Question: What does it mean by the preservation of edge end point function in

the definition of isomorphism of graphs?

Answer: Since you know that we are looking for two functions (Suppose one
function is “f” and other function is “g”) which preserve the edge end
point function and this preservation means that if we have vi as an
end point of the edge ej then f(vi) must be an end point of the edge
g(ej) and also the converse that is if f(vi) be an end point of the edge
g(ej) then we must have vi as an end point of the edge ej. Note that
vi and ej are the vertex and edge of one graph respectively where
as f (vi) and g (ej) are the vertex and edge in the other graph
respectively.

Question: Is there any method of identifying that the given graphs are
isomorphic or not?(With out finding out two functions).

Answer: Unfortunately there is no such method which will identify whether

the given graphs are isomorphic or not. In order to find out whether
the two given graphs are isomorphic first we have to find out all the
bijective mappings from the set vertices of one graph to the set of
vertices of the other graph then find out all the bijective functions
from the set of edges of one graph to the set of edges of the other
graph. Then see which mappings preserve the edge end point
function as defined in the definition of Isomorphism of graphs. But it
is easy to identify that the two graphs are not isomorphic. First of all
note that if there is any Isomorphic Invariant not satisfied by both the
graphs, then we will say that the graphs are not Isomorphic. Note
that if all the isomorphic Invariants are satisfied by two graphs then
we can’t conclude that the graphs are isomorphic. In order to prove
that the graphs are isomorphic we have to find out two functions
which satisfied the condition as defined in the definition of
Isomorphism of graphs.

Question: What are Complementary Graphs?

Answer: Complementary Graph of a simple graph(G) is denoted by the (G

bar ) and has as many vertices as G but two vertices are adjacent in
complementary Graph by an edge if and only if these two vertices
 complementary Graph by an edge if and only if these two vertices
are not adjacent in G .

Question: What is the application of isomorphism in real word?

Answer: There are many applications of the graph theory in computer

Science as well as in the Practical life; some of them are given
below. (1) Now you also go through the puzzles like that we have to
go through these points without lifting the pencil and without
repeating our path. These puzzles can be solved by the Euler and
Hamiltonian circuits. (2) Graph theory as well as Trees has
applications in “DATA STRUCTURE" in which you will use trees,
especially binary trees in manipulating the data in your programs.
Also there is a common application of the trees is "FAMILY TREE”.
In which we represent a family using the trees. (3) Another example
of the directed Graph is "The World Wide Web ". The files are the
vertices. A link from one file to another is a directed edge (or arc).
These are the few examples.

Question: Are Isomorphic graphs are reflexive, symmetric and transitive?

Answer: We always talk about " RELXIVITY"" SYMMETRIC" and

TRANSIVITY of a relation. We never say that a graph is reflexive,
symmetric or transitive. But also remember that we draw the graph
of a relation which is reflexive and symmetric and the property of
reflexivity and symmetric is evident from the graphs, we can’t draw
the graph of a relation such that transitive property of the relation is
evident. Now consider the set of all graphs say it G, this being a set
,so we can define a relation from the set G to itself. So we define the
relation of Isomorphism on the set G x G.( By the definition of
isomorphism) Our claim is that this relation is an " Equivalence
Relation" which means that the relation of Isomorphism’s of two
graphs is "REFLEXIVE" "SYMMETRIC" and "TRANSITIVE". Now if
you want to draw the graph of this relation, then the vertices of this
graph are the graphs from the set G.

Question: Why we can't use the same color in connected portions of planar
graph?
 graph?

Answer: We define the coloring of graph in such a manner that we can’t

assign the same color to the adjacent vertices because if we give
the same colors to the adjacent vertices then they are
indistinguishable. Also note that we can give the same color to the
adjacent vertices but such a coloring is called improper coloring and
the way which we define the coloring is known as the proper
coloring. We are interested in proper coloring that’s why all the
books consider the proper coloring

Question: What is meant by isomorphic invariant?

Answer: A property "P" of a graph is known as Isomorphic invariant. if the

same property is found in all the graphs which are isomorphic to it.
And all these properties are called isomorphic invariant (Also it clear
from the words Isomorphic Invariant that the properties which
remain invariant if the two graphs are isomorphic to each other).

Question: What is an infinite Face?

Answer: When you draw a Planar Graph on a plane it divides the plane into
different regions, these regions are known as the faces and the face
which is not bounded by the edges of the graph is known as the
Infinite face. In other words the region which is unbounded is known
as Infinite Face.

Question: What is "Bipartite Graph”?

Answer: A graph is said to be Bipartite if it’s set of vertices can be divided

into two disjoint sets such that no two vertices of the same set are
adjacent by some edge of the graph. It means that the edges of one
set will be adjacent with the vertices of the other set.
Question: What is chromatic number?

Answer: While coloring a graph you can color a vertex which is not adjacent
with the vertices you already colored by choosing a new color for it
or by the same color which you have used for the vertices which are
not adjacent with this vertex. It means that while coloring a graph
you may have different number of colors used for this purpose. But
the least number of colors which are being used during the coloring
of Graphs is known as the Chromatic number.

Question: What is the role of Discrete mathematics in our prectical life. what
advantages will we get by learning it.

Answer: In many areas people have to faces many mathematical problems

which can,t be solved in computer so discrete mathematics provide
the facility to overcome these problems. Discrete math also covers
the wide range of topics, starting with the foundations of Logic, Sets
and Functions. It moves onto integer mathematics and matrices,
number theory, mathematical reasoning, probability graphs, tree
data structures and Boolean algebra.So that is why we need
discrete math.

Question: What is the De Morgan's law .

Answer: De Morgan law states " Negation of the conjunction of two

statements is logiacally equivalent to the disjunction of their
negation and Negation of the disjunction of two statements is
logically equivalent to the conjucnction of their negation". i.e. ~(p^q)
= ~p v ~q and ~(p v q)= ~p ^ ~q For example: " The bus was late
and jim is waiting "(this is an example of conjuction of two
statements) Now apply neaggation on this statement you will get
through De Morgan's law " The bus was not late or jim is not
waiting" (this is the disjunction of negation of two statements). Now
see both statement are logically equivalent.Thats what De Morgan
want to say

Question: What is Tauology?

Answer: A tautology is a statement form that is always true regardless of the
truth values of the statement variables. i.e. If you want to prove that
(p v q) is tautology ,you have to show that all values of statement (p
v q) are true regardless of the values of p and q.If all the values of
the satement (p v q) is not true then this statement is not tautology.

Question: What is binary relations and reflexive,symmetric and transitive.

Answer: Dear student! First of all ,I will tell you about the basic meaning of
relation i.e It is a logical or natural association between two or more
things; relevance of one to another; the relation between smoking
and heart disease. The connection of people by blood or marriage.
 (b,a)=(3,1)also belongs to R.etc So clearly the above relation R is
symmetric. And read the definition of transitive relation from the
handouts and the book. You can easily understand it.

Question: What is the matrix relation .

Answer: Suppose that A and B are finite sets.Then we take a relation say R
from A to B. From a rectangular array whose rows are labeled by
the elements of A and whose columns are labeled by the elements
of B. Put a 1 or 0 in each position of the array according as a
belongs to A is or is not related to b belongs to B. This array is
called the matrix of the relation. There are matrix relations of
reflexive and symmetric relations. In reflexive relation, all the
diagonal elements of relation should be equal to 1. For example if R
= {(1,1), (1,3), (2,2), (3,2), (3,3)} defined on A = {1,2,3}. Then clearly
R is reflexive. Simply in making matrix relation In the above
example,as the defined set is A={1,2,3} so there are total three
elements. Now we take 1, 2 and 3 horizontally and vertically.i.e we
make a matrix from the relation R ,in the matrix you have now 3
columns and 3 rows. Now start to make the matrix ,as you have first
order pair (1, 1) it means that 1 maps on itself and you write 1 in 1st
row and in first column. 2nd order pair is (1, 3) it means that arrow
goes from 1 to 3.Then you have to write 1 in 1st row and in 3rd
column. (2, 2) means that arrow goes from 2 and ends itself. Here
you have to write 1 in 2nd row and in 2nd column. (3,2) means
arrow goes from 3 and ends at 2. Here you have to write 1 in 3rd
row and in 2nd column. (3, 3) means that 3 maps on itself and you
write 1 in 3rd row and in 3rd column. And where there is space
empty or unfilled ,you have to write 0 there.

Question: what is binary relation.

Answer: Let A and B be any two sets. Then their cartesian product(or the
product set) means a new set "A x B " which contains all the ordered
pairs of the form (a,b) where a is in set A and b is in set B. Let we
take any subset say 'R' of "A x B" ,then 'R' is called the binary
 which contains in "A x B" and denote it by 'R'. Let
R={(2,b),(3,a),(3,b)} Clearly R is a subset of "A x B" so 'R' is called
the binary relation.

Question: Role of ''Discrete Mathematics'' in our prectical life. what advantages

will we get by learning it.

Answer: Discrete mathematics concerns processes that consist of a

sequence of individual steps. This distinguishes it from calculus,
which studies continuously changing processes. While the ideas of
calculus were fundamental to the science and technology of the
industrial revolution, the ideas of discrete mathematics underline the
science and technology specific to the computer age. Logic and
proof: An important goal of discrete mathematics is to develop
students’ ability to think abstractly. This requires that students learn
to use logically valid forms of argument, to avoid common logical
errors, to understand what it means to reason from definition, and to
know how to use both direct and indirect argument to derive new
results from those already known to be true. Induction and
Recursion: An exciting development of recent years has been
increased appreciation for the power and beauty of “recursive
thinking”: using the assumption that a given problem has been
solved for smaller cases, to solve it for a given case. Such thinking
 knowledge of combinatorics, recurrence relations functions, and O-
notation. Discrete Structures: Discrete mathematical structures are
made of finite or count ably infinite collections of objects that satisfy
certain properties. Those are sets, bolean of algebras, functions,
finite start automata, relations, graphs and trees. The concept of
isomorphism is used to describe the state of affairs when two
distinct structures are the same intheir essentials and diffr only in
the labeling of the underlying objects. Applications and modeling:
Mathematics topic are best understood when they are seen ina
variety of contexts and used to solve problems in a broad range of
applied situations. One of the profound lessons of mathematics is
that the same mathematical model can be used to solve problems in
situations that appear superficially to be totally dissimilar. So in the
end i want to say that discrete mathematics has many uses not only
in computer science but also in the other fields too.

Question: what is the basic difference b/w sequences and series

Answer: A sequence is just a list of elements .In sequnce we write the terms
of sequence as a list (seperated by comma's). e.g 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,...
( in this we have terms 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 and so on).we write these in
form of list seperated by comma's. And the sum of the terms of a
sequence forms a series. e.g we have sequence 1,2,3,4,5,6,7 Now
the series is sum of terms of sequence as 1+2+3+4+5+6+7.

Question: what is the purpose of permutations?

Answer: Permutation is an arrangement of objects in a order where repitition

is not allowed. We need arrangments of objects in real life and also
in mathematical problems.We need to know in how many ways we
can arrange certain objects. There are four types of arrangments we
have in which one is permutation.

Question: what is inclusion-exclusion principle

 are disjoint finite sets, then n(AÈB) = n(A) + n(B) And if A and B are
finite sets, then n(AÈB) = n(A) + n(B) - n(AÇB) For example If there
are 15 girls students and 25 boys students in a class then how many
students are in total. Now see if we take A ={ 15 girl students} and
B={ 25 boys students} Here A and B are two disjoints sets then we
can apply first rule n(AÈB) = n(A) + n(B) =15 + 25 =40 So in total
there are 40 students in class. Take another Example for second
rule. How many integers from 1 through 1000 are multiples of 3 or
multiples of 5. Let A and B denotes the set of integers from 1
through 1000 that are multiples of 3 and 5 respectivly. n(A)= 333
n(B)=200 But these two sets are not disjoint because in A and B we
have those elements which are multiple of both 3 and 5. so n(AÇB)
=66 n(AÈB) = n(A) + n(B) - n(AÇB) =333 + 200 - 66 = 467

Question: How to use conditional probobility

Answer: Dear student In Conditional probability we put some condition on an

event to be occur. e.g. A pair of dice is tossed. Find the probability
that one of the dice is 2 if the sum is 6. If we have to find the
probability that one of the dice is 2, then it is the case of simple
probability. Here we put a condition that sum is six. Now A = { 2
appears in atleast one die} E = {sum is 6 } Here E = { (1,5), (2, 4),
(3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1) } Here two order pairs ( 2, 4 ) and ( 4, 2) satisfies
the A. (i.e. belongs to A) Now A (intersection) B= { (2,4), (4,2)} Now
by formula P(A/E) = P(A (intersection) E)/ P(E) = 2/5

Question: In which condition we use combination and in which condition

permutation.

Answer: This depends on the statement of question. If in the statement of

question you finds out that repetition of objects are not allowed and
order matters then we use Permutation. e.g. Find the number of
ways that a party of seven persons can arrange themselves in a row
of seven chairs. See in this question repetition is no allowed
because whenever a person is chosen for a particular seat r then he
 exam. Find the number m of ways that the student can choose the
eight questions See in this question repetition is not allowed that is
when you choose one question then you cannot choose it again and
also order does not matters(i.e either he solved Q1 first or Q2 first)
so you use combination in this question.

Question: What is the differnce between edge and vertex

Answer: Vertices are nodes or points and edges are lines/arcs which are
used to connect the vertices. e.g If you are making the graph to find
the shortest path or for nay purpose of cites and roads between
them which contain Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad , Karachi, and
Multan. Then cities Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad , Karachi, and
Multan are vertices and roads between them are edges.

Question: What is the differnce between yes and allowed in graphs.

Answer: Allowed mean that specific property can be occurs in that case but
yes mean that specific property always occurs in that case. e.g. In
Walk you may start and end at same point and may not be
(allowed). But in Closed Walk you have to start and end at same
point (yes).

Question: what is the meanging of induction? and also Mathematical

Induction?

Answer: Basic meaning of induction is: a)The act or an instance of inducting.

b) A ceremony or formal act by which a person is inducted, as into
office or military service. In Mathematics. A two-part method of
proving a theorem involving a positive integral variable. First the
theorem is verified for the smallest admissible value of the integer.
Then it is proven that if the theorem is true for any value of the
integer, it is true for the next greater value. The final proof contains
the two parts. As you have studied. It also means that presentation
 voltage or current in a material by means of electric or magnetic
fields, as in the secondary winding of a transformer when exposed
to the changing magnetic field caused by an alternating current in
the primary winding. In Biochemistry,it means that the process of
initiating or increasing the production of an enzyme or other protein
at the level of genetic transcription. In embryology,it means that the
change in form or shape caused by the action of one tissue of an
embryo on adjacent tissues or parts, as by the diffusion of hormones
or chemicals.

Question: How to use conditional probobility

Answer: Dear student In Conditional probability we put some condition on an

event to be occur. e.g. A pair of dice is tossed. Find the probability
that one of the dice is 2 if the sum is 6. If we have to find the
probability that one of the dice is 2, then it is the case of simple
probability. Here we put a condition that sum is six. Now A = { 2
appears in atleast one die} E = {sum is 6 } Here E = { (1,5), (2, 4),
(3, 3), (4, 2), (5, 1) } Here two order pairs ( 2, 4 ) and ( 4, 2) satisfies
the A. (i.e. belongs to A) Now A (intersection) B= { (2,4), (4,2)} Now
by formula P(A/E) = P(A (intersection) E)/ P(E) = 2/5

Question: In which condition we use combination and in which condition

permutation.
Answer: This depends on the statement of question. If in the statement of
question you finds out that repetition of objects are not allowed and
 so you use combination in this question.

Question: What is the differnce between edge and vertex

Answer: Vertices are nodes or points and edges are lines/arcs which are
used to connect the vertices. e.g If you are making the graph to find
the shortest path or for nay purpose of cites and roads between
them which contain Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad , Karachi, and
Multan. Then cities Lahore, Islamabad, Faisalabad , Karachi, and
Multan are vertices and roads between them are edges.

Question: What is the differnce between yes and allowed in graphs.

Answer: Allowed mean that specific property can be occurs in that case but
yes mean that specific property always occurs in that case. e.g. In
Walk you may start and end at same point and may not be
(allowed). But in Closed Walk you have to start and end at same
point (yes).

Question: what is the meanging of induction? and also Mathematical

Induction?

Answer: Basic meaning of induction is: a)The act or an instance of inducting.

b) A ceremony or formal act by which a person is inducted, as into
office or military service. In Mathematics. A two-part method of
proving a theorem involving a positive integral variable. First the
theorem is verified for the smallest admissible value of the integer.
Then it is proven that if the theorem is true for any value of the
 initiating or increasing the production of an enzyme or other protein
at the level of genetic transcription. In embryology,it means that the
change in form or shape caused by the action of one tissue of an
embryo on adjacent tissues or parts, as by the diffusion of hormones
or chemicals.

Question: What is "Hypothetical Syllogism".

Answer: Hypothetical syllogism is a law that if the argument is of the form p --

> q q---> r Therefore p---> r Then it'll always be a tautology. i.e. if the
p implies q and q implies r is true then its conclusion p implies r is
always true.

Question: A set is define a well define collection of distinct objects so why an

empty set is called a set although it has no element?

Answer: Some time we have collection of zero objects and we call them
empty sets. e.g. Set of natural numbers greater than 5 and less than
5. A = { x belongs to N / 5< x < 5 } Now see this is a set which have
collection of elements which are greater than 5 and less than 5 (
from natural number).

Question: What is improper subset.

Answer: Let A and B be sets. A is proper subset of B, if, and only if, every
element of A is in B but there is at least on element if B that is not in
A. Now A is improper subset of B, if and only if, every element of A
is in B and there is no element in B which is not in A. e.g. A= { 1, 2 ,
3, 4} B= { 2, 1, 4, 3} Now A is improper subset of B. Because every
element of A is in B and there is no element in B which is not in A

Question: How to check validity and unvalidity of argument through diagram.

 those sets in the form of diagram. If diagram satisfies the conclusion
then it is a valid argument otherwise invalid. e.g. If we have three
premises S1: all my friends are musicians S2: John is my friend. S3:
None of my neighbor are musicians. conclusion John is not my
neighbor. Now we have three sets Friends, Musicians, neighbors.
Now you see from premises 1 and 2 that friends are subset of
musicians .From premises 3 see that neighbor is an individual set
that is disjoint from set musicians. Now represent then in form of
Venn diagram. Musicians neighbour Friends Now see that john lies
in set friends which is disjoint from set neighbors. So their
intersection is empty.Which shows that john is not his neighbor. In
that way you can check the validity of arguments

Question: why we used venn digram?

Answer: Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets. Venn diagram

can sometime be used to determine whether or not an argument is
valid. Real life problems can easily be illustrate through Venn
diagram if you first convert them into set form and then in Venn
diagram form. Venn diagram enables students to organize
similarities and differences visually or graphically. A Venn diagram is
an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups
of objects that share something in common.

Question: what is composite relation .

Answer: Let A, B, and C be sets, and let R be relation from A to B and let S
be a relation from B to C. Now by combining these two relations we
can form a relation from A to C. Now let a belongs to A, b belongs to
B, and c belongs to C. We can write relations R as a R b and S as b
 to x and our composite relation omits that common and relates
directly 3 to x.) I do not understand your second question send it
again. Now R O S ={(2,z), (3,x), (3,z)}

Question: What are the conditions to confirm functions .

Answer: The first condition for a relation from set X to a set Y to be a function
is 1.For every element x in X, there is an element y in Y such that (x,
y) belongs to F. Which means that every element in X should relate
with distinct element of Y. e.g if X={ 1,2,3} and Y={x, y} Now if
R={(1,x),(2,y),(1,y),(2,x)} Then R will not be a function because 3
belongs to X but is does not relates with any element of Y. so
R={(1,x),(2,y),(3,y)} can be called a function because every element
of X is relates with elements of Y. Second condition is : For all
elements x in X and y and z in Y, if (x, y) belongs to F and (x, z)
belongs to F, then y = z Which means that every element in X only
relates with distinct element of Y. i.e. R={(1,x),(2,y),(2,x), (3,y)}
cannot be called as function because 2 relates with x and y also.

Question: When a function is onto.

Answer: First you have to know about the concept of function. Function:It is a
rule or a machine from a set X to a set Y in which each element of
set X maps into the unique element of set Y. Onto Function: Means
a function in which every element of set Y is the image of at least
one element in set X. Or there should be no element left in set Y
which is the image of no element in set X. If such case does not
exist then the function is not called onto. For example:Let we define
a function f : R----R such that f(x)=x^2 (where ^ shows the symbol of
power i.e. x raise to power 2). Clearly every element in the second
set is the image of atleast one element in the first set. As for x=1
then f(x)=1^2=1 (1 is the image of 1 under the rule f) for x=2 then
f(x)=2^2=4 (4 is the image of 2 under the rule f) for x=0 then
f(x)=0^2=0 (0 is the image of 0 under the rule f) for x=-1 then f(x)=(-
1)^2=1 (1 is the image of -1 under the rule f) So it is onto function.
Question: Is Pie an irrational number?

Answer: Pi π is an irrational number as its exact value has an infinite decimal

expansion: Its decimal expansion never ends and does not repeat.

The numerical value of π truncated to 50 decimal places is:

3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971

69399 37510

Question: Difference between sentence and statement.

Answer: A sentence is a statement if it have a truth value otherwise this

sentence is not a statement.By truth value i mean if i write a
sentence "Lahore is capital of Punjab" Its truth value is
"true".Because yes Lahore is a capital of Punjab. So the above
sentence is a statement. Now if i write a sentence "How are you"
Then you cannot answer in yes or no.So this sentence is not a
statement. Every statement is a sentence but converse is not true.

Question: What is the truth table?

Answer: Truth table is a table which describe the truth values of a

proposition. or we can say that Truth table display the complete
behaviour of a proposition. There fore the purpose of truth table is to
identify its truth values. A statement or a proposition in Discrete
math can easily identify its truth value by the truth table. Truth tables
are especially valuable in the determination of the truth values of
propositions constructed from simpler propositions. The main steps
while making a truth table are "first judge about the statement that
how much symbols(or variables) it contain. If it has n symbols then
total number of combinations=2 raise to power n. These all the
combinations give the truth value of the statement from where we
can judge that either the truthness of a statement or proposiotion is
true or false. In all the combinations you have to put values either
"F" or "T" against the variales.But note it that no row can be
repeated. For example "Ali is happy and healthy" we denote "ali is
happy" by p and "ali is healthy" by q so the above statement contain
two variables or symbols. The total no of combinations are =2 raise
 two variables or symbols. The total no of combinations are =2 raise
to power 2(as n=2) =4 which tell us the truthness of a statement.

Question: how empty set become a subset of every set.

Answer: If A & B are two sets, A is called a subset of B, if, and only if, every
element of A is also an element of B. Now we prove that empty set
is subset of any other set by a contra positive statement( of above
statement) i.e. If there is any element in the the set A that is not in
the set B then A is not a subset of B. Now if A={} and B={1,3,4,5}
Then you cannot find an element which is in A but not in B. So A is
subset of B.

Question: What is rational and irrational numbers.

Answer: A number that can be expressed as a fraction p/q where p and q are
integers and q\not=0, is called a rational number with numerator p
and denominator q. The numbers which cannot be expressed as
rational are called irrational number. Irrational numbers have
decimal expansions that neither terminate nor become periodic
where in rational numbers the decimal expansion either terminate or
become periodic after some numbers.

Question: what is the difference between graphs and spanning tree?

Answer: First of all, a graph is a "diagram that exhibits a relationship, often

functional, between two sets of numbers as a set of points having
coordinates determined by the relationship. Also called plot". Or A
pictorial device, such as a pie chart or bar graph, used to illustrate
quantitative relationships. Also called chart. And a tree is a
 spanning tree for a graph G is a subgraph of G that contains every
vertex of G and is a tree. It is not neccesary for a graph to always be
a spanning tree. Graph becomes a spanning tree if it satisfies all the
properties of a spanning tree.

Question: What is the probability ?

Answer: The definition of probability is : Let S be a finite sample space such

that all the outcomes are equally likely to occur. The probability of
an event E, which is a subset of S, is P(E) = (the number of
outcomes in E)/ (the number of total outcomes in S) P(E) = n (E) / n
( S ) This definition is due to ‘Laplace.’ Thus probability is a concept
which measures numerically the degree of certainty or uncertainty of
the occurrence of an event. Explaination The basic steps of
probability that u have to remember are as under 1. First list out all
possible out comes. That is called the sample space S For example
when we roll a die the all possible outcomes are the set S i.e. S =
{1,2,3,4,5,6} 2. Secondly we have to find out all that possible
outcomes, in which the probability is required . For example we are
asked to find the probability of even numbers. First we decide any
name of that event i.e E Now we check all the even numbers in S
which are E = {2,4,6} Remember Event is always a sub-set of
Sample space S. 3. Now we apply the definition of probability P(E) =
(the number of outcomes in E)/ (the number of total outcomes in S)
P(E) = n (E) / n ( S ) So from above two steps we have n (E) = 3 and
n (S) = 6 then P(E) = 3 / 6 = 1/2 which is probability of an even
number.

Question: what is permutation?

Answer: Permutation comes from the word permute which means " to
change the order of." Basically permutation means a "complete
change." Or the act of altering a given set of objects in a group. In
Mathematics point of view it means that a ordered arrangement of
the elements of a set (here the order of elements matters but
repetition of the elements is not allowed).
Question: What is a function.

Answer: A function say 'f' is a rule or machine from a set A to the set B if for
every element say a of A, there exist a unique element say b of set
such that b=f(a) Where b is the image of a under f,and a is the pre-
image. Note it that set A is called the domain of f and Y is called the
codomain of f. As we know that function is a rule or machine in
which we put an input,and we get an output.Like that a juicer
machine.We take some apples(here apples are input) and we apply
a rule or a function of juicer machine on it,then we get the output in
the form of juice.

Question: What is p implies q.

Answer: p--- >q means to "go from hypothesis to a conclusion" where p is a

hypothesis and q is a conclusion. And note it that this statement is
conditioned because the "truth ness of statement p is conditioned on
the truth ness of statement q". Now the truth value of p--->q is false
only when p is true and q is false otherwise it will always true. E.g.
consider an implication "if you do your work on Sunday ,I will give
you ten rupees." Here p=you do your work on Sunday (is the
hypothesis) , q=I will give you ten rupees ( the conclusion or
promise). Now the truth value of p---->q will false only when the
promise is braked. i.e. You do your work on Sunday but you do not
get ten rupees. In all other conditions the promise is not braked.

Question: What is valid and invalid arguments.

Answer: As "an argument is a list of statements called premises (or

assumptions or hypotheses) which is followed by a statement called
the conclusion. " A valid argument is one in which the premises
entail(or imply) the conclusion. 1)It cannot have true premises and a
false conclusion. 2)If its premises are true, its conclusion must be
true. 3)If its conclusion is false, it must have at least one false
premise. 4)All of the information in the conclusion is also in the
premises. And an invalid agrument is one in which the premises do
not entail(or imply) the conclusion. It can have true premises and a
false conclusion. Even if its premises are true, it may have a false
 false conclusion. Even if its premises are true, it may have a false
conclusion. Even if its conclusion is false, it may have true premises.
There is information in the conclusion that is not in the premises. To
know them better,try to solve more and more examples and
exercises.

Question: What is domain and co -domain.

Answer: Domain means "the set of all x-coordinates in a relation". It is very

simple,Let we take a function say f from the set X to set Y. Then
domain means a set which contain all the elements of the set X. And
co domain means a set which contain all the elements of the set Y.
For example: Let we define a function "f" from the set X={a,b,c,d} to
Y={1,2,3,4}. such that f(a)=1, f(b)=2, f(c)=3, f(d)=1 Here the domain
set is {a,b,c,d} And the co-domain set is {1,2,3,4} Where as the
image set is {1,2,3}.Because f(a)=1 as 1 is the image of a under the
rule 'f'. f(b)=2 as 2 is the image of b under the rule 'f'. f(c)=3 as 3 is
the image of c under the rule 'f'. f(d)=1as 1 is the image of d under
the rule 'f'. because "image set contains only those elements which
are the images of elements found in set X". Note it that here f is one
-one but not onto,because there is one element '4' left which is the
image of nothing element under the rule 'f'.

Question: What is the difference between k-sample,k-selection, k-permutation

and k-combination?

Answer: Actually, these all terms are related to the basic concept of choosing
some elements from the given collection.

For it, two things are important:

1) Order of elements .i.e. which one is first, which one is

 So we can get 4 kinds of selections:

1) The elements have both order and repetition. ( It is

called k-sample )

2) The elements have only order, but no repetition. ( It is

called k-permutation )

3) The elements have only repetition, but no order. ( It is

called k-selection )

4) The elements have no repetition and no order. ( It is

called k-combination )

Question: What is a combination?

Answer: A combination is an un-ordered collection of unique elements. Given

S, the set of all possible unique elements, a combination is a subset
of the elements of S. The order of the elements in a combination is
not important (two lists with the same elements in different orders
are considered to be the same combination). Also, the elements
cannot be repeated in a combination (every element appears
uniquely once

Question: why is 0! equal to 1?

Answer: Since n! = n(n-1)!

Put n =1 in it.

1! = 1x(1 – 1)!
 So 1 = 0!

0! = 1.

Question: What is the basic idea if Mathematical Induction?

Question: Define symmetric and anti-symmetric.

Answer:

Question: What is the main deffernce between Calculus and Discrete Maths?

Answer: Discrete mathematics is the study of mathematics which concerns to

the study of discrete objects. Discrete math build students approach
to think abstractly and how to handle mathematical models
problems in computer While Calculus is a mathematical tool used to
analyze changes in physical quantities. Or "Calculus is sometimes
described as the mathematics of change." Also calculus played an
important role in industrial area as well discrete math in computer.

Discrete mathematics concerns processes that consist of a

sequence of individual steps. This distinguishes it from calculus,
which studies continuously changing processes. the ideas of
discrete mathematics underline the science and technology specific
to the computer age. An important goal of discrete mathematics is to
develop students’ ability to think abstractly.

Question: Explain Valid Arguments.

 A valid argument is one in which the premises imply the
conclusion.

1) It cannot have true premises and a false conclusion.

2) If its premises are true, its conclusion must be true.

3) If its conclusion is false, it must have at least one false

premise.

4) All of the information in the conclusion is also in the

premises.

Question: What is the Difference between combinations and permutations?

Answer: When we talk of permutations and combinations in everyday talk we

often use the two terms interchangeably. In mathematics, however,
the two each have very specific meanings, and this distinction often
causes problems

In brief, the permutation of a number of objects is the number of

 simplistically) as

Permutations - position important (although choice may also be

important)
Combinations - chosen important,
which may help you to remember

Question: What is the use of kruskal's algorithn in our daily life?

Answer: The Kruskal’s algorithm is usually used to find minimum spanning

tree i.e. the possible smallest tree that contains all the vertices. The
standard application is to a problem like phone network design.
Suppose, you have a business with several offices; you want to
lease phone lines to connect them up with each other; and the
phone company charges different amounts of money to connect
different pairs of cities. You want a set of lines that connects all your
offices with a minimum total cost. It should be a spanning tree, since
if a network isn't a tree you can always remove some edges and
save money. A less obvious application is that the minimum
spanning tree can be used to approximately solve the traveling
salesman problem. A convenient formal way of defining this problem
is to find the shortest path that visits each point at least once.

Question: What is irrational number?

Answer: Irrational number An irrational number can not be expressed as a

fraction. In decimal form, irrational numbers do not repeat in a
pattern or terminate. They "go on forever" (infinity). Examples of
irrational numbers are: pi= 3.141592654...

Question: Define membership table and truth table.

Answer: Membership table: A table displaying the membership of elements in

sets. Set identities can also be proved using membership tables. An
element is in a set, a 1 is used and an element is not in a set, a 0 is
used. Truth table: A table displaying the truth values of propositions.
Question: Define function and example for finding domain and range of a
function.

Answer:

Question: Why do we use konigsberg bridges problem?

Answer: Click on it.

Question: Explain the intersection of two sets?

Answer: Click on it.

Question: What is absurdity With example?

Answer:

Question: What is sequence and series?

Answer: Sequence A sequence of numbers is a function defined on the set of

positive integer. The numbers in the sequence are called terms.
Another way, the sequence is a set of quantities u1, u2, u3... stated
in a definite order and each term formed according to a fixed
pattern. U r =f(r) In example: 1,3,5,7,... 2,4,6,8,... 1 2 ,− 2 2 ,3 2 ,− 4
2 ,... Infinite sequence:- This kind of sequence is unending
sequence like all natural numbers: 1, 2, 3, ... Finite sequence:- This
kind of sequence contains only a finite number of terms. One of
good examples are the page numbers. Series:- The sum of a finite
or infinite sequence of expressions. 1+3+5+7+...

Question: Differntiate contigency and contradiction.

Answer:

Question: What is conditional statement, converse, inverse and contra-

positive?

Answer:

Question: What is Euclidean algorithm?

Answer: In number theory, the Euclidean algorithm (also called Euclid's

algorithm) is an algorithm to determine the greatest common divisor
(GCD) of two integers.

Its major significance is that it does not require factoring the two integers,
and it is also significant in that it is one of the oldest algorithms known,
dating back to the ancient Greeks.
Question: what is the circle definition?

Answer: A circle is the locus of all points in a plane which are equidistant
from a fixed point. The fixed point is called centre of that circle and
the distance is called radius of that circle

Question: What is bi-conditional statement?

Answer:

Question: Explain the difference between k-sample, k-selection, k-combination

and k-permutation.

Answer:

Question: What is meant by Discrete?

Answer:

A type of data is discrete if there are only a finite number of values

possible. Discrete data usually occurs in a case where there are
only a certain number of values, or when we are counting something
(using whole numbers). For example, 5 students, 10 trees etc.

Question: Explain D'Morgan Law.

Answer:

Question: What are digital circuits?

Answer: Digital circuits are electric circuits based on a number of discrete

voltage levels.

In most cases there are two voltage levels: one near to zero volts
and one at a higher level depending on the supply voltage in use.
These two levels are often represented as L and H.

Question: What is absurdity or contradiction?

Answer: A statement which is always false is called an absurdity.

Question: What is contingency?

Answer: A statement which can be true or false depending upon the truth
values of the variables is called a contingency.

Question: Is there any particular rule to solve Inductive Step in the

mathematical Induction?
 true.

In proving the result for n = k +1, the procedure changes, as it

depends on the shape of the given statement.

Following steps are main:

1) You should simply replace n by k+1 in the left side of the

statement.

2) Use the supposition of n = k in it.

3) Then you have to simplify it to get right side of the

statement. This is the step,

where students usually feel difficulty.

Here sometimes, you have to open the brackets, or add or

subtract some terms

or take some term common etc. This step of simplification to

get right side of the given statement for n = n + 1 changes
from question to question.

Now check this step in the examples of the Lessons 23 and

24.

Question: What is Inclusion Exclusion Principle?

Answer: Click on Inclusion Exclusion Principle.

Question: What is recusion?

Answer:

Question: Different notations of conditional implication.

Answer: If p than q. P implies q. If p , q. P only if q. P is sufficient for q.

Question: What is cartesion product?

Answer: Cartesian product of sets:- Let A and B be sets. The Cartesian

product of A and B, denoted A x B (read “A cross B”) is the set of all
ordered pairs (a, b), where a is in A and b is in B. For example: A =
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} B = {a} A x B = {(1,a), (2,a), (3,a), (4,a), (5,a)}

Question: Define fraction and decimal expansion.

Answer: Fraction:- A number expressed in the form a/b where a is called the
numerator and b is called the denominator. Decimal expansion:-
The decimal expansion of a number is its representation in base 10
The number 3.22 3 is its integer part and 22 is its decimal part The
number on the left of decimal point is integer part of the number and
the number on the right of the decimal point is decimal part of the
number.

Question: Explane venn diagram.

Answer: Venn diagram is a pictorial representation of sets. Venn diagram

can sometime be used to determine whether or not an argument is
valid. Real life problems can easily be illustrate through Venn
diagram if you first convert them into set form and then in Venn
diagram form. Venn diagram enables students to organize
similarities and differences visually or graphically. A Venn diagram is
an illustration of the relationships between and among sets, groups
of objects that share something in common

Question: Write the types of functions.

Answer: Types of function:- Following are the types of function 1. One to one
function 2. Onto function 3. Into function 4. Bijective function (one to
one and onto function) One to one function:- A function f : A to B is
said to be one to one if there is no repetition in the second element
 A function f : A to B is said to be into function of Range of f is the
subset of set B (co domain) Bijective function: Bijective function:- A
function is said to be Bijective if it is both one to one and onto.

Question: Explain the pigeonhole principle.

Answer:

Question: What is conditional probability with example?.

Answer:

Question: Explain combinatorics.

Answer: Branch of mathematics concerned with the selection, arrangement,

and combination of objects chosen from a finite set.

The number of possible bridge hands is a simple example; more

complex problems include scheduling classes in classrooms at a
large university and designing a routing system for telephone
signals. No standard algebraic procedures apply to all combinatorial
problems; a separate logical analysis may be required for each
problem.

Question: How the tree diagram use in our real computer life?

Answer: Tree diagrams are used in data structure, compiler construction, in

making algorithms, operating system etc.

Question: Write detail of cards.

Answer: Diamond Club Heart Spade A A A A 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 5

5 5 5 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 J J J J Q Q Q Q K
K K K Where 26 cards are black & 26 are red. Also ‘A’ stands for
‘ace’ ‘J’ stands for ‘jack’ ‘Q’ stands for ‘queen’ ‘K’ stands for ‘king’
Question: what is the purpose of permutations?

Answer: Definition:- Possible arrangements of a set of objects in which the

order of the arrangement makes a difference. For example,
determining all the different ways five books can be arranged in
order on a shelf. In mathematics, especially in abstract algebra and
related areas, a permutation is a bijection, from a finite set X onto
itself. Purpose of permutation is to establish significance without
assumptions