D

r
G
op
al
T
ha
ku
r
 Writing Skills
First, we emphasize information. The major purpose of writing for the mass media is to present
information.

Second, one of the purposes of this course is to teach you how to write in a professional
environment. That is, we want you to understand what the demands of professionalism are
and what you will need to meet those demands.

Third, writing in a media environment usually means writing for a mass audience. Chances are,
a lot of people are going to read or hear or see what you write, understanding that audience is
a big part of learning to write for the mass media.

r
ku
Finally, there is the concept of modesty. By that we mean that good writing for the mass media
puts the writer in the background and emphasizes instead the content of the writing. An
ha
audience doesn’t care what you think or how you feel about what you are writing. The
audience wants information, and it wants that information presented accurately, completely,
T
efficiently and precisely.
al

Four characteristics of media writing: And those are the four characteristics of media
op

writing
G

 accuracy
 completeness
r

 efficiency
D

 precision

Accuracy is the chief requirement of a writer for the mass media. This is not just a journalist’s
requirement. All writers are expected to present information accurately and to take some pains
in doing so. Many of the procedures for writing for the mass media are set up to ensure
accuracy.

Completeness means that you should present your information in a context so that it can be
easily understood by a mass audience. It should be clear and coherent. Your writing should
answer all of the questions that could be expected by the audience. (Not all of the questions
that could be asked, but all those that it takes to understand the information.)

Efficiency is one of the most prized writing characteristics. Efficiency means using the fewest
words to present you information accurately and clearly. Efficiency is difficult to achieve
because

 Most of us write inefficiently, especially on first draft

 Most of us do not do a good job in editing our writing
 The world is filled with inefficient writing, and we often fall victim to it.

Precision means that as a writer, you take special care with the language. You know good
grammar and practice it. You use words for precisely what they mean. You develop a love for
the language.

As a developing professional, you should strive to make your writing

 satisfactory, to your audience and to you as a writer

engaging, so that the audience will stop, attend

r


ku
 powerful, so you can make a difference in the lives of your readers and listeners

IS WRITING AN CRAFT OR A ART

ha
Definition of craft: A craft is a skill, especially involving practical arts. It may refer to a trade or
T
particular art.
al

Definition of Art: Art is the process or product of deliberately arranging elements in a way that
appeals to the senses or emotions. It encompasses a diverse range of human activities,
op

creations, and model of expression, including music, literature, film, sculpture, and painting.
G

It is the conscious production or arrangement of sounds, color, forms, movements, or other

elements in a manner that affects the sense of beauty, specifically the production of the
r

beautiful in a graphic or plastic medium.

D

Writing as Craft: one can be taught how to write news stories, features, articles or editorial.
Same rules can be followed to write proficient piece of writing, whether you are writing a novel
or a specialized communication. All what it requires producing a piece of writing one word after
another and one sentence after another? It takes proficiency to put everything in a way that
makes people wish to read more. It takes talent to paint a verbal picture just with your words.

Writing as art: The things that touch us, that move us emotionally, many of these could be
pieces of writing. Even if these are hundreds of years old, they still have the power to bring
forth a powerful response.

Quit India speech is a speech made by Mahatma Gandhi on August 8th 1942, on the eve of the
Quit India movement. There are hundreds of similar examples: some are beautiful, some are
significant, some are both; all are art.
Making a Choice: From time to time written piece, like a novel, book, speech etcetera that
really strikes a chord with us, so we can say that writing is both an art and a craft.

r
ku
ha
T
al
op
G
r
D
 Unit I- [Understanding Writing]

1. FUNDAMENTAL OF MEDIA WRITING

1. Lede (Lead) :
The first sentence of a hard-news story; a succinct summary of the story's main point.
2. Inverted Pyramid :
The model used to describe how a news story is structured. It means the heaviest or most
important news goes at the top of the story, and the lightest, or least important goes at the
bottom.

r
3. Copy: The content of a news article.

ku
4. Beat: To cover a particular area or topic, such as cops, courts or city council.
5. Byline: The name of a news story's author, usually put at the start of the article.
ha
6. Dateline: The city from which a news story originates, usually placed at the start of the
story.
T
7. Source: Anyone you interview for a news story.
al

8. Anonymous Source: A source who does not want to identified in a news story.
9. Attribute: To tell readers where the information in a news story comes from.
op

10. Morgue: A newspaper's library of clippings of old articles.

G

I) Descriptive Writing
r
D

Descriptive writing provides an illustration of people, places, events, situations, thoughts, and
feelings. Description presents sensory information that makes writing come alive. It expresses
an experience that the reader can actively participate in by using imagination.

Descriptive details aid in developing the overall dominant impression. The dominant impression
is a basic idea or theme that the writer wants to express from the complexity of the story’s
construction. A city, for example, can be described as exciting or scary depending on carefully
chosen words, or from a subtly crafted mood. A thesaurus will help to achieve this. It lists a
variety of words with similar meanings or connotations. Use the thesaurus to generate a word
bank of comparable words that will help to develop “unity with variety.” This means the writing
is focused and interesting because it has a dominant impression.
Descriptive writing provides literary texture to a story. Texture shows rather than tells. A writer
shows the reader through the senses of sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch, as well as
through emotional feelings. Descriptive details enable the reader to visualize elements in the
story. Vivid adjectives and active verbs help the writer to develop specific sensory descriptions.

For example:
 The woman on the beach watched the sun set over the ocean. TELLS
 Shades of neon illuminated the edges of clouds, backlit by the sizzling sun that slipped
beneath a cerulean sea. SHOWS

Notice that sentences that TELL tend to be direct. They are objective. Sentences that TELL

r
record verifiable facts as a scientist or journalist might. Sentences that SHOW are

ku
subjective; they may be influenced in part by the writer’s personal experiences. Sentences
that SHOW create mental images, and elicit emotional response.
ha
To develop description think about what observations could be made, for example, when
T
walking down a city street. How could the writer describe the smells of food coming from
vendor’s carts? How would the food taste? Being specific paint a literary picture with your
al

words.
op

 Is the food spicy? Does it drip with grease?

G

 Does steam rise up from the cart?

 Does shade spill across the street?
r

 Does sunlight sparkle on a skyscraper’s windows?

D

Consider what might be heard by a character that exists in a particular setting like this busy
city. Do police sirens shriek? In a restaurant, do wine glasses clink? Specific words create the
experience of the sound.

Fill the scene with motion using active verbs. Make the city setting spring to life. Rather
than say, the waitress is busy, consider if she might spin in every direction serving the
requests of her customers in a crowded restaurant? Does she crash into the deliveryman in
the back of the kitchen?
 What do characters say audibly, as well as in their thoughts? The reader comes to know the
moods and personalities of the characters through expressive dialogue. Do the characters
speak their dialogue in a whisper or demanding shout? Do they bristle their words?

r
II) Narrative Writing

ku
A narrative is a report of connected events, real or imaginary, presented in a sequence of
written, spoken words, still or moving images.ha
 Narrative is the media term for story telling
T
 Narrative is the ways of the different elements in a story are organized to make a
al

meaningful story. Some of these elements can be facts as in a documentary, or

character and action as in drama.
op

 When we took at narrative we see that stories throughout the media share certain
characteristics. This often links them genre.
G

 This is the way the story or plot unfolds.

 Is the story an open or closed structure?
r
D

 A closed structure means the story ends satisfactorily as in most films – this is known
as closure.
 An open ending means there is no final conclusion to the story – a television saop
has no final ending, it just has minor endings.
 Some texts have an interactive structure e.g. Big Brother.
 A multi-strand structure means there are several narratives running at the same
time. This is very common in television, such as Holby City, and the Bill.
 Other narrative structure include point of view (POV).
 A popular narrative device is the enigma.
 Narrative is informed by character, action, and location.

Character: Characters have functions such as heroes or villains, or someone who assist the hero
or villain as helper or messenger.
Action: The action determines how the events in the narrative occur and the influence they
have.
Location: The location of a film or television programme is an important ingredient in how the
story unfolds. A horror film about Dracula must have a castle.

 Narrative is often delivered to the audience by expectations, suspense, tension, and

closure.
 Expectation, suspense, and tension are created by the use of media language.

Director and producers use many techniques to get a story to an audience in an involving,
interesting, exciting and entertaining way. Our jobs as a media student is to find out what these
techniques are, and see where and how they are used and what they mean in media text. This
is knows as Textual analysis.

r
ku
ha
Kinds of Media Writing
T
al

Writing to Inform: when u write to inform you are explaining or informing the reader about
facts. It answers the basic questions: Who? What? When? Where? Why? How? (5W1H)
op

1. The key is that you stick to the information

G

2. Don’t show many of your own feelings

3. Don’t tell your reader how they should feel
r

4. Make the facts easy to understand, with a clear structure

D

5. Information needs to be given in ways that positively help the reader to follow and
absorb it easily.
6. Sentences and paragraphs should be fluent and smoothly linked.

The major difference between informing and persuading is that persuasion is intended to be
biased whereas information is intended to be balanced. A reader expects information to be
based upon facts or on balanced and worthwhile opinions.

Writing to Describe: Description is used to support some purpose, such as narration (story-
telling), explanations, persuasion and argument etc

1. Effective descriptive writing makes its reader feel as if he or she is actually experiencing
the scene described.
Writing to persuade: When you are writing for persuade you are trying to convince people to
agree with your opinions or to do something. Some examples of persuasive writing are:
Newspaper editorials, reports, speeches, advertisements, reviews etc.

2. When writing to persuade you should use evidence to support your viewpoint, consider
views that are against your viewpoint, and present a strong conclusion.

When writing to persuade you should include the following:

1. Evidence to support your viewpoint: including statics (data), facts, quotes from experts,
and examples.
2. Considering viewpoints that are against your view point: try to think of the arguments or
concerns that others may have about your viewpoint. You should respond to these
concerns to explain why your viewpoint is the best one.
3. All of your explanations and evidence should lead to a strong conclusion where you
summarize your view. The conclusion can also include a call for the readers to perform

r
ku
an action.

ha
T
al
op

The two main types of arguments in writing to persuade are logical and emotional.
G

1. Logical arguments use facts and evidence to persuade. This type of argument is more
r

likely to persuade others to change their viewpoint.

D

2. Emotional arguments use the feelings of the author and reader to persuade. It works
best for an audience that already agrees with you. It usually does not persuade people
who don’t already agree.

2. ABCD OF MEDIA WRITING

Remember that are acronym ABCD denotes the four basic elements of media writing:

1. Accuracy
2. Brevity
3. Clarity
4. Discernment
1. Accuracy: The first characteristic feature of communication is accuracy, which includes
accuracy of information as well as accuracy of expression. One must assure oneself of the
accuracy of information before communicating. For example, if a person has to write a report
or give an oral presentation, he/she should repeatedly check all the facts that need to be
included in the report/presentation. Any factual error will put a question mark on the reliability
of the report or presentation and thereby reduce its effectiveness. Moreover, facts have to be
recorded carefully and appropriately.

Accuracy of expression demands that there should be no errors of grammar, spelling,

punctuation, or usage. One has to be careful about grammar and punctuation mistakes and
should review and revise the draft thoroughly for these errors. If a person is making a
professional oral presentation, or taking part in a conversation, meetings, or discussion, he/she
should take care of punctuation, accent, intonation, and non verbal mannerism. Accuracy is
essential for a professional and technical communicator.

r
ku
Accuracy of expression also demands ‘precision’ in the use of words, phrase, sentences, and
paragraphs. One must be certain that one is expressing one’s ideas precisely and exactly so that
ha
the reader/ audience are able to understand without confusion or misunderstanding.
T
Characteristics of precision: Precision is the quality of being exact, accurate and definite. In
technical communication precision refers to the art of attaining exact correspondence between
al

the matter to be communicated & its presentation. It is an essential feature of technical style.
op

As words are the symbols of idea & the ingredients of thought, an effective sentence can not be
made from imprecise, incorrect, or inappropriate words. Words shape thought and helps us to
G

organic ideas and facts into manageable larger units. To use words in their appropriate places
one must select words that convey the precise meaning from among the synonyms at one’s
r

disposal. Thus, Precision demands on exact knowledge of the meaning of words and involves
D

the use of simple, familiar, and concrete words instead of vague, abstract, difficult, and
unfamiliar words, clichés, and technical jargon.

Techniques of precision: The various techniques that can be used to make expression precise
and exact include using:

 Simple and familiar words,

 Exact words and phrases, and
 Avoiding excessive use of jargons
Using simple and familiar words: some people fancy big words. They seem to believe that big
and difficult words reflect one’s depth of understanding and command of language. The truth is
just the opposite. Using easy, simple, and familiar words demand a better understanding and
command of the language. The use of simple and familiar words makes it easier for the reader
or listener to understand the message transmitted. On the other hand, difficult words and
phrases are barriers to effective familiar and exact communication. A message may not be
understood just because the words used to present the information are too difficult for the
reader.

Difficult Simple Difficult Simple

Abandon give up accumulate collect
Abashed embarrassed accustomed used to
Ablaze on fire amalgamate mix

r
Absolute complete amenable responsive

ku
Absolutely completely assassin kilter
Attainment achievement activate start
Ascertain find out ha bespeak suggest
Colloquial informal combustion burning
T
Commence begin commute travel
Confer grant configuration arrangement
al

Consequence result discard reject

op

Emanate originate exuberant lively

Forefront leading position glimpse brief view
G

Manifest clear numerous many

Ravishing beautiful skirmish minor battle
r

Snapshot casual - tantamount equivalent to

D

photograph

Using exact words and phrases: the writer must have an exact knowledge of the meaning of
words and phrases, should avoid using confusing word.

Advise/inform to give advice/tell

Affect/effect influence/result
All ready/already completely prepared/beforehand
All together/altogether united/thoroughly
Appraise/apprise evaluate/inform
Allusion/illusion an indirect reference to something or
Assume/presume take to be true/take for granted

Avoiding Difficult Words and Complex Jargon: Jargon is an integral part of communication but
using too much Jargon, which the audience may not understand, will be inappropriate. Before
you use specialized vocabulary and terminology, you must try to consider whether your
audience has

 Sufficient education
 Considerable knowledge of your subject
 The ability to understand the technical details that you want to give

r
ku
Checklist for achieving Accuracy

 Check facts for accuracy of information

ha
 Revise your draft for grammar, usage, spelling, and punctuation errors
T
 Take care of your pronunciation, accent, intonation, and no verbal mannerism during
oral communication
al

 Use simple, familiar, and exact words

op

 Avoid difficult and unfamiliar words

 Use words carefully with proper discretion
G

 Avoid excessive Jargon

r
D

2. Brevity:
Brevity is the quality of being brief but comprehensive in expression. You must try to be brief as
possible and give maximum information in the minimum number of words possible. Nobody
has the time to read or listen to long and dull discourses. Lengthy documents or speeches and
presentations with unnecessary details bore readers o listener.

A document can be made brief and concise by avoiding wordiness and repetition.
 Phrase Word Phrase Word
At low ebb exhausted bad blood enmity
To beat about the digress be taken a back surprised
bush
blow one’s own self-praise grease the palm of bribe
trumpet
broadly speaking generally call in question doubt
from the bottom generally call in question doubt
from the bottom - of earnestly fall through collapse
one’s heart of one’s heart
snap one’s - defy tooth & nail completely
figures at
goes without saying self-evident throw dust in the Cheat

r
eyes of

ku
one the face of apparently throw cold water on discourage
throw mud at abuse ha up one’s sleeve concealed
to the backbone thoroughly all in all everything
T
Avoiding repetition: Repetition is a recurrent problem in the writing and speech of people who
al

fail to consider meaning. You may repeat an idea or a fact because you want to be forceful but
you should always remember that brevity cannot be sacrificed for persuasiveness in technical
op

writing or a professional speech.

G

Example:
r

Wordy style: A computer performs several important functions, which include performing fast
D

and accurate calculations.

Concise style: A computer performs fast and accurate calculations.

Checklist for conciseness

 Avoid repetition
 Avoid using wordy phrases and expressions
 Do not include unnecessary details
 Revise your document thoroughly in order to make it concise
 Avoid exaggeration
3. Clarity:
Clarity in communication is the quality of being specific and easily understood. Clarity is
achieved when the communicator has communicated his or her meaning to the reader or
listener. In technical communication, clarity contributes to communicative effectiveness. You
will not be able to achieve your communicative objective if you are not clear.

Since clarity is the art of making your meaning clear to your audience, it is essential for you to
understand your audience before you try to communicate. Audience adaptation can only come
from a proper audience analysis. Audience analysis involves defining your audience in clarity
can be achieved terms of their background, subject competence, linguistic competence, and by

r
suing direct familiarity with the topic or content of your communication. A better

ku
understanding of your audience will give clarity of thought as we as clarity of expression.

ha
Clarity involves both clarity of expression as well as clarity of thought. The secret of clear
expression is clear thinking. Sloppy, illogical, or incomplete thinking cause lack of clarity in
T
technical communication.
The various techniques that you can use to make your expression clear include using
al

a) Direct language, and

op

b) Specific words and expression

G

Direct language: using direct language clarity involves the use of direct language. There is no
scope for round about constructions, indirect expressions, exaggeration, artificial eloquence,
r

and ornamentation in technical communication. Unlike a literary writer who needs imagery to
D

express his abstract feelings, a technical writer does not need any literary device to convey his
ideas. The technical communicator is concerned with the description, narration, explanation,
and analysis of facts, and does not need to compose a piece of rhetoric charges with emotions.
Unlike a public speaker whose main aim of communication may be to appeal to the emotions of
the audience, a person presenting a paper at a technical seminar will have to give a matter-of-
fact account of the research carried out by him or her.

Specific words and expressions: as an effective writer, one should use concrete words because
they tend to be specific, narrow, and particular. Readers and audiences respond more
predictably to concrete language. By using concrete language, one can ensure clarity of
expression. The use of concrete and specific words and phrases bring vividness and clarity. On
the other hand, obscure, abstract, and vague words and phrases confuse the audience, as they
do not convey the exact meaning, and the speaker may be called upon to repeat certain
phrases or give detailed clarifications.

For example, examine the sentence: I will contact you later. What does the speaker mean by
the word’ contact’? Will he call, send an email, write a letter, or make a personal visit? What
does the word ‘later’ mean? Does it mean next week, next month, or next year? A better
version of this sentence would be: I will visit you office on Monday, or, I will send you an email
next week.

Example: He will meet you soon. What does the word soon mean here? Does it mean
tomorrow or the day-after tomorrow, or the next month? The reader will defiantly be
confused. A better version will be: He will meet you by March 15.

r
ku
Checklist for achieving clarity
 Do not use indirect expression
 Use specific word and phrase
ha
 Avoid exaggeration
T
 Avoid ornamentation
 Use direct sentence
al
op

4. Discernment:
G

It is the quality of being able to grasp and comprehend what is obscure. It is the act or process
of exhibiting keen insight and good judgment.
r
D

Discernment on the other hand is assessing a situation objectively, with no emotional

attachment, to decide appropriate and right for the masses. A writer has to judge the situation
and need of the reader before writing any story.

Vocabulary

The Importance of Vocabulary in Writing

Every good mechanic has a toolbox full of tools. Some tools are used more than others, but
everyone has a specific purpose. In much the same way, writers have a “toolbox.” This
“toolbox” is constantly growing and is filled with items like grammar, punctuation, and
capitalization rules; figurative language; rhyme; rhythm; and vocabulary. Just as really good
mechanics can pull out the right tools to make a good engine even more powerful, good writers
can pull out the right tools at the right time to make good writing even more powerful. One tool
that can “power up” your writing is a strong vocabulary.

We use spoken and written words every single day to communicate ideas, thoughts, and
emotions to those around us. Sometimes we communicate successfully, and sometimes we’re
not quite so successful. “That’s not what I meant!” becomes our mantra (an often repeated
word or phrase). However, a good vocabulary can help us say what we mean.

For example, let’s say that you are outside in your yard and see a large black car stop in the
road. You can see four tinted windows on one side of the car, and you assume there are four
tinted windows on the other side, too. Just then, the driver’s door opens, and a man wearing
white gloves steps out. He walks to the back of the car and looks underneath. He shrugs his
shoulders, climbs back into the car, and drives away. After you remember to close your mouth,
which has been hanging open, you run next door to tell your friend what you saw. What do you
say? If you know a couple of key words, you can quickly explain to this person what you saw.

r
Instead of describing the number of windows and the length of the car, you could simply say

ku
that you saw a black limousine (a long, luxurious car). Then, instead of describing the man with
the white gloves, you could say you saw the chauffeur (someone paid to drive a car or
limousine) walk to the back of the car. Knowing these key words can help you quickly and
ha
effectively communicate your meaning.
T
When you’re faced with a writing assignment, a good vocabulary is an indispensable (very
important or necessary) tool. If you have several synonyms (words with similar meanings) in
al

your repertoire (“toolbox”), you’ll be able to choose the best word for the job. Avoid vague
words like “stuff” or “things” when you write. These words do not give the reader a good sense
op

of your meaning. Also, use strong verbs that give the reader good information
G

Here’s an example:
r

 POOR: People do a lot of things.

D

 BETTER: People perform a lot of tasks.

Work on building your vocabulary so that you can choose the stronger, more descriptive words
in your writing.

You may also want to vary your vocabulary depending on your audience. Are you writing for
children? Then stick with simpler words. Are you writing for college students? Then pull the
more difficult words out of your “toolbox” to avoid talking down to them. It’s important to
consider your audience when writing.

You may also find it difficult to choose the best word for a sentence when you’re writing. If you
have a strong vocabulary, these choices will be easier

Rules of Spelling
Everyone who has difficulty with spelling words correctly can derive some comfort from
knowing that some very good writers have been notoriously bad spellers. It's also comforting to
bad spellers to know that this business of spelling seems to have little to do with intelligence. It
has more to do with how we remember things. Some people, once they've seen a word spelled
correctly, will never misspell that word again. Those are the people who, if you ask them how
to spell a word, will first say, "Wait a second. Let me write it down." If you are not a strong
visual learner, but learn in other ways, you will have to learn some other tricks to become a
strong speller.

The following suggestions about spelling are only that—suggestions. Spelling, like
vocabulary building, is ultimately a personal matter, and only a planned and sustained effort to
improve spelling will have the desired results.

r
ku
Using a Spell-Checker:

ha
Writing with modern word-processors has changed the game of spelling somewhat, but not
entirely. Spell-checkers are capable of discovering misspelled words for us — sometimes even
as we write them — and most of them will suggest alternative spellings. Very good spell-
T
checkers are even capable of asking whether we've confused a correctly spelled word with
al

another word (e.g., we've used the word "they're," but do we really mean "their"?). Studies
show, however, that papers written with the help of a spell-checker are only slightly better than
op

papers written without a word-processor. The reason seems to be that a word-processor makes
our text look so professional that we're apt to overlook misspelled words. Never blame a spell-
checker for failing to catch a misspelled word in your paper. That is your responsibility! Perhaps
G

the best we can say about spell-checkers is that they've taken away another excuse for bad
spelling.
r
D

Using the Dictionary:

For online use, we recommend the Merriam-Webster's WWWebster Dictionary. For the
purposes of checking your spelling, however, a small pocket dictionary will probably suffice. In
fact, bookstores will often sell dictionaries that have nothing but spelling, and those can be very
efficient, indeed, for this purpose. Small but powerful (and rather expensive) digital dictionaries
are also available, and if they make looking up words more fun and if you have the money lying
around to buy one, they can be a good investment. The important thing about owning any kind
of dictionary, though, is that you must have it immediately at hand when you are writing.
Putting the dictionary on a shelf in the den when you do your writing at the kitchen table
doesn't do much good.

Using Mnemonics:
Mnemonics (Now there's a toughie to spell! It's pronounced as if that initial m didn't exist.) are
little memory devices you can use to remember how to spell words. Geography students will
remember that George Eliot's Old Grandfather Rode A Pig Home Yesterday. Some mnemonics
seem more difficult to remember than the spelling they're supposed to serve. Mindy McAdams
remembers the three e's in cemetery as three tombstones in a row. When you think of
stationery, think of the e in envelope. Does it help to think of the r in separate as separating
two like letters?

Coming up with mnemonics to help you remember things are a device you probably use in
other studies all the time. Extend the habit into your personal mission to improve spelling. Be
as inventive as you wish and have fun with the idea. It will pay off in the long run.

r
ku
Punctuation
Rules:
ha
1. Parts of speech there may be served words (or sentence) which can be connected by
T
using comma (,) in order to provide meaningful base and complete frame.
Example:
al

He is tall, fair, strong and smart.

op

Ram, Rahim and Shyam are good boys.

G

2. After Yes and No, we must place comma (,) and then start new sentence.
r

Example:
D

Yes, I like this book.

No, I don’t like that book.

3. In a sentence we use comma (,) before apposition and after it.

Example:
He, the son of a rich man, is very happy.
Ram, the son of Dashratha, killed Ravana.

In above example:
He and Ram – subject
The son of a rich man and the sun of Dashratha – apposition
And comma (,) provide more clarity to the subject.

4. In vocative sense, Noun or Pronoun must be exclusive indicative by comma (,) means
comma (,) and must be used after Noun or Pronoun and not after the sentence.

Example:
Get out Shyam
May I go out sir

Shyam, get out.

Sir, may I go out.

Add subject to complete the sentence else it would be incomplete sentence no question mark

r
should be there

ku
Sir, May I go out for a minute.
Sir, May I go out to the bathroom. ha
T
al

5. In a sentence certain phrase or conjunction must be arranged with the use of comma
op

(,) my father, bought a shirt and a book.

G
r

6. The parenthesis must be placed in a sentence with comma (,) before it and after it.
D

(and, or, because, nor, although, since, unless, while, where)

You will, I hope, agree with me.

Parenthesis
7. Sentence with direct narration, comma(,) are always placed to indicate direct
narration

Example:
He said, “I will help you.”

8. In any sentence comma may differentiate adverbial phrase and absolute phrase.
Example:
At present, I am helpless.
At least, he decided to help.

9. A sentence with principle clause & adverb clause must be differentiating by comma (,).

He was absent, because he was ill

He was: subordinate clause
Because: - Conjunction
It will help you, when you come next time.

10. In any sentence, the use of ‘than’ and ‘as well as’ used in comparative sense then we
can place comma(,)

r
ku
He did, ‘as well as’ she did
He likes him better ‘than’ me.
ha
11. In a sentence ‘who, which, when, where’ , when used in continuity then comma placed
T
to define the sentence.
al

Example: my father, who came here, gave me a book.

op

The time when he will come is not yet known.

G

In every way they tried to trap our functional are but she was unafraid if you kill me. She cried I
will say no other thing, if I were in the fire I would say no more and till death, I will hold that
r

where I have said is truth.

D

12. Double inverted comma (“ ”) always placed with direct narration and single inverted
comma (‘ ’) used to show any part of the sentence or any specific word of the sentence.

He said, “Mam is mortal.”

He said, “I don’t know what it is meant by ‘democracy’ ”.

Inverted comma always placed before and after any quotations.

He said, “The earth is round”.
He said that he would help me.
 13. Exclamation (!)
In any exclamatory sentence, we must use sign of exclamation to show exclusive reaction.

Example:
Nonsense!
May you live long!

14. The colon (:)

Whenever the quotations are used, we may place colon (:)

He said: god is our father.

15. Semi colon (;)

r
It is used to increase the periodicity of comma (,), which indicate the notion of sentence and

ku
not the construction of sentence

Example:
ha
He is an honest person; even his enemies say too.
T
al
op
G
r
D

Types of Media Writing

News Story:
The general formal for a well written newspaper story is that it tells who did what, when, where
& why, these 5w’s essential features of any good story along one H which stands for flow.

In this context Rudyard Kipling rhyme outlines:

I keep six honest servicing men:
They taught me all I know:
Their names are,
What and why and when
And how and where and who

The first paragraph of a news story is called “lead”. Typically the first paragraph, should offer a
clear and brief overview of the main point(s)(Who, what, when, where, how and why), thus
conveying to the reader what he/she will be learning about in the story.

In pyramid format the news reporters place the most significant facts at the opening of the
story and additional information was mentioned in order of descending. Using the pyramid
style of reporting ensued that the most important information would be read first.

The content of a news story should be impartial, and entirely fact-based. Sources of the
information should be clarity mentioned and included into the story.

r
Sentences should be accurate, clear, and concise and placed in an appropriate manner for the

ku
audience.

Some important points: ha

 News stories give mostly factual information and not the writer’s opinion.
T
 News stories are written in third person voice, never first or second.
 It begin with a short, first paragraph, usually just one sentence that gives the reader the
al

most important, most interesting, or most unusual of the 5w’s 1 H: who, what, when,
op

where, why and how. This sentence is called a lead.

 Information in news articles is given in order of importance. The most important
G

information comes first, the next most important goes next, and so on until the least
important at the end.
r

 Paragraphs are short and they are not constructed like typical essay paragraphs.
D

 A news writer never finishes the news story with a personal comment. A reporter’s
opinion should not be included in the news story. Articles that allow for opinion should
not be included in the news story. Articles that allow for opinion are editorials, columns,
or even letters to the editor.
 Headline of the news story sum up the main idea of the story. A sub-headline could be
given to more details.

Editorial

An editorial is an article that presents the newspaper's opinion on an issue.

 Editorial means involving the attitudes, opinions, and contents of something such as a
newspaper, magazine, or television programme.
  An editorial is an article in a newspaper which gives the opinion of the editor
or owner on a topic or item of news.

CHARACTERISTICS OF EDITORIAL WRITING

It reflects the majority vote of the editorial board, the governing body of the newspaper made
up of editors and business managers. It is usually unsigned. Much in the same manner of a
lawyer, editorial writers build on an argument and try to persuade readers to think the same
way they do. Editorials are meant to influence public opinion, promote critical thinking, and
sometimes cause people to take action on an issue. In essence, an editorial is an opinionated
news story.

Editorials have:

1. Introduction, body and conclusion like other news stories

r
2. An objective explanation of the issue, especially complex issues

ku
3. A timely news angle
ha
4. Opinions from the opposing viewpoint that refute directly the same issues the writer
address.
T
5. The opinions of the writer delivered in a professional manner. Good editorials engage issues,
al

not personalities and refrain from name-calling or other petty tactics of persuasion.
op

6. Alternative solutions to the problem or issue being criticized. Anyone can gripe about a
problem, but a good editorial should take a pro-active approach to making the situation better
G

by using constructive criticism and giving solutions.

r

7. A solid and concise conclusion that powerfully summarizes the writer's opinion. Give it some
D

punch.

Four Types of Editorials Will:

1. Explain or interpret: Editors often use these editorials to explain the way the newspaper
covered a sensitive or controversial subject. School newspapers may explain new school rules
or a particular student-body effort like a food drive.
2. Criticize: These editorials constructively criticize actions, decisions or situations while
providing solutions to the problem identified. Immediate purpose is to get readers to see the
problem, not the solution.

3. Persuade: Editorials of persuasion aim to immediately see the solution, not the problem.
From the first paragraph, readers will be encouraged to take a specific, positive action. Political
endorsements are good examples of editorials of persuasion.

4. Praise: These editorials commend people and organizations for something done well. They
are not as common as the other three.

Writing an Editorial:
1. Pick a significant topic that has a current news angle and would interest readers.
2. Collect information and facts; include objective reporting; do research

r
3. State your opinion briefly in the fashion of a thesis statement

ku
4. Explain the issue objectively as a reporter would and tell why this situation is important
ha
5. Give opposing viewpoint first with its quotations and facts
6. Refute (reject) the other side and develop your case using facts, details, figures, quotations.
T
Pick apart the other side's logic.
al

7. Concede a point of the opposition — they must have some good points you can acknowledge
op

that would make you look rational.

8. Repeat key phrases to reinforce an idea into the reader's minds.
G

9. Give a realistic solution(s) to the problem that goes beyond common knowledge. Encourage
r

critical thinking and pro-active reaction.

D

10. Wrap it up in a concluding punch that restates your opening remark (thesis statement).
11. Keep it to 500 words; make every work count; never use "I"

A Sample Structure

I. Lead with an Objective Explanation of the Issue/Controversy.

Include the five W's and the H. (Members of Congress, in effort to reduce the budget, are
looking to cut funding from public television. Hearings were held …)

 Pull in facts and quotations from the sources which are relevant.
 Additional research may be necessary.
II. Present Your Opposition First.

As the writer you disagree with these viewpoints. Identify the people (specifically who oppose
you. (Republicans feel that these cuts are necessary; other cable stations can pick them; only
the rich watch public television.)

 Use facts and quotations to state objectively their opinions.

 Give a strong position of the opposition. You gain nothing in refuting a weak position.

III. Directly Refute The Opposition's Beliefs.

You can begin your article with transition. (Republicans believe public television is a "sandbox
for the rich." However, statistics show most people who watch public television make less than
$40,000 per year.)

Pull in other facts and quotations from people who support your position.

r


ku
 Concede a valid point of the opposition which will make you appear rational, one who
has considered all the options (fiscal times are tough, and we can cut some of the
funding for the arts; however …). ha
T
IV. Give Other, Original Reasons/Analogies
al

In defense of your position, give reasons from strong to strongest order. (Taking money away
from public television is robbing children of their education …)
op

 Use a literary or cultural allusion that lends to your credibility and perceived
G

intelligence (We should render unto Caesar that which belongs to him …)
r

V. Conclude With Some Punch.

D

Give solutions to the problem or challenge the reader to be informed. (Congress should look to
where real wastes exist — perhaps in defense and entitlements — to find ways to save money.
Digging into public television's pocket hurts us all.)

 A quotation can be effective, especially if from a respected source

 A rhetorical question can be an effective concluder as well

Hard News & Soft News

News stories are basically divided into two types: hard news and soft news.
Hard news generally refers to up-to-the-minute news and events that are reported
immediately, while soft news is background information or human-interest stories.

Politics, war, economics and crime used to be considered hard news, while arts, entertainment
and lifestyles were considered soft news.

But increasingly, the lines are beginning to blur. Is a story about the private life of a politician
“politics” or “entertainment”? Is an article about the importance of investing early for
retirement a “business” story or a “lifestyle” story? Judging solely on subject matter, it can be
difficult to tell.

One difference between hard and soft news is the tone of presentation. A hard news story
takes a factual approach: What happened? Who was involved? Where and when did it happen?
Why?

r
A soft news story tries instead to entertain or advise the reader. You may have come across

ku
newspaper or TV stories that promise “news you can use.” Examples might be tips on how to
stretch properly before exercising, or what to look for when buying a new computer.
ha
Knowing the difference between hard and soft news helps you develop a sense of how news is
covered, and what sorts of stories different news media tend to publish or broadcast. This can
T
be important when you want to write articles or influence the media yourself.
al
op

ARTICLE
G

Nonfiction work on a single subject, usually written for a periodical such as newspaper or
magazines can be short as few thousand words, but many sometimes be of book size,
r
D

especially when run serially in the periodical.

Articles can be divided into two main categories:

1. News
2. Features.
An article is brief write up that reports on a current event, which as per the media standards is
of contemporary importance. It could be about local news, business event, a current public
concern, a road accident or some mishap and so on. It is usually filed in by a reporter or
correspondent working with the media house.

The feature, on the other hand is a more elaborate reports that, besides having a core story,
also calls for a fair amount of detailed reporting. By virtue of that features are longish in nature
compared to an article. To illustrate, if there is lot of illegal sand mining in a region, it would call
for a lot of investigation, and details. Similarly, it can be a topic from any genre. Features are
usually filed in by more experienced journalists.

Featured articles are windows into the human experience, giving more detail and description
than a hard news story, which typically relies on the style of writing. Features focus on an event
or individual, giving the reader a chance to more fully understand some interesting dimension
of that subject.

Writing a feature article can be a highly creative and fun activity, but it does take hard work
and planning to write an effective and engaging article.

Straight news stories deal with the timeliness and immediacy of breaking news, while feature
articles are news stories that deal with human interest topics or which offer the opportunity for
providing more breadth or depth, context of history or other explanatory background material.

r
ku
A news articles is an article published in a print or internet news medium such as a newspaper,
newsletter, news magazine, news oriented website, or article directory that discusses current
ha
or recent news of either general interest (i.e. daily newspaper) or on a specific topic (i.e.
political or trade news magazines, club newsletters, or technology news website).
T
Feature articles are nonfiction articles that intend to inform, teach or amuse the reader on a
topic. The topic centers around human interests. Feature stories may include conventions
al

found in fiction such as dialogue, plot and character. A feature article is an umbrella term that
op

includes many literary structures: personality, sketches, essays, how–to’s, interviews and many
others.
G

How to write an article

r

Headline: heading is the most important part of article. If the use is a bus then heading is a bus
D

stop. Reader stops at the article only be seeing the heading. Article writer should pay special
attention on heading.

 Heading should be small and meaningful. Make sure it should look like a heading not
detail. But should Conway what should be in the article.
 Heading should be in bold and big font. Size depends upon the space where you are
publishing your article.
 Use font size at least one point more than the font size in article.
 Heading should be highlighted so it should look different then the article.
 Give space between the article and heading. Again the space depends upon the space
where the article is going to be published.

First paragraph:
After heading first paragraph is life of the article. If the writer succeeds to write the first
paragraph in the proper manner then the article should be success.

First paragraph should be written in such a way that it should force reader to read the
complete article. Most of the readers quit while reading the first paragraph. Following are
the points that should make first paragraph interesting to reader.

 It should be a brief summary of whole article.

 Don’t go in detail while writing first paragraph.
 Keep start with elaborating the heading.
 Don’t make the first article so big.
Conclusion
At the end the writer should give conclusion and it should be proper.

r
ku
ha
T

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AN ARTICLE AND A FEATURE

al

 A feature is a product of a heart. Its subject matter is specific, even narrow. It is based
op

on feelings and personal reactions of the writer to places, people and happenings.
Compared with an article, it adopts a more informal style and uses a language which
G

embodies feeling and emotions. The basic purpose of a feature is to provide

entertainment. If there is any ‘instruction’ it is incidental. Photographs are generally
r
D

essential in a feature.
 An article is an extended piece of writing on a broad subject. It is formal serious and
scholarly in tone and style. A typical newspaper article, which may not be heavily
documented with facts and statistics, is still a product of research and serious reflection.
The purpose of an article may be to present a social issue in a broad perspective and to
express its author’s viewpoint within the conversional framework of a beginning, middle
and an end.
 The difference between an article and feature will become clearer if you study both on
the same subject. For instance, in an article on the employment problem in India, one
may attempt a general survey of the entire situation complete with facts, figure and
even diagrams. The plans and projections of the government by way of generating and
providing jobs to people would also find mention in the article. The articles will analyses
 all subjects will have to be attempted quite differently. The feature will introduce you to
the actual life of a jobless individual and his family. It will tell a tale of human suffering
rather than present a factual account of the job situation in the country. If there is any
documentation in the feature, it will be secondary to the human angle. The feature will
also portray the many hardships being encountered by the family in its day to day living.
Ideally, it should be accompanied with a photograph of the indigent family facing
hardship due to unemployment of its principal bread winner.

3. WRITING FOR NEWS AND NON-NEWS MOST IMPORTANT

MEDIUMS (PRINT AND ELECTRONIC MEDIA)

Writing for eyes (Print)
By far the simplest and most common story structure LESS IMPORTANT

r
for news writing is the “inverted pyramid”. While

ku
writing a news story in inverted pyramid format, you
LEAST IMPORTANT
should put the most newsworthy information at the ha
beginning of the story and the least newsworthy
information at the end, all questions of WHO, WHAT,
T
WHEN, WHERE, WHY AND HOW should be answered in
al

first paragraph.
Inverted Pyramid
op

Reason behind the success of the inverted pyramid format is

quite practical. Editors often have to make the story a particular length so that it will fit into a
G

predetermined space in the newspaper. Also, they often have to do so under strict deadline
r

pressure. Here speed is highly important. If a story is written in inverted pyramid format, the
D

editor can simply trim the story one paragraph at a time, going from the bottom up, until the
story is the right length. The editor can do so boldly, knowing that even thought information is
being cut from the story, and it is being cut in ascending order of importance.

Also, it allows readers to get the most important information quickly, without having to read
the entire article.
Fundamentals of good news writing:
 All good journalists and writers are avid readers
 A basic structural design is essential for writing
 Proper language
 Short words, short sentences, short paragraphs
 Prefer familiar words to unfamiliar ones, short words to long words
  Eliminate clichés and jargons
 Keep the writing direct and use concrete words
 Word economy
 Revise and rewrite

A checklist for avoiding poor news writing

 Long sentences
 Long paragraphs or paragraphs with more than two topics
 Confusing wording
 Excessive technical jargons
 Long and meaningless quotations
 Words that could be interpreted by reader in more than one way
 Misspell words, words incorrectly used and grammatical problems

r
ku
Writing for Ear (Radio)
Good news writing is the hallmark of journalism. You can have the best story ever, but if you
ha
cannot put to over in a way your listener understands the first they hear it, then you might as
well not bother.
T

Writing for radio is simple. It should reflect that you are telling the story to someone, not
al

making ministerial-like statement. You are not broadcasting to the message; just explaining to
op

an individual what is going on.

You should write in a clear, crisp, concise, compelling and non-stuffy way. Your words should
G

not be the words of the sensational tabloid newspapers, but you should not be afraid of using
r

informal language when appropriate. A good story will almost write itself.
D

The aim is to write news for radio as natural conversational speech tempered with order and
precision. The result is a style that is crisp, economical, direct and colloquial. Radio prefer the
short word to the long one, the simple sentence to the complex, the concrete to the abstract,
the active voice to the passive, and the direct statement to the inverted sentence.

Remember, you are writing for the ear not the eye. You should write as you speak, in colloquial
English, with short sentences and one thought per sentence. Always ask yourself, ‘would I say it
that way myself?’ or ‘Do my friends talk like this in the pub?’ For example, only journalists
write: ‘Fire-fighters wearing breathing apparatus have been battling a massive blaze at a retail
store.’ Real people say: there’s a big fire at a shop in the town centre.’

For the ear not the eyes:

  Should be clear, crisp, concise, compelling and non stuffy way
 Should not be afraid of using informal language when appropriate
 Should write as you speak, with short sentences and one thought per sentence
 Use every day language but don’t use slang
 Write as natural conversation speech
 Prefer short word to the long one, active voice to the passive voice, the concrete to the
abstract
 Keep it short
 Keep it simple
 Keep it happening now
 Keep adjective to a minimum

4. FIVE CORE PRINCIPLES OF WRITING ETHICS

r
ku
1. Truth and Accuracy
Journalists cannot always guarantee ‘truth’, but getting the facts right is the cardinal principle
ha
of journalism. We should always strive for accuracy, give all the relevant facts we have and
ensure that they have been checked. When we cannot corroborate information we should say
T
so.
al

2. Independence
op

Journalists must be independent voices; we should not act, formally or informally, on behalf of
special interests whether political, corporate or cultural. We should declare to our editors – or
G

the audience – any of our political affiliations, financial arrangements or other personal
information that might constitute a conflict of interest.
r
D

3. Fairness and Impartiality

Most stories have at least two sides. While there is no obligation to present every side in every
piece, stories should be balanced and add context. Objectivity is not always possible, and may
not always be desirable (in the face for example of brutality or inhumanity), but impartial
reporting builds trust and confidence.

4. Humanity
Journalists should do no harm. What we publish or broadcast may be hurtful, but we should be
aware of the impact of our words and images on the lives of others.

5. Accountability
A sure sign of professionalism and responsible journalism is the ability to hold ourselves
accountable. When we commit errors we must correct them and our expressions of regret
must be sincere not cynical. We listen to the concerns of our audience. We may not change
what readers write or say but we will always provide remedies when we are unfair.

PRINT MEDIA

COMMUNICATION: AN INTRODUCTION
Communication is a two-way process of sending and receiving messages through a medium
(channel). The sender encodes the message and sends it through a medium and the receiver
decodes the message. The process of communication can be called effective when the message
is received and clearly understood by the receiver. But communication cannot be successful
always as the receiver might not clearly understand the message as intended by the sender.
Sometimes the message might be wrongly interpreted. Same words can mean different things.
So the receiver can interpret the same message in different ways. The receiver’s education,

r
ku
cultural background and emotions can affect his capacity to interpret the message. Thus
communication is a process where the sender gives a message through a medium to a receiver
who decodes the message to understand it. ha
T
MASS COMMUNICATION
al

When the message is send to a large number of people it is called mass communication. The
sender should be careful when he has to send the message to numerous people. Thus mass
op

communication is a process where the sender should be cautious about his receivers. There
may be unknown receivers and the reactions of the receivers can vary. Misinterpretation of
G

messages can cause political, economic conflicts and can affect the various social classes
r

differently.
D

Since mass communication is a complicated process it requires proper planning and the
medium chosen for mass communication also is important. During times of conflicts and chaos
media can be sometimes used for propaganda or advertising. Facts can be misrepresented and
people sometimes get wrong information through media.
When the sender uses media for commercial success (for making money and fame) then it is
called advertising. Since we live in a multi-cultural world, communication becomes a process
which requires enormous attention.

PRINT MEDIA
Romans recognized the importance of recording events of life and publishing it. The origins of
print media can be traced back to Roman Civilization. They recorded marriages, deaths and
other important public events. The intention of printing press in the late 15th century resulted
in spreading religious and secular thoughts.
Pamphleteering was used to spread information. But this irregular method later led to regular
publications as people recognized that printing was cheapest method of spreading information.

DEVELOPMENT OF PRINT MEDIA

Initially books were copied by monks who lived in monasteries. The original method of printing
was Block Printing. Isaac Gutenberg refined this technique of printing by using movable type,
where the characters are separate parts that are inserted to make the text. Gutenberg
revolutionized printing as this movable type could produce more copies in a short span of time
when compared to manual writing followed by monks.

r
ku
During the industrial revolution period steam powered press was introduced by GottlobKoeing
and Andreas Friedrich Bauer which made it possible to make over 10,000 copies per day.
ha
GottlobKoeing – is a German inventor known for his high speed printing press. Friedrich Bauer
is a German engineer who used steam powered engine for printing.
T

Offset Printing is the most common form of commercial printing. This is due to the quality of
al

the product and the efficiency in printing large numbers. Modern digital presses which use
op

Inkjet Printers are able to produce copies at low cost but they are yet to improve to produce
the sheer volume of the product that offset printers are capable of producing.
G

BOOK REVIEWS
r
D

Newspapers usually have a panel of specialists who write book reviews. The reviewer must
have in depth knowledge of the subject and should be able to assess the book in terms of its
impact on the reader. The main task of the reviewer is to report of the content, the approach
and the scope of the work for the benefit of the readers.

The book review should contain a brief description of the book and a short account of the
author. The book review should tell the reader whether a book is worth reading and the review
should be unbiased. An ideal review should give an overview of the book to the readers and an
evaluation based on the readers taste and experience.

The opening paragraph of the Book review should grab audience attention. The passage can be
conversational in tone. Sometimes it can be slightly provocative to compel the reader to read.
The body of the review is a series of short paragraphs on the book and author. The conclusion
can be a personal comment which states why the book is readable or not.
The total review should be 500 to 1,000 words. Full bibliographic details of the work should be
included like

(a) Title and Sub Title.

(b) Place of publication

(c) Publisher

(d) Date of publication

r
(e) Number of pages

ku
(f) The ISBN Number
ha
FILM REVIEW
T
Whenever a new movie is released people look to film reviews to decide whether to watch the
al

movie or not. Reviews can make or break a film’s box office collection. A movie review should
be an honest opinion on the movie. The review should be specific and concise.
op

The film reviews should be sure about the audience who are likely to be targeted. The first step
G

to write a film review is to watch the movie objectively. Do not be prejudiced towards a
director or an actor in the movie. In the review mention the positives and negatives of the
r

movie.
D

Make sure that the review mentions the director, actors and other important details of the
movie. The first paragraph should include the name of the film, its actors, the setting and the
genres to which it belongs.

A short summary of the film should be the second paragraph of the review. Do not mention the
suspense or climax of the film. Include your opinions on the direction, script, photography, and
music. Sometimes the scenes and dialogues of the movie are used to grab audience attention.
A good review should compel the audience to watch the movie and it should state why the
movie is worth watching.

INTERVIEW
Conducting a good interview requires detailed planning. The interviewer should have good
communication skills. He should research in depth to know the details of the person
interviewed. Plan ahead and fix a time for the interview. Make a rough sketch of the details
needed and the questions to be asked.

Do not follow the script while conducting the interview because sometimes an answer by the
interviewee can lead to another question. But have an idea of the key points to be addressed
and the interviewer should have a rough order in mind of the questions.

Try to ask questions to get details instead of Yes/No questions. Try to ask questions in the
friendliest manner even when it is provocative question. Begin the conversation with a
pleasantry and on a light note and then switch onto the provocative ones. Make sure that the
questions arise naturally from your conversation rather than a pre-planned one. Keep a
comfortable level of eye-contact. The interviewee should remain calm, relaxed and attentive
with genuine interest on the topic.

r
ku
The interviewee should feel comfortable and relaxed to give answers. Do not rush with
questions. Listening to what the other person says is only half of it. The body language of the
ha
interviewee as a response to the questions should be noted. If the question seems offend-able
neutralize the effect in a pleasant manner. Observe the interviewee’s gestures, mannerisms,
his/her voice how she/he is dressed and so on and also notice the details of the surroundings.
T

The writing (interview published) should be unobtrusive as possible.

al
op

It should be conversational in tone and pleasant.

It’s always best to record the interview.

G

Ask permission to record the interview. End the conversation on a positive note and make a
r
D

positive relation with the interviewee.

So that the person interviewed will give a ready interview next time and ask permission to
make a phone call or any other type of communication if clarification is needed on a point and
send a copy of the print version to the interviewee when it’s published.

PROOF READING

Proof reading is done to minimize the mistakes. Grammar, spelling and punctuations marks are
checked in this process.

The Editor should look out for mistakes and deliberately slow down while reading proof. The
editor should check spellings, grammar and punctuation and make sure that the reporter
follows the accepted style.
The writers should follow the most recent edition of the associated press Style book. The editor
should check the consistency, brevity, clarity and accuracy of news. AP style has common rules
for Abbreviations and Acronyms.

Sometimes the widely known Abbreviations are used and usually an Abbreviation is expanded if
it is an Abbreviation other than commonly used in a language. Ages are usually written in
figures. Quotation marks are used for titles of books, songs, television shows etc. Days of the
week, month, year, date etc are represented in figures. Titles and Proper Nouns are capitalized.

ELECTRONIC MEDIA

Conclusion

r
ku
Body
ha Introduction
T
Messages were sent across the telegraph using Morse code. The invention of telephone in 1876
al

made communication easier. This was later replaced by Radio which used electromagnetic
waves for communication. Electromagnetic waves were discussed by James Clerk Maxwell.
op

Heinrich Hertz was the first person to send waves to a short distance. Gaglielmo Marconi was
the first person to send radio signals over long distances in 1901 when he sent Morse code
G

from England to Canada.

r

RADIO AS A MEDIUM OF MASS COMMUNICATION The 1930’s up to the World War I is called
D

the Golden age of Radio. Radio became popular with the public. Radio stations broadcasted
informative and entertainment programmes.

CHARACTERISTICS AND STRENGTHS OF RADIO

Since radio is sound production source even illiterate or blind people can hear and get
information. Frequencies are limited resource and limited by strict government rules. The
radios bring live telecasts. It has the flexibility to interrupt regular programmes to telecast
‘breaking news’ that has great impact. Radio waves travel distances and can bridge
geographical and cultural barriers. It does not require the resources or man power to the extent
that television needs. It is a powerful tool of communication that can inform, instruct and
entertain audience. By airing issues and discussing political and economic conditions it can
reach the low economic group and the illiterates of the community. It allows people to move
around while listening to news. It is possible to do other activities while listening to radio news.
CHALLENGES

Transmission may be interrupted due to technical reasons. It is an oral medium. It can

communicate through words alone. Unlike a print media, the news is read by another person
according to a schedule and the listener should depend on the programme schedule. Radio
broadcasting is limited and the programmes are interpreted by a reader or anchor who conveys
through his words the context and surroundings of the news.

HOW TO BROADCAST NEWS ON RADIO

Radio primarily uses voice. The voice of the anchor, his pitch, tone, articulation and
pronunciation should attract audience. When writing for Radio the reporter should use a simple
and standard slang of the language. The topics are to be presented enthusiastically. Music and
sound effects should be used. Unlike other media the audience cannot interpret messages
through body language and other non-verbal methods. Radio can communicate through sound

r
alone and the voice should communicate the message to the listener.

ku
RADIO NEWS
ha
Radio News Bulleting has a particular time for its Broad cast. The Bulletin should cover the
major news in that time period. While preparing for radio news the reporter should be aware of
T
this time constraint. He should do research before he presents the news. The news stories can
follow the inverted pyramid style. The news stories are to be arranged for the bulletin. The
al

stories have a particular pattern based on the news value. An average news story is given 60
op

seconds and an important news story is given 60 seconds to one and a half minute for its
broadcast. The news stories are placed according to their news value.
G

The factors that determine news value are:

r
D

1. Immediacy: Current events of national and international importance that can affect the
social and economic conditions.
2. Proximity: Current events are hot topics.
3. Conflict: War, Accidents, disasters etc.
4. Drama: Unexpected and strange stories.
5. Frame of reference: cultural and political commentary.
 RADIO FEATURES

A feature in a Radio need not be news based. It should produce a dramatic effect on the
audience. It should speak directly to the audience. The dialogue, music and sound effects
should provide a highly personal and intense experience for the listener.

FEATURES CAN BE OF DIFFERENT TYPES

1. It can depend on interviews, narrations and background sounds.
2. It can rely on historical facts or on literary events.
3. It can be dramatic or fictional.
INTERVIEWS

Radio interviews are of 3 types.

r
ku
1. Studio Interview: Those recorded in the studio, often of highest technical quality. It is
planned and deliberate. Well researched.
ha
2. Spot Interviews: Interviews done as part of a news bulletin; opinion piece etc are not
preplanned, done to expand a point or share information.
T
al

3. Field Interviews: Field interviews are conducted outside the studio. The length of it can vary.
It is a two- way communication process where the interviewers and interviewee interact. This is
op

used to inform, to interpret, analyze facts and to create an emotional reaction.

G

It is like the interview for a print media but there are certain key points to be noted as this is a
broadcast media interview.
r
D

1. Choose a quiet location to record.

2. The voice levels and equipment are to be checked.

3. Wear headphones while recording to get a clear idea of what the recorded voice will sound
like

4. Microphones should be carefully placed to pick up sounds.

5. Always record more than needed. Ask more questions so that while editing there are more
options. The interviewer should be a good listener.
 DOCUMENTARIES

Documentaries can be of 4 types.

1. Direct Address in which the narrator introduces the topic. The narration explains the
situation and the narrator presents a story.

2. Interactive Approach in which there is no narrator and the story unfolds with the characters
speech.

r
ku
3. Verity approach where events and situations speak for themselves.
ha
4. Self-reflexive approach where the creator’s interpretation of the reality is represented.
T
5. Drama: Radio drama has developed as a genre. It uses voices, silence, background sounds,
music and sounds of action to tell a story. Radio dramas are usually soap operas (like serials in
al

T.V.) highly dramatic, unrealistic and meant to entertain. They use short scenes to capture
op

audience attention. Sometimes public service themes are conveyed through radio dramas.
Comedy dramas are more popular on radio. Radio cartoons are relatively new dramas which
are action oriented, and they use clichés and stereo types to convey the message.
G

6. Music Programmes : Radios have pure music programmes where classical music is
r

broadcasted. Some time there are phone in programmes and sometimes music is played
D

according to audience request. Music related quiz programmes are conducted and there are
shows to air the latest cinema songs. Broadcasters are conscious of the target audience and
they often conduct surveys to obtain audience taste. A play list is made from it and according to
the demands of the audience select songs are played on rotation through the station.

7. Radio discussions: Radio discussions usually follow the format of a general discussion. There
can be an anchor or a moderator and participants discussing on a topic. Radio discussions are
sometimes packaged like the signature programmes – with signature music, host and themes.
Like a normal discussion participants make their points. The moderator controls the discussion
and the discussion ends when the moderator sum up the key points.

8. Television: John Logie Baird invented television in 1926. Soon it became the most popular
media of communication. It is not a mobile medium like television.
9. Television News: - The editor will assign a news story to a reporter. The reporter with a
cameraman, recordist and technical assistant shoot the story and send it for editing. On
occasion the news team travels in an OB (Outside Broadcast Van) which is sometimes a
scanner. TV news provides only headlines or introduction to the news and minor supporting
facts.

10. Format of TC script: Radio and TV uses a basic 2 column script. The left side of TV script is
titled video and right side titled Audio. The audio column contains spoken words, sound effects
and music and video column describes the nature of the visuals and other general production
information.

11. Television Feature: Features on a broadcast media are audience centered. Features are
entertaining and thought provoking. Features are sometimes having a narration. Wildlife
features are special kind. Interviews are features. Reality shows also come under this category.

r
Interview: There can be studio interviews, spot interviews and field interviews meant to

ku
entertain and to give information.

ha
13. Music Programmes: Most people love music and it is the most entertaining programme.

14. Sports: Major sports events are live broadcasted. It is an instant brand maker and a current
T
and popular topic on TV.
al

15. Live programmes and shows: They are studio based; stage programmes or events live
op

telecasted for the audience. They include music programmes, chat shows, quizzes and other
variety programmes.
G

16. Film: A script is a visual blue print of a film. It gives a visual representation of the narration.
A script has a format.
r
D

The screen play is the scene by scene narration of the script.

Film making has 3 stages.

Pre-production: A script is decided. Director confirms actors to play roles. Shooting is planned.
Location is fixed and the team is fixed, marketing is done.

Production: The live recording of shots.

Post Production: The recorded visuals are sent to editor’s desk. The movie in its full form is
made. Marketing and publicity works along with distribution is finalized and the movie is
released.
Documentaries: A documentary is a film that records and portrays relating without fictional
elements. While feature film focuses on the development of the plot, the documentary focuses
on description of the plot. Editing is of utmost importance in a documentary. It is a narration on
a topic from a particular view point. A documentary is not dialogue centered. The visuals speak
for themselves.

News Reel: It is the predecessor of TV News. It is a short film on news and current events.
These are screened before a feature film in Cinema Halls. The first news reel was made by
Charles Pathe in France in 1907 and features on themes of human interest. Now News Reels are
out of fashion and TV broadcasts news of all fields.

r
ku
ha
T
al
op
G
r
D