Types of Content Analysis There are two general categories of content analysis,

conceptual analysis and relational analysis:

O Conceptual Analysis - In conceptual analysis, a concept is chosen for examination

and the number of its occurrences within the text recorded. Because terms may be
implicit as well as explicit, it is important to clearly define implicit terms before the
beginning of the counting process. As with most other research methods, conceptual
analysis begins with identifying research questions and choosing a sample or samples.
Once chosen, the text must be coded into manageable content categories. The process
of coding is basically one of selective reduction, which is the central idea of content
analysis. By breaking down the contents of materials into meaningful and pertinent units
of information, certain characteristics of the message may be analyzed and interpreted.
In conceptual analysis, the research simply wants to examine presence with respect to
his/her research questions.

For example, whether there is strong presence of positive or negative words used with
respect to a specific argument or respective arguments. O Relational Analysis – As
stated above, relational analysis builds on conceptual analysis by examining the
relationships among concepts in a text. And as with other sorts of inquiry, initial choices
with regard in what is being studied and/or coded for often determine the possibilities of
that particular study. For relational analysis, it is important to first decide which concept
type(s) will be explored in the analysis.

Obviously, too many categories may arise and obscure results and too few can lead to
unreliable and potentially invalid conclusions. Therefore, it is important to allow the
content and necessities of the research to guide coding procedures.

Advantages of Content Analysis Content analysis offers several advantages to

researchers who consider using it to particular content analysis:

a. Looks directly at communication via texts or transcripts and hence gets at the central
aspect of social interaction

b. Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative operations

c. Can provide valuable historical/cultural insights over time through analysis of texts

d. Allows a closeness to text which can alternate between specific categories and
relationships and also statistically analyzes the coded from the text

e. Can be used to interpret texts for purposes such as the development of expert
systems

f. Is an unobtrusive means of analyzing interactions

g. Possible insight into complex models of human thought and language use h. When
done well, is considered as a relatively ‘exact’ research method

Disadvantages of Content Analysis Content analysis has several disadvantages, both

theoretical and procedural in particular, content analysis:

a. Can be extremely time consuming

b. Is subject to increased error, particularly when relational analysis is used to attain a

higher level of interpretation

c. Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts too liberally to draw meaningful

inferences about the relationships and impacts implied in a study

d. Is inherently reductive, particularly when dealing with complex texts

e. Tends too often to simply consist of word counts

f. Often disregards the content that produced the text, as well as the state of things
after the text is produced

g. Can be difficult to automate or computerize Context Analysis A contextual analysis is

an analysis of a text (in whatever medium including multi-media) that helps us to assess
that text within the context of historical and cultural setting, and also in terms of its
textuality – or the qualities that characterize the text as a text.

Contextual analysis combines features of formal analysis with features of “cultural

archaeology” or the systematic study of social, political, economic, philosophical,
religious and aesthetic conditions that were (or assumed to have been) in place at the
time and place where the text was created. It means “situating” the text within the milieu
of its times and assessing the roles of author, readers and commentators (critics, both
professional and otherwise) in the reception of the text.

How to use Contextual Analysis A contextual analysis proceed along many lines,
depending upon how complex one wishes to make the analysis:

1. What does the text reveal about itself as a text? (describe the characteristic of the
language)

2. What does the text tell us about its apparent intended audience(s)? (the sort of
reader the author envisioned)

3. What seems to have been the author’s intention? (describes why the author wrote the
text)

4. What is the occasion for this text? (is it written in response to something)

5. Is the text intended to some sort of call to- / for-action or a reflection? (the action the
authors wants the reader to take or what the reader would conclude or decide on)

6. Are there any non-textual circumstances that affects the creation and reflection of
the text? (hidden messages in the text) Historical Significance Historical significance is
the process is the process used to evaluate what was significant about selected events,
people and developments in the past. Significance has been called the forgotten
concept in history because it is challenging for those engaged in studying history.

The past consists of everything that ever happened to everyone everywhere, but there
is so much history to remember or to learn. Consequently, at the core of the study of
history are questions about what events and people from the past are important. In
other words, when considering historical significance, we ask – What and who should
be remembered, researched and taught? Criteria in Assessing Historical Significance of
Sources There are a number of criteria that historians use to determine significance of
events.

These criteria are interrelated with each other which include:

Relevance

 Is it important or relevant to the people living at that time?

 Is something still relevant to our present lives even if it had only a passing
importance? Resonance

 Who were/have been affected by the event? Why was it important to them?

 How were people’s lives affected? Do people like to make analogies with it?

 Is it possible to connect with experiences, beliefs or attitudes across time and place?
Remarkable

 Was the even remarked on by people at the time or since? Remembered

 Was the event/development important at some stage within the collective memory of a
group of people? Revealing

 Does it reveal some other aspect in the past? Result in Change

 Does it have consequences for the future? Durability

 For how long have people’s lives been affected? Quantity

 How many people have been affected? Profundity

 Was the event superficial or deeply affecting? Author’s Main Argument and Point of
View Determining the Author’s Purpose The author’s purpose is the reason the source
was created. The author’s purpose is his or her reason for or intent in writing a text, a
line, a paragraph, an essay, a story, etc.

There are many reasons why people write, and these reasons are summarized in this
table:

PURPOSE DEFINITION EXAMPLES To persuade Author wants you to believe, do or

buy something This type of writing is called persuasive writing Advertisements,
campaign, speeches, persuasive letters, opinions, etc To inform The author wants to
give you information or instructions This type of writing is called expository writing
Documents, contracts, laws, rules, agreements, articles or essays, instructions or
directions, books, encyclopedias, etc. To narrate The author wants to relate a story or
recount past events This type of writing is called narrative writing History texts,
biographies, anecdotes, non-fiction books, newspapers, etc. To describe The author
wants you to visualize or experience what something or someone looks like, sounds like
or feels like. This type of writing is called descriptive writing Stories, poems, drama,
songs, etc. To explain The author wants to tell you how to do something or how
something works This type of writing falls under expository writing Instructions,
directions, step-bystep procedures, how-to-recipes, operations manual, etc. To entertain
The author wants to amuse you or for you to enjoy the writing itself This type of writing
falls under creative writing Novels, stories, poems, drama, songs, etc. Why Identify
Purpose? When you understand why a source was created, it helps you to think
critically about what information is there, what information is missing, and what you can
expect to take away from the source. As a reader, knowing the purpose or intent that
the writer has for creating the piece of work helps you evaluate it better. For example, if
you know that an author is trying to persuade you, then, as a reader, you would want to
be cautious about believing everything they will tell you.

How to Identify Purpose

O Step 1 – First ask ‘why did the author create/write this text?’

O Step 2 – If the purpose isn’t obvious, ask ‘how did this make me feel?’

O Step 3 – Look for clue words (for example, if the author wants to show similarities
they use words such as both, similarly, like, etc. if the author wants to show differences
they use words such as however, but, on the other hand, etc.?

Determining the Author’s Main Argument One of the most fundamental things we use
language for is argument. Arguing means claiming that something is true and trying to
persuade other people to agree with your claim by presenting evidence to substantiate
it.
An argument is statement with three components:

1. A point of view, a claim, something we are arguing in favor of

2. The actual argument, the evidences, we are using to argue with

3. A statement that links the initial claim to the argument and ensures that we
understand how the argument functions

The statement that connects the initial claim and the argument is referred to as the
warrant. The warrant is thus an argument for the connection between the initial claim
and the argument. Studying involves reading and writing argumentative texts. Your task
as students includes analyzing how a text sets forth its argumentation which enables
you to see ‘what it is really saying.’