line, 0 doesn’t mean it is
undefined but it means the line is parallel to xz plane. 

Example 1.31 Find an equation of a straight line passing through the points P0 = (1, 2, −1) and
Q0 = (5, −3, 5).
Solution: First, we need to find a vector that is parallel to the given line. The obvious choice is
−−→
v = P0 Q0 = (5 − 1, −3 − 2, 4 − (−1)) = (4, −5, 5)

Picking either point will give equation for the line and let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on `, then
P0 P = tv; that is,
−→
P1 P = tv
⇒ (x − 1, y − 2, z + 1) = t(4, −5, 5)
= (4t, −5t, 5t)
⇒ x−1 = 4t
y−2 = −5t
z+1 = 5t 
x = 1 + 4t 
⇒ y = 2 − 5t Parametric form of `
z = −1 + 5t


Similarly, the symmetric equation of the line is

x−1 y−2 z+1
= =
4 −5 5


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22 Vector and Vector Space

Example 1.32 Find the equation of a line that contains the point (1, 4, −1) and parallel to v = (−2, 3, 0).
Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on a line ` which contain a point P0 = (1, 4, −1). So,
−→
P0 P = tv where v is a vector parallel to ` and t is some parametric value.
−→
P0 P = tv
⇒ (x − 1, y − 4, z + 1) = t(−2, 3, 0)
= (−2t, 3t, 0)
⇒ x−1 = −2t
y−4 = 3t
z+1= 0t 
x = 1 − 2t 
⇒ y = 4 + 3t Parametric form of `
z=1


From parametric form of equation of a line we have symmetric form of the equation of a line. Hence

x−1 y−4 z−1

= =
−2 3 0
or
x−1 y−4
= ,z = 1
−2 3
is symmetric form of the equation of a line. 

 Example 1.33 Determine if the following two lines are parallel or identical

`1 : x = 4 + t, y = 3 − 2t, z = 2 + t and
`2 : x = 3 − 2s, y = 2 + 4s, z = 4 − 2s

Where t and s are some parameter values.

Solution: First look at the direction vectors:

v1 = (1, −2, 1) and v2 = (−2, 4, 2)

⇒ v2 = −2v1

Which shows the two lines are parallel. Now, we must determine if they are identical. So, we need to
determine if they pass through the same points. So we need to determine if the two sets of parametric
equations produce the same points for different values of t and s. Let t = 0 for line `1 , the point produced
is (4, 3, 2). Set the x from line `2 equal to the x-coordinate produced by line `1 and solve for s.

1
4 = 3 − 2s ⇒ s = −
2

Now, let s = − 21 for line `2 and the point (4, 0, −1) is produced. Since the y and z–coordinates are not
equal, the lines are not identical. 

Example 1.34 Determine if the lines intersect. If so, find the point of intersection and the cosine of the
angle of intersection.

`1 : x = 3 + 2t, y = −2t, z = 4 − t and

`2 : x = 4 − s, y = 3 + 5s, z = 2 − s

Where t and s are some parameter values.

Solution: Direction vectors is given by

v1 = (2, −2, −1) and v2 = (−1, 5, −1)

⇒ v2 6= kv1

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1.5 Lines and planes in R3 23

Therefore those two lines are not parallel. Thus they are either intersect or they are skew lines. Keep in
mind that the lines may have a point of intersection or a common point, but not necessarily for the same
value of t and s. So, equate each coordinate.

x : 3 + 2t = 4 − s 
y : −2t = 3 + 5s System of 3 equation with 2 unknowns
z : 4−t = 2−s


Solve the first two equation and check with the third equation. So, t = 1 and s = −1. Therefore, `1 at
t = 1 produces (5, −2, 3) and `2 ats = −1 produces the point (5, −2, 3). So the lines intersect at this point.
To find the angle of intersection of the two lines,
v1 · v2
cos θ =
kv1 kkv2 k

where θ is the angle between v1 and v2 . The angle θ between two intersecting lines should be less than
90, so we use absolute value in the numerator.
v1 · v2
cos θ =
kv1 kkv2 k
|(2, −2, −1) · (−1, 5, −1)|
=
k(2, −2, −1)kk(−1, 5, −1)k
11
= √
9 3


Equation of a plane
A plane in space is determine by a point P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in the plane and a vector n = (a, b, c) is orthogonal
to the plane. This orthogonal vector n is called a normal vector.
Suppose that P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane, then
−→
n · (P0 P) = 0
⇒ (a, b, c) · (x − x0 , y − y0 , z − z0 ) = 0
ax + by + cz − (ax0 + by0 + cz0 ) = 0
⇔ ax + by + cz + d = 0, where d = −(ax0 + by0 + cz0 )

Figure 1.21: The normal vector n to the plane

Example 1.35 Find equation of a plane that contains point (−2, 4, 3) and is normal to (3, 0, −2).
Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane which contain a point P0 = (−2, 4, 3) and

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24 Vector and Vector Space
−→
having the normal vector n = (3, 0, −2). So, the vector P0 P is orthogonal to n, since n is orthogonal to the
plane; that is,
−→
n · P0 P = 0
So
−→
n · P0 P = 0
(3, 0, −2) · (x + 2, y − 4, z − 3) = 0
3(x + 2) + 0(y − 4) − 2(z − 3) = 0
3x + 6 + 0 − 2z + 6 = 0
3x − 2z + 12 = 0

Therefore, 3x − 2z + 12 = 0 is the equation of the plane. 

Example 1.36 Find equation of a plane that contains point (−1, 2, 3) and is perpendicular to the y-axis.
Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane which contain a point P0 = (−1, 2, 3) and
−→
having the normal vector n = (0, 1, 0) since y-axis is the normal vector to the plane. So, the vector P0 P is
orthogonal to n, since n is orthogonal to the plane; that is,
−→
n · P0 P = 0

So
−→
n · P0 P = 0
(0, 1, 0) · (x + 1, y − 2, z − 3) = 0
0(x + 2) + 1(y − 2) + 0(z − 3) = 0
y−2 = 0
y=2

Therefore, y = 2 is the equation of the plane which is parallel to xy-plane. 

 Example 1.37 Find the plane containing the three points P = (1, 2, 2), Q = (2, −1, 4) and R = (3, 5, −2).

Solution: First, we will need to find a vector normal to the plane. Here, the two vectors lying in the plane
−→ −→ −→ −→
are PQ = (1, −3, 2) and QR = (1, 6, −6). Consequently, one vector orthogonal to both of PQ and QR is
the cross product
−→ −→
PQ × QR = (6, 8, 9)
−→ −→ −→ −→ −→
Since PQ and QR are not parallel, PQ × QR must be orthogonal to the plane containing the vectors PQ
−→
and QR. Now, let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point in the plane which contain a point P0 = (1, 2, 2) and
−→
having the normal vector n = (6, 8, 9). So, the vector P0 P is orthogonal to n, since n, the cross product
result, is orthogonal to the plane; that is,
−→
n · P0 P = 0
So
−→
n · P0 P = 0
(6, 8, 9) · (x − 1, y − 2, z − 2) = 0
6(x − 1) + 8(y − 2) + 9(z − 2) = 0
6x − 6 + 8y − 16 + 9y − 18 = 0
6x + 18y + 9y − 40 = 0
6x + 18y + 9y = 40

Therefore, 6x + 18y + 9y = 40 is the equation of the plane. 

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1.5 Lines and planes in R3 25

Definition 1.5.2 Two planes are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They are said
to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle between two planes is defined
to be the angle between their normal.

 Example 1.38 Consider the planes

π1 : x + 2y − 3z = 2 and
π2 : 15x − 9y − z = 2

Determine the above two planes are parallel or perpendicular.

Solution: Here n1 for the plane π1 is (1, 2, −3) and n2 for the plane π2 is (15, −9, −1). So

n1 · n2 = (1, 2, −3) · (15, −9, −1)

= 15 − 18 + 3
= 0

This implies that plane π1 and π2 are perpendicular. 

 Example 1.39 Find the cosine of the angle θ between the plane

π1 : 2x + 4y − z = 0 and
π2 : x − y + 2z = 2

Solution: n1 = (2, 4, −1) and n2 = (1, −1, 2) are the normal vectors of π1 and π2 , respectively. Let θ be
the angle between π1 and π2 . Then θ is the angle between n1 and n2
n1 · n2
cos θ =
kn1 kkn2 k
2 + (−4) + (−2)
= √ √
4 + 16 + 1 1 + 1 + 4
−4
= √
126


Example 1.40 Find the line of intersection for the planes π1 : x + 3y + 4z = 0 and π2 : x − 3y + 2z = 0.
Solution: To find the common intersection, solve the equations simultaneously. Multiply the first equation
by −1 and add the two to eliminate x; that is,

−x − 3y − 4z = 0
x − 3y + 2z = 0
1
⇒ −6y − 2z = 0 or y = − z
3
Back substitute y into one of the first equations and solve for x.

1
x + 3(− z) + 4z = 0
3
x − z + 4z = 0
x = −3z

Finally if you late z = t, the parametric equations for the lines are

1
x = −3t, y = − t, z = t
3
where t is some parametric value. 

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26 Vector and Vector Space

Distance in Space
• Distance from a point to a line
The distance D from a point Q(not on `) to a line ` in space is given by
−→
ku × PQk
D=
kuk
where u is the directional vector of ` and P is any point on `.
• Distance from a point to a plane
The perpendicular distance D of a point P0 = (x0 , y0 , z0 ) in space to the plane with equation
ax + by + cz + d = 0 is given by
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
D= √
a2 + b2 + c2

Figure 1.22: The distance from a point to a plane

• Distance between two parallel planes

Given two parallel planes π1 and π2 . Then we can have normal vectors with coefficients a, b, c to
be the same such that
π1 : ax + by + cz + d1 = 0 and
π2 : ax + by + cz + d2 = 0
Then the distance between π1 and π2 is given by
|d1 − d2 |
D= √
a2 + b2 + c2
 Example 1.41 How far is the point p = (1, 2, 3) from the plane with equation π : 3x + 5y − 4z + 37 = 0.

Solution: Here (x0 , y0 , z0 ) = (1, 2, 3), n = (3, 5, −4) and d = 37. Thus,
|ax0 + by0 + cz0 + d|
D = √
a2 + b2 + c2
|3(1) + 5(2) − 4(3) + 37|
= √
50
√
19 2
= unit
5


 Example 1.42 Let Q = (1, 3, 5), P0 = (−1, 1, 7) and n = (−1, 1, −1). Find the distance between Q and
the plane through P0 and perpendicular to n.
Solution: Let P = (x, y, z) be any arbitrary point on a plane which contain a point P0 = (−1, 1, 7) and
−→
perpendicular to n; that is, n · P0 P = 0. So
−→
n · P0 P = 0
⇒ (−1, 1, −1) · ((x, y, z) − (−1, 1, 7)) = 0
⇒ −x + y − z = 1 + 1 − 7
⇒ −x + y − z = −5

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1.6 Vector Space and Subspace 27
√ √
Therefore, −x + y − z = −5 is the equation of the plane and knk = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3, Q − P0 = (2, 2, −2)
and (Q − P0 ) · n = −2 + 2 + 2 = 2. Hence the distance D is

| − 1(1) + 1(3) + (−1)5 + 5|

D = √
3
2
= √
3

Therefore, the distance between Q and the plane is √2 . 

3

1.6 Vector Space and Subspace

Definition 1.6.1 Let F be a set of numbers. Then F is said to be a field under the usual addition ’+’
and scalar multiplication ’·’ denoted by (F, +, ·) if it satisfies the following conditions:
1. If x and y are elements of F, then x + y and xy are also elements of F.
2. If x is an element of F, then −x is also an element of F. Furthermore, if x 6= 0, then x−1 is also
an element of F.
3. 0 and 1 are elements of F.

 Example 1.43 The set of all real numbers R, rational numbers Q and the set of all complex numbers C
are fields but not integers Z because if x ∈ Z, but x−1 ∈
/ Z. 

The essential thing about a field is that its elements can be added and multiplied and the results are also
elements of the field. Moreover, every element can be divided by a non-zero element.
Definition 1.6.2 A vector space V over a field F is a set of non empty objects which can be added and
can be multiplied by elements of F, it satisfies the following properties.
1. Closure
For any v, w ∈ V , we have v + w ∈ V .
2. Associativity
For any u, v, w ∈ V , then (u + v) + w = u + (v + w).
3. Commutativity
For v, w ∈ V , we have v + w = w + v
4. Existence of Identity
There is an element of V , denoted by O(called the zero element), such that 0 + u = u = u + 0
for all elements u of V .
5. Existence of Inverse
For u ∈ V , there exists −u ∈ V such that u + (−u) = 0 = (−u) + u.
6. For u ∈ V and α ∈ F, then αu ∈ V .
7. For v, w ∈ V and α ∈ F, then α(v + w) = αv + αw.
8. For u ∈ V and α, β ∈ F, (α + β )u = αu + β u.
9. For u ∈ V and α, β ∈ F, then (αβ )u = α(β u).
10. For all u ∈ V , then 1u = u since 1 ∈ F.

It is important to realize that a vector space consists of four entities: a set of vectors, a set of scalars, and
two binary operations. When you refer to a vector space be sure all four entities are clearly stated or
understood. Unless stated otherwise, assume that the set of scalars is the set of real numbers.

 Example 1.44 Show that R3 = {(x, y, z)|x, y, z ∈ R} with addition defined as addition of points and
scalar multiplication of points by scalars is a vector space over R.
Solution: Let (x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 ), (x3 , y3 , z3 ) ∈ R3 , and α and β ∈ R. Then
1. (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) ∈ R3
Closure is hold.

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2.

((x1 , y1 , z1 )+ (x2 , y2 , z2 )) + (x3 , y3 , z3 )

= (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 ) + (x3 , y3 , z3 )
= ((x1 + x2 ) + x3 , (y1 + y2 ) + y3 , (z1 + z2 ) + z3 )
= (x1 + (x2 + x3 ), y1 + (y2 + y3 ), z1 + (z2 + z3 ))
= (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 + x3 , y2 + y3 , z2 + z3 )
= (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + ((x2 , y2 , z2 ) + (x3 , y3 , z3 ))

Addition is associative
3.

(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 ) = (x1 + x2 , y1 + y2 , z1 + z2 )

= (x2 + x1 , y2 + y1 , z2 + z1 )
= (x2 , y2 , z2 ) + (x1 , y1 , z1 )

Addition is commutative
4. (x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (0, 0, 0) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (0, 0, 0) + (x1 , y1 , z1 )
Their existence identity
5.

(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (−x1 , −y1 , −z1 ) = (x1 , y1 , z1 ) − (x1 , y1 , z1 )

= 0

6. α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (αx1 , αy1 , αz1 ) ∈ R3

7. α((x1 , y1 , z1 ) + (x2 , y2 , z2 )) = α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + α(x2 , y2 , z2 )
8.

(α + β )(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ((α + β )x1 , (α + β )y1 , (α + β )z1 )

= (αx1 + β x1 , αy1 + β y1 ), αz1 + β z1 ))
= α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β (x1 , y1 , z1 )
= α(x1 , y1 , z1 ) + β (x1 , y1 , z1 )

9.

(αβ )(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = ((αβ )x1 , (αβ )y1 , (αβ )z1 )

= (α(β x1 ), α(β y1 ), α(β z1 ))
= α(β x1 , β y1 , β z1 )
= α(β (x1 , y1 , z1 ))

10. 1(x1 , y1 , z1 ) = (1x1 , 1y1 , 1z1 ) = (x1 , y1 , z1 )

Hence, R3 is a vector space over R. 

 Example 1.45 R is a vector space over it self. 

 Example 1.46 Rn with standard operations is a vector space. 

 Example 1.47 All polynomials of degree 2 or less is a vector space. 

 Example 1.48 All 3 × 4 matrices are vector space. 


√ 1.49 The set defined by S = {(x, y, z)|x.y.z ∈ Q} is not a vector space over R because if we
Example
take α = 2 ∈ R and v = (1, 3, 0) ∈ S, then we can see that αv is not in S. 

Definition 1.6.3 Suppose V is a vector space over F and W is a non-empty subset of V . If, under
the addition and scalar multiplication that is defined on V , W is also a vector space then we call W a
subspace of V .

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1.7 Linear Dependence and Independence 29

Theorem 1.6.1 A subset W of a vector space V is called a subspace of V if

1. W is closed under addition; that is, if v, w ∈ W , then v + w ∈ W
2. W is closed under scalar multiplication; that is, if v ∈ W and a ∈ F, then av ∈ W .
3. W contains the additive identity 0.
Then as W ⊆ V , properties of vector space are satisfied for the elements of W . Hence W itself is a
vector space over F. We call W a subspace of V .

 Example 1.50 V and {0} are the trivial subspaces of any vector space V . 

 Example 1.51 Let V = R3 and W = {(x, 0, 0)|x ∈ R}, show that W is a subspace of V .
Solution: Let v, w ∈ W . Then v = (x1 , 0, 0), w = (x2 , 0, 0) for some x1 , x2 ∈ R. So
1. v + w = (x1 , 0, 0) + (x2 , 0, 0) = (x1 + x2 , 0, 0) ∈ W
2. Let α be a real number, then αv = (αx1 , 0, 0) ∈ W since αx1 ∈ R
3. 0 = (0, 0, 0) ∈ W when x1 = 0
Hence, W is a subspace of V . 

 Example 1.52 Let V = R4 , A be a fixed vector in R4

and W = {B = (x, y, z, w)|A · B = 0}. Show that W
is a subspace of R4 .
Solution: Here W ⊆ R4
1. Let B,C ∈ W , then B · A = 0 and C · A = 0. So, (B +C) · A = B · A + B · A = 0. Hence B +C ∈ W .
2. Let α ∈ R, then αB · A = α(B · A) = α0 = 0. Hence αB ∈ W .
3. (0, 0, 0, 0) · A = 0, then (0, 0, 0, 0) ∈ W .
Therefore, W is a subspace of R4 . 

 Example 1.53 The set of all lines passing through the origin, L = {ax + by = 0, a, b ∈ R} is a subspace

of vector space V = R2 .
Solution: From the the theorem
1. Let L1 = {ax1 + by1 = 0, a, b ∈ R} and L2 = {ax2 + by2 = 0, a, b ∈ R}, then

L1 + L2 = {a(x1 + x2 ) + b(y1 + y2 ) = 0, a, b ∈ R} ∈ L

2. Let L1 = {ax1 + by1 = 0, a, b ∈ R} and cL1 = {c(ax1 + by1 ) = 0, a, b ∈ R} ∈ L

3. L = {a(0) + b(0) = 0, a, b ∈ R}, this implies that the line is passes through the origin.
Therefore, L is the subspace of V . 

Theorem 1.6.2 The intersection of the subspaces W1 and W2 of a vector space V is also a subspace.
Proof: Here W1 and W2 are subspace of V . Now we have to show that the intersection is also a subspace.
1. Let x, y ∈ W1 ∩ W2 , then x, y ∈ W1 and x, y ∈ W2 . But since we know that W1 is a subspace,
x + y ∈ W1 . Similarly, one can show that x + y ∈ W2 and therefore x + y ∈ W2 . So, W1 ∩ W2 is
indeed closed under addition.
2. Let α ∈ F, then αx ∈ W1 since W1 is a subspace. Similarly, αx ∈ W2 . From this αx ∈ W1 ∩W2
follows. So, W1 ∩W2 is closed under scalar multiplication.
3. 0 ∈ W1 since W1 is a subspace. Similarly, 0 ∈ W2 . Therefore, 0 ∈ W1 ∩W2 .
Therefore, W1 ∩W2 is also a subspace.

1.7 Linear Dependence and Independence

Definition 1.7.1 A vector w in Rn is said to be a linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vk in Rn
if w can be expressed in the form

w = c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + ck vk (1.7)

The scalars c1 , c2 , · · · , ck are called the coefficients in the linear combination. In the case where k = 1,
equation(1.7) becomes w = c1 v1 , so to say that w is a linear combination of v1 is the same as saying
that w is a scalar multiple of v1 .

 Example 1.54 Write (5, 6) as a linear combination of the vectors (2, 1) and (0, 4) if it possible.

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Solution: Suppose there exist numbers α and β . Such that

α(2, 1) + β (0, 4) = (5, 6)
Then 2α = 5 and α + 4β = 6
5 6−α 6 − 25 7
⇒α = and β = = =
6 4 4 8
Therefore, we can write (5, 6) as a linear combination of the vectors (2, 1) and (0, 4) as
5 7
(2, 1) + (0, 4) = (5, 6)
2 8


Definition 1.7.2 Let v1 , v2 , · · · , vn be elements of a vector space V over F. Let α1 , α2 , · · · , αn be

elements of F. Then an expression of the form

α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn

is called a linear combination of v1 , v2 , · · · , vn .

 Example 1.55 Write (5, 6) as a linear combination of the vectors (2, 1) and (0, 4) if it possible.

Solution: Suppose there exist numbers α and β . Such that

α(2, 1) + β (0, 4) = (5, 6)
Then 2α = 5 and α + 4β = 6
5 6−α 6 − 25 7
⇒α = and β = = =
6 4 4 8
Therefore, we can write (5, 6) as a linear combination of the vectors (2, 1) and (0, 4) as
5 7
(2, 1) + (0, 4) = (5, 6)
2 8


Definition 1.7.3 Let v1 , v2 , · · · , vn be elements of a vector space V over F. Then vectors are called
1. Linearly Dependent if there exist scalers α1 , α2 , · · · , αn not all zero such that α1 v1 + α2 v2 +
· · · + αn vn = 0.
2. Linearly Independent if α1 v1 + α2 v2 + · · · + αn vn = 0 implies α1 = α2 = · · · = αn = 0

 Example 1.56 Show that (0, 1, 2), (4, −1, 2), (−8, 2, −4) are linearly dependent.

Solution: Suppose α, β , γ ∈ R, such that

α(0, 1, 2) + β (4, −1, 2) + γ(−8, 2, −4) = 0
Then
4β − 8γ = 0
α − β + 2γ = 0
2α + 2β − 4γ = 0
From the first equation, β = 2γ ⇒ β = 4. Substituting this in the second gives α = 0. Hence for all
number γ,
0(0, 1, 2) + 2γ(4, −1, 2) + γ(−8, 2, −4) = 0
In particular if γ = 2, we have
0(0, 1, 2) + 4(4, −1, 2) + 2(−8, 2, −4) = 0
Therefore the vectors are linearly dependent because all the values of α, β and γ are not zero. 

Any two vectors v and w in R3

are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the same line through the
origin. Similarly, any three vectors u, v and w in R3 are linearly dependent if and only if they lie on the
same plane through the origin.

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1.8 Bases and dimension of a vector space 31

Remark 1.7.1 • Suppose 0 is one of the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn , say v1 = 0. Then the vectors must
be linearly dependent, because we have the zero value linear combination where the coefficient
of of v1 is non zero.
• Suppose v is a non zero vector. Then v,by itself, is linearly independent, because kv = 0; v 6= 0
implies k = 0.
• Suppose two of the vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn are equal or one is a scalar multiple of the other. Then
the vectors must be linearly dependent.
• Two vectors v1 and v2 are linearly dependent if and only if one of them is a multiple of the other.
• The set v1 , v2 , · · · , vn is linearly independent, then any rearrangement of vectors v1 , v2 , · · · , vn is
also linearly independent.
• If a set S of vectors is linearly independent, then any subset of S is linearly independent.
Alternatively, if S contains a linearly dependent subset, then S is linearly dependent.

1.8 Bases and dimension of a vector space

Definition 1.8.1 Let V be any vector space over a field F and let the set S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } be a set
of vectors in V . Then
1. S is said to be span or generate of V if each element of V is a linear combinations of elements is
S.
2. S is called a basis for V if S is a linearly independent set and it spans V .
3. The dimension of V is said to be n (dimV = n) if V has basis consisting of n elements.

 Example 1.57 Show that {(1, 2), (−2, 1)} form a basis for R2 .
Solution: First, we have to show (1, 2) and (−2, 1) are linearly independent. Suppose α(1, 2)+β (−2, 1) =
(0, 0) for some real numbers α and β . Then

α − 2β = 0
2α + β = 0

Multiplying the first equation by one, the second by two and adding two equations gives 4α = 0; that is,
α = 0. Substituting α = 0 in one of the equations gives β = 0. Therefore (1, 2) and (−2, 1) are linearly
independent.
Next we have to show {(1, 2), (−2, 1)} spans any element of R2 . Let (x, y) be an arbitrary element of R2 .
Suppose
α(1, 2) + β (−2, 1) = (x, y)
Then

α − 2β = x
2α + β = y
x+2y y−2x
Then 5α = x + 2y; that is, α = 5 . Substituting the value of α in one of the equations gives β = 5 .
Hence
x + 2y y − 2x
(x, y) = (1, 2) + (−2, 1)
5 5
That is any element in R2 can be written as a linear combination of (1, 2) and (−2, 1). Therefore,
{(1, 2), (−2, 1)} form a basis for R2 . 

Theorem 1.8.1 There exist a basis for every finite dimensional vector space.

Theorem 1.8.2 If V is a vector space and S = {v1 , v2 , · · · , vn } is a basis of V , then all the other basis
of V has n elements.

 Example 1.58 Find a basis for R3 containing the vectors {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)}.
Solution: Since neither is a linear combination of the other the vectors are linearly independent. But

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32 Vector and Vector Space

since dim R3 = 3 this set can not be a basis for R3 . To determine basis, find a vector which is not a linear
combination of the vector. But

[(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)] = {α(1, 1, 1) + β (0, 1, 1)|α, β ∈ R}

= {(α, α + β , α + 2β )|α, β ∈ R}

Choose α = 1 and β = −1. Then (1, 1, 3) ∈ / [(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1)]. Because the second coordinate is not zero.
Therefore {(1, 1, 1), (0, 1, 1), (1, 1, 3)} is a basis for R3 . 

Definition 1.8.2 Let {u1 , u2 , · · · , un } be a basis for Rn and let v ∈ Rn such that

v = α1 u1 + α2 u2 + · · · + αn un

Then (α1 , α2 , · · · , αn ) are called the coordinates of v with respect to the basis {u1 , u2 , · · · , un }. αi is
called the ith component(coordinate) of v.

 Example 1.59 The coordinate of (2, 4, 5) with respect to the standard unit basis of R3 are (2, 4, 5) since

(2, 4, 5) = 2(1, 0, 0) + 4(0, 1, 0) + 5(0, 0, 1) = 2i + 4 j + 5k

Example 1.60 Find the coordinates of (3, 4) with respect to the basis {(1, 2), (−2, 1)}.
Solution: Let (3, 4) = α(1, 2) + β (−2, 1). Then

11
α =
5
−2
β =
5
−2
Therefore ( 11
5 , 5 ) are the coordinates of (3, 4) with respect to the given basis. 

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1.9 Exercise 33

1.9 Exercise
1. If u and v are perpendicular unit vectors, then find k3u − 2vk.
√
Ans. 13
2. Let u, v and w are vectors in R3 such that u + v = w and kuk = 2, kvk = 3 and kwk = 4. Then find
the angle between vector u and v.
Ans. θ = cos−1 14
3. If kvk = 6, kwk = 8 and v + tw and v − tw are orthogonal, then what is the value of t.
Ans. t = ± 43
4. Given two vectors v and w such that kvk = 3, kwk = 4 and kv − wk = 6, then find
(a) kv + wk
(b) The cosine of the angle between the two vectors v and w.
√
Ans. 14 and θ = cos−1 − 11
24
p
5. Suppose v is perpendicular to w and kvk = kwk = 1. If u = αv + β w, show that kuk = α 2 + β 2 .
6. If the angle between any two of u, v and w in R3 space is 60 and kuk = 4, kvk = 2 and kwk = 6,
then find ku + vk and ku + v + wk.
√
Ans. 28 and 10
7. If u = (1, 1, 2), v = (4, k, −3) and w = (3, 2, −1) are coplanar and k is any constant, then find Proju v
and Compw u + 2v.
8. Find the angles that the vector 2i + 3 j − 2k makes with the coordinate axes.
Ans. α = cos−1 ( √217 ), β = cos−1 ( √317 ) and γ = cos−1 ( √−2
17
)

9. Let l be the line passing through the points p0 = (0, 2, −1) and p1 = (−1, 1, 3) in space. Then find
the parametric and symmetric form of the equation of a line.

x = −t 
Ans. y = −t + 2 parametric form and −1x
= y−2 z+1
−1 = 4 symmetric form of a line
z = 4t − 1


10. Find the equation of a plane containing the points P = (5, −2, 3), Q = (1, −1, 0) and R = (2, −1, 3).
Ans. 3x + 9y − z = 6
11. Find the intersection of the line 2x = t, y + 1 = 3t and 3z + 1 = 4t, where t ∈ R and the plane
π : 2x + y − 3z = 6.
Ans. No intersection
12. Determine the area of the triangle formed by the vectors v = 2i + 4 j + 6k and w = 3i + 5 j.
Ans. 7
13. Determine the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors u = 2i + 3 j + 5k, v = 3i + j + 8k
and w = 2i + 6k + 5k.
Ans. 3
14. Find the area of the parallelogram with diagonals v = 2i + 3 j − k and w = 3i + 2 j − 4k.
Ans. 10
x−1 y−1 z+5
15. Suppose that a line with parametric equation is 1 = 3 = 3 is perpendicular to a plane passing
through the point (3, 2, 4) in space,then
(a) Find the equation of the plane.

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34 Vector and Vector Space

(b) Find the distance of the resulting plane from the origin.
Ans. x + 3y + 3z − 21 = 0 and √11
19

16. If v = (1, k, 3) is a linear combination of v1 = (1, −3, 2) and v2 = (2, −1, 1), then find the value of
k.
Ans. − 14
3

17. Determine whether the sets {(2, 6, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 3, 1)} is linearly dependent or independent in the
vector space R3 .
Ans. Linearly Independent
18. Show that the set of all lines L = {ax + by = 0|a, b ∈ R} passing through the origin is a subspace of
the vector space V = R2 .
19. Determine whether the sets {(4, 3, 2), (2, 1, 0), (6, 4, 2)} are linearly dependent or linearly indepen-
dent.
Ans. Linearly Dependent
20. Determine whether the sets {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 1), (1, 0, 1)} form a basis in R3 .

Ans. Basis

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