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Foundations for Social Work - Basic concepts in Social Work

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FOUNDATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK

BACHELOR OF SOCIAL WORK

Compiled by
Dr. Mirshad Rahman T M

BSW C1 Foundations for Social Work | Dr. Mirshad Rahman T M 1

 BSW C1 FOUNDATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK
Unit–I An Introduction to Social Work
Chapter No.1 : Social Work : Concept, Meaning, Definitions, Objectives,
Goals and Functions, Introduction to the methods of Social Work.
Chapter No. 2 : Social Work : Nature and Philosophy: Democratic,
Humanitarian, Herbert Bisno’s Philosophy
Chapter No. 3 : Historical development of Social Work in UK, USA, India and
Karnataka
Chapter No.4: Emergence of Social Work Education in India and Karnataka
Unit–II Principles, Values and Ethics of Social Work
Chapter No. 5 : Principles of Social Work
Chapter No. 6 : Guiding Principles of Social Work and their applications in
diverse socio-cultural settings
Chapter No. 7:Assumptions,Values and Code of Ethics (NASW) of Social
Work
Chapter No. 8: Professional v/s Voluntary Approaches to Social Work
Unit–III Social Work Profession in India
Chapter No.9: Profession: Meaning, Definitions and Attributes
Chapter No.10: Professionalization of Social Work in Indian Scenario
Chapter No.11: Social Work Profession : Issues and Challenges
Chapter No.12: Perspectives of Social Work Profession in Indian context
Unit–IV Approaches, Ideologies and Fields of Social Work
Chapter No.13: Social Work and its Relation to Human Rights and Social
Justice
Chapter No.14: Ideology of Action Groups and Social Movements
Chapter No.15: Contemporary ideologies of Social Work and Social Change
Chapter No. 16 : Fields of Social Work – Community Development,
Correctional Settings, Medical and Psychiatric Social Work, Family, Women and
Child centered Social Work, Industrial Social Work, Social Work with
Marginalized Sections of the Society

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 UNIT–I
AN INTRODUCTION TO SOCIAL WORK
Social Work : Concept, Meaning
Social work is a problem-solving profession that is committed to improve the
quality of human life by imparting various intervention techniques and strategies
which are scientifically proved and artistically applied. Social work is a
profession primarily concerned with the remedy to psycho-social problems and
deficiencies which exists in the relationship between the individual and his social
environment. This phenomenon always existed in the society in one form or the
other, but achieved its scientific basis in the last decades of 19th century.
People in distress, destitution and deprivation have been helped in the past
by individuals joint families, caste communities, religious institutions motivated
by religious philosophy that assumed ‘charity’ as a reward or medium for
salvation, humanism, philanthropy, humanitarian feeling, democratic ideology,
equality of all citizens; regard for human personality; respect for other’s rights
including the indigents, the handicapped, the unemployed, emotionally
challenged and above all, those in need. The charitable work taken up by
individuals and some voluntary organizations came to be termed as social work
in the due course of time. The most frequently seen misconception about social
work is that people mistake charity, alms giving and voluntary activities as social
work, but this in reality is not social work, as it does not provide any permanent
solution to the person’s problems and does not empower a person to face his
problems by himself. Social work aims at making a person self-dependent and
self-reliant. It attempts to explore the casual factors behind the problem and tries
to solve them scientifically.
The social life of the modern world is characterized by numerous problems.
The consumeristic and profit-oriented approaches of the present society bring
about drastic consequences in social life. Problems like isolation, poverty,
unemployment, migration, family disintegration, sexual violence, atrocities

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against women, suicide, substance abuse, communalism, terrorism, child
abuse etc. are on the increase. Solution to these problems on a scientific basis
is essential to ensure peaceful social life.
Many people give alms to solve problems like poverty and unemployment.
We have been practising these types of charity for centuries to help the poor and
vulnerable, still the problems exist. These activities provide only temporary
solutions to their problems. The complexity and magnitude of such problems in
modern times demand systematic approaches. Professional social work makes
people independent rather than dependent. When it was observed that the
problems require scientific approaches for the proper and effective management,
a new system of scientific intervention came into existence, i.e., social work.
Basically, social work is a helping activity which adopts scientific and
systematic approaches to address the issues of individuals, groups and
communities and it empowers the society. It is the only profession which
studies social problems, its origin, interrelation etc. and provides systematic
solution to such problems. Hence, the present-day social life demands a
scientific and professional approach to solve social problems.
Social work, as a profession and scientific discipline, is of recent origin.
Common men are not aware of the significance of social work. A Social Worker
is a trained person who receives remuneration for his services like any other
professions. Social work is a helping activity which aims at enabling
individuals, families, groups and communities to become self-reliant. Social
work is based on certain principles and philosophy that help to practise it with
scientific knowledge and skills. It requires education and training for any
person to practise it.
Therefore, it is visualized that social work is scientific process for helping to
the needy suffering from material deficiencies, physical disabilities, mental
disorders, emotional disturbances and so on by using knowledge in human
relationship and methods and skills in dealing with them. Speaking in a nut shell,

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social work intended to assist individuals, families, social groups and
communities in sorting out their personal and social problems and permanently
solving those problems through a systematic process.
• Social work is a professional and academic discipline that seeks to improve
the quality of life and well-being of an individual, group or community.
• Intervention at individual, group and community level is undertaken in
social work.
• Relationship is the key tool of social work.
• It promotes study, diagnosis, research and resource mobilization.
• Social work simply means ‘help people to help themselves’.
• We can introduce social work through the Chinese proverb "Give a man a
fish, and you feed him for a day; show him how to catch fish, and you feed
him for a lifetime”. This proverb means that equipping/preparing someone
for a job is of greater benefit than a one-off hand out.
• Social work in its various forms addresses the multiple, complex
transactions between people and their environments.
• Its mission is to enable all people to develop their full potential, enrich their
lives, and prevent dysfunction.
• Professional social work is focused on problem solving and development.
• Social workers are agents of change in society and in the lives of
individuals, families and communities they serve. Social work is an
interrelated system of theory and practice.
Definition of Social Work
According to Walter.A.Friedlander (1955), “Social work is a professional
service based on scientific knowledge and skill in human relation, which assists
the individuals alone or in groups, to obtain social and personal satisfaction and
independence.” This definition of Friedlander is considered as one of the most
comprehensive definitions of social work. According him, social work is a

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profession like other professions, through which a trained social worker with
scientific knowledge and outlook in handling human relations, helps individuals
and groups to have social and personal satisfaction.
Stroup (1960) defined social work as “an art of bringing various resources bear
on individual, group and community needs by the application of a scientific
method of helping the people to help themselves”. In his definition Stroup gave a
different look to social work saying it an art. He said that it is an art of bringing
the people into the position where they themselves will be able to solve their
problems.
According to Indian Conference of Social work (1957), “social work is a
welfare activity based on humanitarian philosophy, scientific knowledge and
technical skills for helping the individual, group or community to live a rich and
full life.”
According to International Federation of Social Workers - IFSW (2014),
“Social work is a practice-based profession and an academic discipline that
promotes social change and development, social cohesion, and the empowerment
and liberation of people. Principles of social justice, human rights, collective
responsibility and respect for diversities are central to social work. Underpinned
by theories of social work, social sciences, humanities and indigenous
knowledges, social work engages people and structures to address life challenges
and enhance wellbeing. The above definition may be amplified at national and/or
regional levels.”
According to the National Association of Social Workers (NASW), social work
is “a profession devoted to helping people function the best they can in their
environment”
Objectives of Social Work
Objectives in general are the statements or formulations of what we are trying to
do. In social work an objective implies to the statement expressing what social

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work is trying to do or what we as professionals are trying to do in social work
for accomplishing the task of social work.
Objectives prescribed by the social work scientists
Witmer prescribed two objectives of social work such as
• To give assistance to individuals while removing difficulties which they
face in utilizing basic services of the society and
• To facilitate effective utilization of community resources for their welfare.
Friedlander gave three objectives of social work i.e.
• To change in painful situation of individuals,
• To develop the constructive forces both within and around the individual
and
• To enhance the democratic and humanistic behaviour of the individual.
Gordon Brown has given four objectives of social work such as:
• to provide physical or material support
• to help in social adjustment,
• to help in solving the psychological problems and
• to make adequate opportunities for the individuals in problems for raising
their standard of living which can prevent problems from intruding.
Generic objectives of social work:
These are generally and universally accepted objectives of social work which
basically try:
• To solve psycho-social problems
• To fulfill humanitarian needs like love, affection, care, etc.
• To solve adjustmental problems
• To create self-sufficiency
• To make and strengthen harmonious social relations
• To make provision of corrective and recreational services
• To develop democratic values among the people

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 • To provide opportunities for development and social progress
• To conscientize/educate the community
• To change the environment in favour of individual’s growth and
development
• To bring change in the defective social system for social development and
• To provide socio-legal aid to the needy who cannot afford to meet them.
If we critically synthesize all the objectives given above, we can compress them
just into two statements such as:
1. Enabling the individual and his impaired being so as to make him fit to live a
self-sufficient and satisfied life and
2. Modifying his social environment in his for so that it becomes conducive for
him to live happy and adequate life.
Goals of social work
The ultimate goal of social work is to enhance the well-being and level of
functioning for all people and to create positive social change by improving social
conditions and creating more humane practices and policies for vulnerable
populations.
• The goal of social work is to reduce suffering by solving people's problems.
People have psychosocial problems with regard to their physical and
mental health. Apart from this, adjustment problems-in children and adults
can be dealt with separately.
• Social work enhances social functioning of individuals, groups and
families by providing recreational services to the public, and by a judicious
use of leisure time, can prevent delinquency and crime in the society.
• Social work helps the individual in bringing about a change in the
environment in favour of his growth and development.

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 • Social work provides democratic ideas and encourage the development of
good interpersonal relations, resulting in proper adjustments with the
family and neighbourhood.
• It works for social justice through legal aid.
• It also promotes social justice through the development of social policy.
Social work improves the operation of social service delivery network as
well.
Functions of Social Work
Function of social work refers to the natural activity of social work or the
statements of how social work operates. According to Prof. P.D. Mishra social
work operates to assist individuals in adjusting to the institutional frame work of
the society and attempts to modify the institutional frame work itself in
appropriate areas. He classified the functions of social work into the following 4
major categories:
1.Curative Function
The services provided under curative functions are–medical and health services,
services relating to psychiatry, child guidance, child welfare services, services for
the handicapped or disable in the form of protection and rehabilitation. These
kinds of services aim to cure the physical, social, material, psychological sickness
of individuals in the society.
2.Correctional Function
The correctional function of social work has three broad areas, such as:
a) Individual reform service which includes prison reform, probation, parole
and other related services.
b) Services for improving social relationship which includes family welfare
services, school social work, industrial social work etc.
c) Services for social reform that includes employment services, prevention of
commercial sex work, beggary prohibition services and removal of untouchability
etc.

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3.Preventive Function:
It includes life insurance services, public assistance, social legislation, adult
education and prevention of diseases etc. This type of function basically deals
with the services relating to the prevention of problems like insecurity,
unlawfulness, ignorance, sickness etc. It is directed towards the elimination of
those factors in the social environment or those deficiencies in the development
of personality that prevents the individual from achieving a minimum desirable
standard of socio-economic life.
4.Developmental Function
Developmental function includes the tasks of socio-economic development
activities such as: education, recreational services, urban and rural development
programmes and programmes of integration etc which are primarily concerned
with the development of individuals, families, groups and communities.
The basic functions of social work can be divided in 3 broad interdependent and
interrelated categories, viz;
1. Restoration of social functioning
2. Provision of resources and
3. Prevention of social dysfunction.
1. The restoration of impaired social functioning is the oldest and most commonly
known function of social work profession. This function is subdivided into
curative and rehabilitative aspects. The curative aspects are to eliminate
environmental factors that have caused break down of social functioning of
individuals, groups or communities and the role of the rehabilitative aspects is to
recognize and rebuild interaction patterns in the society. As mentioned earlier,
social work tries to intervene at the point where the individual interacts with his
environment. The environmental factors hindering the functioning of a person
may be social, economic, political or cultural. This function emphasizes at
problem solving through modification in the psycho-social environment of
individual and groups and through bringing about changes in the attitude of

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recipients of the services. Therefore, if a person becomes dysfunctional due to
any of the above-mentioned environmental factors, the first task at hand will be
to restore the person’s normal functioning. The second task will be to assess the
damage caused by the dysfunction and strategies are devised to rehabilitate the
person socially and bring him back to the normal mainstream.
2. Provision of Resources is further subdivided into developmental and
educational. The developmental aspects are designed to extend effectiveness of
existing social, human and material resources or to bring about full utilization
personal capacity for more social interaction. The educational functions are
designed to make the public aware about specific conditions and needs for new
and changing resources and approaches.
3. The prevention of social dysfunction involves early detection, control and
elimination of conditions and situations that could obstruct effective social
functioning. The main two divisions are preventions of problems in the area of
human interaction (individuals and groups) and secondly, prevention of social ills.
Although it is a very important function of social work, it is neglected in most
situations. Social work has generally concentrated on the curative and
rehabilitative function and has worked on the problem-solving model. However,
keeping in the mind the rapidly changing social scenario, it has become
imperative to adopt the preventive approach to social work. The profession should
ensure that problems are neither created nor eliminated at the very beginning. For
this function the social workers play a crucial role of conscientization, capacity
building and organizing people so that they themselves can prevent social
dysfunctions.
In the present-day context, social work has to emphasize on the aspects of change.
It is increasingly being realized that the main cause of dysfunction lies not with
the people but with the systems within which they operate. Either the people do
not get and environment or resources required for proper social functioning or
they do not have access to the resources to fulfill their needs. Therefore, there is

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a need to challenge and change the system so that people get a favourable
environment to function. In a nutshell, it can be said that the function of social
work should shift from a status quo service oriented approach to change oriented
development approach.
Introduction to the methods of Social Work.
Generally, method implies to systematic way of doing something. In social work,
method is understood as the systematic and planned way of helping the people.
The main concern of social work is to solve psycho-social problems of
individuals, groups and communities through the conscious application of
knowledge in methods, tools, techniques and skills of social work. In this task,
the social worker has to be equipped with all the necessary methods of social work
that ease his work to help the people in solving their own problems.
Social work as a professional practice mainly uses the following methods while
accomplishing its objectives:
1) Social case work
2) Social group work
3) Community Organization
4) Social work research
5) Social welfare administration
6) Social action
The first three of the methods given above are known as the primary or direct
methods. These are direct and primary in the sense that they are directly applied
in the field situation among the people to solve their problems. These methods are
involved to solve the problems at the grass-root level by the social worker’s direct
intervention. The last three are known as secondary or indirect methods,
because they are involved indirectly by some specialized agencies or a set of
organized people. Unlike the primary methods, these methods generally operate
at the secondary levels but not with the people directly. These are those methods

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which are intended to support the primary methods. Here, the social worker
indirectly deals with the client’s problem.
1. Social case work:
It is primary method of social work. It deals with individual problems through
one-to-one relationship which is guided by professional knowledge of the social
case worker. Under method the social case worker attempts to repair the impaired
relationship of the client with his social environment and through a guided
interaction he/she enables the client to adapt with his/her social environment.
Through this method the case worker discovers different aspects of the clients
problem, prepares an appropriate treatment plan and finally with professional
knowledge in social relationship tries to bring about necessary changes in the
attitude and behaviour of the client in favour of his own growth and development.
This is the oldest method of social work practice. Its origin is traced to work
with the family which was “recognized as the most important institution in the
society with a firm belief that a balanced family will produce balanced individuals
who will make up a balanced society” It is a unique method of problem solving
that helps an individual solve his/her psycho-social problems. It assists
individuals to adjust to their environment in a more satisfying way. One of its first
proponents, Richmond (1992) posits that “it consists of those processes which
develop personality through adjustments consciously effected, individual by
individual, between men and their social environment”.
An individual is involved in the problem as s/he is unable to deal with it on
his/her own, because of reasons beyond his/her control. His/her anxiety
sometimes temporarily makes him/her incapable of solving it. In any case, his/her
social functioning is disturbed. The case worker gets information regarding the
client’s total environment, finds out the causes, prepares a treatment plan and with
professional relationship tries to bring about a change in the perception and
attitudes of the client.

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 Social case work encompasses a whole array of activities. Social casework
enables an individual to obtain a higher level of social functioning through an
interpersonal transaction or face-to-face or person-to-person encounter. The
caseworker helps the client to act in order to achieve some personal/social goals
by utilizing the available resources in terms of strength of personality of the client,
his social system or material provisions available in the community and/or
agency. Caseworker’s knowledge and expertise, and material resources are used
(as tools) to inject strengths in the person to enable him to move more satisfyingly
in the social situation he finds difficult to deal with.
The principles of social work guide case work practice and its objective is
to develop resources to enhance social functioning, to remedy and prevent
problems in social functioning. In social case work the worker-client relationship
is characterized by mutual acceptance- Rapport. It has four basic components:
person, problem, place and process (study, diagnosis, treatment, evaluation,
termination and follow-up). According to Perlman (1952), every social case work
model utilizes techniques and theories from psychosocial treatment, functional
casework, problem-solving, crisis oriented short term casework, task centered
casework, and behavior modification. Social case work is basically a one-on-one
interaction with clients. Activities in social case work practice include but are not
limited to the following:
• Counseling a runaway youth
• Helping an unemployed person secure training or employment
• Counseling someone who is suicidal
• Placing a homeless and vulnerable child to adoptive or foster home
• Counselling a teenage pregnant girl
• Counselling someone with an alcohol or drug problem
• Finding nursing home for a stroke victim who no longer needs
hospitalization

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 • Protective services to a person facing family violence/abuse
2. Social group work
Social group work is another primary method of social work. It is a process in
which the individuals in a social group are helped by a professionally qualified
worker, who guides their interaction through planned programme activities so that
they may be able to relate themselves with others and find growth opportunities
in accordance with their needs and capacities towards the noble end of individual
group and community development. In this method the group worker uses the
group as a potential tool for the positive change and personality development of
individuals. In group work individuals in the group are most important and all
programme activities revolve around their needs for development. Through the
group work process, they are helped to improve their relationship and personality
traits which may help them to develop themselves and their community as whole.
A group is defined as ‘two or more individuals who are connected to one
another by social relationships’. Groups are a fundamental part of human
experience and social life. They allow people to develop more complex and
larger-scale activities; are significant sites of socialization and education; and
provide settings where relationships can form and grow, and where people can
find help and support. Groups can be highly rewarding to their members and to
society as a whole. “Social work practice with groups is founded on the premise
that people are enriched by interpersonal experiences structured around
collectively defined goals, satisfying peer relationships, and shared decision-
making pertaining to the group’s life”.
A group can be natural or it can be formed by people. Natural groups are
those groups that developed in an unexplained way or in the natural cause of
event. Examples include, a family, a tribe, a class. Formed groups are those that
were consciously created in order to deal with specific circumstances that are of
interest and of concern to several or many people. Social work with groups
represents a broad domain of direct social work practice.

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 Social workers work with a variety of groups in all settings in which social
work is practiced. Social group work method was introduced during the first
quarter of this century. It emerged at a time when there was a renewed dichotomy
within the profession between social workers who primarily regarded the cause
of social problems as those within people and others who located these causes
primarily within the social situations in which people with problems were living.
During the first twenty years of this century, while the agencies developing social
casework services continued to devote the larger proportion of their time to
working with people on an individual-by-individual basis, there was an increasing
participation of other social workers in working “for and with the masses”. The
premise is that no man is an island and no human being lives in isolation as man
is in constant interaction with various groups in his environment. Social work
with groups represents a broad domain of direct social work practice.
Types of groups
Basically, social workers work with three types of groups: the social action and
the support/remedial/therapeutic/treatment group, and reciprocal group.
Social action group:
These groups are primarily used by social workers to bring about social change
in the society. A social action group may be established for the purpose of
accomplishing specific tasks, carrying out goals of an organization, changing a
law or policy or developing a new programme.
Support/Remedial/therapeutic/ treatment group:
These are usually formed in order to solve emotional or behavioral problems. In
remedial groups the members have common problems, and the role of the social
worker in such a group is to bring about treatment using professional skills and
techniques. A lot of social work practice with groups fall within this domain.
Various types of support group exist. Some groups provide support for very
specific types of loss, illness, or life adjustment. And this could include the
following: bereavement/grief counseling, medical support, weight loss, mental

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health/illness support, family support, life transitions, addiction support groups,
etc.
Reciprocal groups:
There are groups where members come together for mutual exchange of ideas and
information. Usually, members may not have problems per se but may share a
common interest. And so, by coming together they exchange support with one
another, and also share information about the issue that is of interest to them.
Example of reciprocal groups may include mothers that have children with sickles
anaemia, women whose husbands have a terminal disease, parents with adopted
children. These are facilitated by lay persons, and usually have a set meeting time
(generally weekly or monthly), and an open format. The open format allows
members to feel some degree of anonymity, and to participate as they are
comfortable. For some people, simply attending meetings and listening to the
experiences of others can be helpful.
According to Louise and Stephen (2011), different forms of problems that
can be handled using group work include:
Problems relating to addiction
Addiction is a big problem in our society today. People can be addicted to various
substances such as alcohol and drugs. people can also be addicted to sex,
gambling, food, etc. Social workers believe that some of these problems cannot
be handled on a one-on-one basis. You need to bring people that have similar
problems together to share experiences and by so doing you can find solutions to
the problems.
Problem relating to loss or bereavement
Social workers work with people that have experienced one form of loss or the
other. For instance, those who have lost a child, spouse, siblings, etc., in this case
consoling each other and adjusting to coping strategies will be much easier as
they find themselves in similar situations. Other problems that warrant group
treatment could be: problems relating to unemployment, problems relating to

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reading and understanding, problems relating to HIV/AIDS, problems relating to
disability .
In group work individuals are important and they are helped to improve
their social relationships, with flexible programmes, giving importance to the
personality development of the individual in group functioning and relationships.
The group is the medium and through it and in it, individuals are helped to make
necessary changes and adjustments. The purpose of group work is to help
improve the well-being of the members and relieve personal suffering. This
is because groups have the power to enhance problem-solving capacity, prevent
the development of serious social problems, and restore and maintain the social
functioning of members.
Group work can be used in all settings of social work as it is directed
towards bringing about desired changes at the individual, group and community
levels. The social worker assists the members of a group develop capacities and
potentialities. The leadership qualities and personality of the group members are
developed by organizing programmes.
The growth and development of the group members are promoted in social
group work. Social group work often goes with a combination of casework
because the social worker intervenes with clients in some cases one on one. It can
be used in many agencies and programmes. It could be used in public schools for
adolescents who are in correctional institutions/drug offenders, unmarried
teenage pregnant girls, mental health stings, rehabilitation centers, home for the
elderly, community members and in fact any setting where individuals come
together with similar problems requiring the assistance of a social worker.
The following are advantages of group work:
• Group work facilitates changes in client’s communication skills, self-
awareness, reality assessment and acquisition of constructive societal
values to aid in realizing chosen life goals

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 • It saves time and resources. This is because several people’s problems are
handled at once instead of one person at a time.
• Groups are appropriate when there is need to solve common problems.
• It helps individual group members learn and grow as they listen to the
narratives and experiences of other group members.
• Group sessions are helpful in helping members who are reluctant to talk
about their problems to do so.
• Useful information and questions to cope with problems are often shared
in group settings.
To conclude, it is evidently clear that social group work method helps individuals
establish constructive relationships through group activities. This is because
group experiences are essential to human beings. The members of the group are
helped by the social worker who guides the group members’ interaction in
programmes. The group interaction helps an individual to develop his/herself in
accordance with abilities and capacities and thus empowered to mobilize their
available resources for their own improvement.
Community Organization
Community organization as a method of social work is a process through which
efforts are directed towards meeting the community needs by organizing human
and material resources of the community. Identifying problems, finding resources
relevant to their needs, developing and organizing inter-personal and inter-group
relationship, planning and executing effective programme activities are some of
the specific activities in community organization method. Organized and
collaborative effort of the members of the community for their own development
is the main concern of this method.
This method of social work is also called macro practice. Working with
communities has been recognized as a key work for social workers. Indeed, the
community is a natural site for practice because the individuals who are the main
focus of social work practice live in communities. However, community

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organization is a contested topic as it varies across different contexts. It could
range from community building through services provided by the government or
non-governmental organisations (NGOs) as well as community-based
organisations (CBOs) to community organizing, which focusses on challenging
social and structural inequalities through mobilization and activism across
different levels organized by various local and global sectors. Principles of social
work and historical social movements urging for social justice, equality, human
rights, empowerment of individuals/communities and working in partnership with
service users are influences to community development.
This term has come into international usage when the United Nations
(1971) defined and elaborated on its elements: Community development
connotes the process by which the efforts of the people themselves are united
with those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and
cultural conditions of communities, to integrate these communities into the
life of the nation, and to enable them contribute fully to national progress.
This complex process is made up of two essential elements, the participation
by the people themselves in efforts to improve their level of living with as
much reliance as possible on their own initiative; and the provision of
technical and other services in ways which encourage initiative, self-help and
mutual help and make these more effective.
Community organization therefore is a process by which a systematic
attempt is made to improve relationships in a community. Identifying the
problems, finding out resources for solving community problems, developing
social relationships and necessary programmes to realize the objectives of the
community are all involved in community organization. In this way the
community can become self-reliant and develop a co-operative attitude among its
members.
Community organization is the process of mobilizing and empowering
communities through their institutions, organizations, groups, leaders, advocates,

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and volunteers. It is a long-term process whereby people who are marginalized or
living in poverty work together to identify their needs, create change, exert more
influence in the decisions which affect their lives and work to improve the quality
of their lives and the communities in which they live. Community organization is
often distinguished from community planning. It entails processes directed at
social change, management of social conflict and planning.
Community organization is therefore a process of bringing about and
maintaining adjustment between social welfare needs and resources in a given
community. Its characteristics include identification of felt-needs and resources
and involvement of the community members through an organizer (social
worker). The objective is to organize the community scientifically, help the
community to identify its needs and work on it, foster capital generation, etc.
Principles guiding community organization are felt needs, resource
mobilization, and local leadership. Thus, its emphasis is on the development of
strong, resilient communities where people look out for each other and have
community pride in where they live.
Assessment, planning, development and delivery of
programmes/interventions are core functions of the social work process and more
community engagement and inclusion is a necessity for positive outcomes. Thus,
the objectives of community organization in social work practice include the
coordination of existing services, action to expand and modify services, and
the creation and organization of new services.
The roles of the community social worker are: enabler, advocate, broker,
educator and counselor. The community social worker/organizer with his/her
expertise in human relationships can hold the community members together under
difficult conditions with the help of the local leadership. The community social
worker through the application of the knowledge and social work skills helps the
community specify their felt need (problem), formulate effective and realizable

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goals, develop strategies for execution, identify financial resources and mount
direct action campaigns to achieve the required outcome.
4. Social welfare administration:
Social welfare administration is one of the secondary methods of social work. It
refers to a process through which social policy is transformed into social service.
In the other words, it is a process to manage the affairs of social work or social
welfare. Developing programmes, mobilizing resources, recruiting and involving
suitable personnel, proper organization, coordination, providing skilful
leadership, supervision and guidance of staff, budgeting and evaluation are some
of the specified activities involved in social welfare administration method.
Social welfare administration has two concepts embedded in it: “social
welfare” and “administration”. Thus, it requires an understanding of the origins
of social welfare as well as administration as a tool for achieving welfare. Social
welfare is an organized system of social services and institutions designed to aid
individuals and groups to attain satisfying standards of life and health.
Administration is a universal process of efficiently organizing people and
directing their activities towards common goals and objectives. In other words,
whenever you are talking of administration, you are looking at where people are
working with common goal (Simon, 1978).
Social welfare administration is a method of practice that looks for
administrative and managerial skills among practitioners in the execution of
welfare services. It is used to transform social policy into action. It is a two-way
process of transforming policy into concrete social services and use of experience
in recommending modification of policy. This method makes use of scientific and
administrative techniques of planning, implementing, directing, monitoring,
organizing, reporting, coordinating and evaluation of services rendered for the
welfare and development of the people. Its scope includes Planning, Organising,
Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting (POSDCoRB).

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 Social work administration is a growing field which administers special
programmes within the setting of an agency to vulnerable, disadvantaged and
weaker sections of the population such as the aged, socially excluded because of
disabilities or mental illnesses and some stigmatizing illnesses such as leprosy
and HIV/AIDS. Thus, the social worker through training acquires the skills to
effectively see to the humane operation of these agencies. Planning is an
intellectual activity requiring adequate knowledge and vision about social causes
and a prerequisite for good service delivery. Organizational skill is the
administrator’s raw material. From the aforementioned, it could be concluded that
problems facing social agencies in the country are largely attributable to poor
administration due to non-inclusion of trained social workers in the agencies.
5. Social work research
Social work research is another important method of social work. It refers to the
systematic and critical enquiry of the questions encountered by social work
professional in the field of application. Through this method efforts are made to
find answers to the existing and emerging problems of social work so as to make
them use in the practical fields. Social work research like that of other social
sciences is contributing a lot to the store house of its knowledge and helping in
the better planning and implementation of social work programmes.
The effective planning and implementation of development programmes
and projects in the country depend largely on the availability of reliable, adequate
and valid data. Social work research is the systematic and scientific study of
social problems with the objective of producing knowledge for planning and
carrying out social work problems. It is a powerful tool in all social work
settings and is used in all the methods of social work discussed earlier. For
instance, all the social problems we have been citing so far can only be understood
if we have scientific and systematic methods to find out their various causes to
formulate specific intervention strategies to arrive at solutions.
The following highlight the importance of social work research:

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 • Helps in identifying the social problem, its intensity and extensiveness, its
causal factors, its impact on the target population and its repercussions on
the social life of the people.
• Gives an understanding of the factual ground realities (not mere
perceptions) of the social situations, which in turn aid in conceptualizing
the pros and cons of possible intervention strategies.
• Helps social workers gain in-depth knowledge about a social problem,
factors contributing to it and its impact on the socio-cultural and economic
life of clients.
• Helps to focus on social issues prevailing in organization through studying
various aspects such as the team climate in order to understand factors that
are affecting team effectiveness through proper understanding of group
effectiveness.
6. Social action
Social action method of social work is the one that is used to bring about
desirable changes in the defective system for ensuring social progress.
Through this method attempts are made to mobilize people, to create
awareness on existing problems, to organize them and to encourage them to
raise their voice against undesirable practices which hampers their
development and finally to create pressure for bringing about suitable
legislation for social progress. This method seeks to relate the community
needs with the solution of the problems mainly through collective initiatives.
Social Action was first coined by Mary E. Richmond in 1922. According
to her, it is the “mass betterment through propaganda and social legislation”.
Unlike other methods, social action emphasizes long-term essential changes in
established social institutions. It covers movements of social, religious and
political reform, social legislation, racial and social justice, human rights, freedom
and civic liberty.

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 Social action which as we have briefly mentioned previously as one of the
models/tools of community organization has of recent been considered as an
auxiliary method of professional social work in its own right. However, it is not
employed by social workers frequently. It aims at desirable social action and
social progress and it is used to tackle controversial issues aimed at bringing about
structural changes in the social system or to prevent adverse changes.
As a method of social work, it adheres to the philosophy of professional
social work which does not blame people for deficiency or problem; believes in
the dignity and worth of human beings; rejects the doctrine of laissez-faire and
survival of the fittest; adopts a commitment to the capacity of all people to take
action through a non-elitist highly skilled process; and facilitate members to make
choices and take action for themselves. This calls for skills used in combination
with professional social work ethics and principles.
The first is the principle of credibility building which means that the
community people must have faith and confidence in the social worker. Second,
legitimization which means that the social worker should make the people
believe that their actions to achieve set goals are legitimate. Third is
dramatization done through strategies like slogans, emotionally powerful
speeches, and rallies to create dramatic effects. Fourth, dual approach which is
a combination of confrontation and constructive developmental activities. Fifth,
multiple strategies involving use of different ways and means. And lastly
manifold programmes aimed at tackling social, economic, cultural issues,
among others.
Social workers practicing social action should be versed in
• skills of rapport building (relational);
• objective analysis of social situations and problems (analytical and
research);
• ability to use other methods of social work like case work, group work,
social welfare administration adequately and appropriately (intervention);

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 • knowledge to handle organisations, coordinate and collaborate with various
groups and local leaders (managerial);
• effective verbal communication (communication); and
• able to train local leaders for mass mobilization and confrontation with the
authorities (training)
Social action entails confrontation with authorities and sometimes involves taking
difficult positions. Social action as different from other methods of social work
employs certain strategies and tactics as tools to attain its goals. They are
negotiation, persuasion, competition, disruption, collaboration, bargain, boycotts,
sit ins, strikes, marches, fraternization/mingling, tax-refusal, picketing, etc. It
could be said to be a form of radical social work. The main focus is to increase
political pressure on decision making processes so that oppressed groups can
receive equitable services resources and power.
Social action is employed by groups and organization which seek to alter
institutional policies or to make changes in the distribution of power. It is an
organized effort to change or improve social and economic conditions. The
objective of social action is the proper shaping and development of the
sociocultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be possible
for all citizens.
Its goals are prevention of needs; solution of mass problems; improvement
in mass conditions; influencing institutions, policies, and practices; introduction
of new mechanisms or programmes; redistribution of power and resources
(human, material and moral), decision-making, effect on thought and action
structure and improvement in health, education and welfare policies (Mishra,
1992). This calls for skills used in combination with professional social work
ethics and principles.
The social worker uses a lot of advocacy, propaganda/publicity, education,
persuasion or pressure, public opinion and collective support in social action. S/he
raises awareness of the community people and helps organize them in an orderly

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manner so that they can achieve their objectives. As a method, its relevance is felt
in field situations by mobilizing the general population to bring about structural
changes in the social system.
Summary
Social casework requires the social worker to be skilled in social investigation
and diagnosis, have adequate knowledge of human behavior, and psycho-social
problems, and use the client worker relationship to build confidence and trust to
aid clients solve problems. Through group work processes, group members learn
to live and work together to attain specific goals in adjustment to problems and
enhance interpersonal relations. In community work, social workers help people
realize their felt needs and organize themselves to collaborate and cooperate
towards the attainment of common goals. Social action has been discussed as a
powerful tool for bringing about positive changes in the social system for the
betterment of the people. Social welfare administration is geared towards the
effective running of human agencies and finally social work research helps to
identify and develop an objective critical perception of social problems.
Social Work : Nature and Philosophy
It is important to know about the philosophical foundations of social work
because they can be instrumental to examine the ultimate realities of the
concepts, principles and values of social work and can help us to obtain deeper
understanding about the essentiality of the profession. Before entering into the
discussion on philosophical foundations of social work, it is necessary to
understand as to what philosophy is and what social work philosophy is.
Concept of Philosophy
The term ‘Philosophy’ has been derived from the two Greek words ‘philo’ which
means Love and ‘Sophia’ which means Wisdom. The literal meaning of the
combination of the two terms is ‘Love for wisdom’. Therefore, the meaning of
philosophy is love for wisdom. Wisdom is the fine and rationalized outcome of

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one’s own life experiences. Philosophy is the science which investigates the most
general facts and principles of human nature and conduct of life.
According to Webster’s New International Dictionary, “Philosophy is the
science which investigates the most general facts and principles of reality and
human nature and conduct; especially and now usually, the science which
comprises logic, ethics, aesthetics, metaphysics and theory of knowledge”.
According to John De Wey, “It is concerned with problems of being and
occurrence from the stand point of value, rather than from that of mere
existence”.
In social work, it involves itself in analyzing the basic principles and
concepts of social life and presents the highest ideals of social relationship. It is
also concerned with revealing some fundamental truth concerning the relations of
man with other men and men with the universe as whole. Thus, philosophy is the
critical discussion and evaluation of fundamental assumptions that people make
in everyday life, in own life, in family, in politics, in religion, in science, in arts
and in other broader areas of human activities including social work practice.
Philosophy as most Indian Philosophers conceived should be all
comprehensive, affirmative, synthetic and spiritual in nature. They maintained
wisdom is that knowledge by knowing which everything else can be known. In
Indian perspective, philosophy is the ultimate reality. Hence, philosophy as the
quest for ultimate truth is a science of value par excellence. It should not only
criticize the facts but also uphold itself to satisfy all branches of knowledge.
Scientific Base of Social Work
Social work practice has a strong scientific base. Social workers do not
believe is knowledge for its own sake. Social work for its basis, a scientific
body of knowledge, though borrowed from different disciplines of social and
biological sciences. Social work like any other discipline has three types of
knowledge.
1) Tested knowledge.

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2) Hypothetical knowledge that requires transformation to tested knowledge.
3) Assumptive knowledge which is practical wisdom requires transformation to
hypothetical knowledge and from there to tested knowledge.
The knowledge is borrowed from sociology, psychology, anthropology,
political science, economics, biology, psychiatry, law, medicine etc. All
disciplines have contributed much to the understanding of human nature. Social
workers make use of this knowledge to solve problems of their clients. Social
work is rooted in humanitarianism. It is "Scientific Humanism" as it uses
scientific base. Social work is based on certain values which when organised
constitute the "Philosophy of Social Work". Social work is based on faith in the
essential worth and dignity of the individual. Man is an object of respect not
because he is rich or powerful but became, he is a human being. Human nature
endows the individual with worth and dignity which, every other human being
has to respect.
Social work is against any kind of discrimination based on caste, colour,
race, sex or religion. Social work is against "Social Darwinism" and the principle
of "survival of the fittest". This means that social work does not believe that only
the strong will survive in society and the weak will perish. Those who are weak,
disabled and or need care are equally important for social workers. The
individual is understood as a whole with the same worth and dignity in spite of
differing psychological, social and economic aspects. The social worker believes
in the capacity of the individual and also recognises individual differences. The
individual's self-determination is given importance. He should be understood
from both domestic and cultural points of view. Social work is a combination of
"idealism and realism". To a social worker an individual is important but society
is equally important. The individual is greatly moulded by social circumstances.
But ultimately the individual must bear the responsibility for his/her conduct and
behaviour. The worker has to solve the problem on account of which the client
is disturbed. Hence social work is problem solving in nature.

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Social work Philosophy
Like other professions, social work borne and grew out of certain needs of
human beings. In the beginning social work served mainly the poor and helpless,
but with the changing situations, it took the face of other services. Now in the
twenty first century, it is mostly concerned with the problems wherever human
institutions or human relations either break down or are threaten to break or even
are not at the stage of maximum potential. It is found that problems of human
life are not influenced by this or that single factor but it is the product of multiple
factors that are linked with the survival and development of human society
which is the ultimate reality. In this context, it is essential to know the
philosophical foundations that strongly uphold social work as a noble
profession.
Social work is the youngest profession that emerged in the 20th century.
As a profession, it is still in its tender age. Though it continues to exist from the
very beginning of human civilization as helping activity, has not produced great
philosophers of its own. It therefore, uses the philosophical thoughts from other
professions and relates those to the basic knowledge and methods applied in its
own areas of operation. Edward C. Lindman was the first social worker who made
a conscious effort to identify some philosophical bases of social work profession.
According to E.C Lindman, Social work is based on humanitarian
philosophy, for its main concern is the welfare and happiness of human beings.
Except from devotion to the welfare of human beings, a social worker has to find
a method of enabling those who are assisted to regain their confidence in
themselves for the proper adjustment to normal life. The philosophy of
democracy also has a sound base for social work. It strengthened the need to
recognize every human being as an individual, worthy of respect and
recognition. The basic philosophical components of democracy like importance
of the consent of the ruled, rule of the majority, respect for creative minority,
freedom of assembly, speech, and religion are fundamental for human

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development. These components lay the foundation for social justice, liberty,
equality and fraternity which form a significant part of social work philosophy.
The American Association of Schools of Social Work has set down a
statement that may be said to represent the current philosophy of social work.
As the statement goes, “Social work accepts as its main objectives the
adjustment of the individual in the society. It views this adjustment as dynamic
and changing as individual development takes place and as the social setting is
modified. It views lack of adjustment as originating in the physical, mental and
emotional make up of individual, and in the environment which conditions his
behaviour. Thus, the profession of social work functions in both areas, utilizing
certain skills for service to the individual and others for the control of the
environment” The main concern of social work is the individual, the
understanding of his needs and his adjustment to his environment. Social
workers enter people’s lives in very practical and intimate way. They necessarily
become involved in the issues which have an inescapable connection with the
philosophy of human beings.
The third International Survey on Training of Social Work conducted by
the United Nations sums up some of the philosophical foundations on which the
profession of social work has so far been built:
1. To organize the worth of individual human being, regardless of the
circumstances, status, race, religion, politics or behavior; and to foster the growth
of human dignity and self-respect.
2. To respect individual, group and community differences, at the same time as
seeking to harmonize them with the common welfare.
3. To encourage self-help as a means to growth in self-confidence and ability to
assume responsibility.
4. To promote opportunities for satisfying living in the particular circumstance of
individuals, groups and communities.

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5. To accept professional responsibilities to work for the implementation of social
policies consistent with social work knowledge and philosophy about human
desires and needs, with the aims of affording to every individual the opportunity
to make the best use of his environment and his own potentialities.
6. To safeguard the confidential nature of professional relationship
7. To use this relationship to help clients (individuals, groups or communities) to
become free and more self-reliant rather than to try to manipulate them to fit a
preconceived pattern
8. To make responsible use of resources and professional relationship for the
purpose of promoting as objectively as possible the greatest good for the
individual and the best interest of the society.
Herbert Bisno has described the philosophy of social work in details in his book
‘The philosophy of Social Work’. He has narrated the philosophic tenets of social
work in 4 areas, such as:
1. The nature of individual

2. The relation between groups, groups and individuals and between individuals,

3. The function and methods of social work, and

4. Social maladjustment social change.

In the recent years, some thinkers of social work profession, after careful analysis
of the concept, principles, methods and experiences gained from the social work
practices have formulated some basic tenets of social work philosophy that can
be stated under the following points:
1. Belief in the worth and dignity of an individual
Every individual no matter where he stands at the social order, what he does, what
he contributes to the society, how big or small qualities he possesses is of worth.
Social work strongly believes that each person’s life is socially desirable and
every person has some dignity to hold on. Worth and dignity of individual is the
central theme of social work. Some fundamental principles of social work like

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individualization, non-judgmental attitude, equality of opportunity, the rights of
weaker members of the society, social justice, democratic values etc manifest the
importance of worth and dignity of individual.
2. Belief on individual freedom
One of the earliest philosophers Rousseau said “Man is borne free but
everywhere he is in chain”. It implies that man is in eternal bondage of various
needs and deficiencies in himself and his social environment. Social work which
is also known as helping profession seeks to mitigate those needs and
deficiencies and ameliorate human problems. It tries to free individuals, groups
and the society from the clutches of various problems. Social work emphasizes
on total freedom of individuals for it realizes that freedom is indispensable for
human growth and development and ultimately human happiness. Total freedom
encompasses political freedom, freedom from poverty, freedom from social
maladies, and freedom from chronic sickness (physical and mental) and so on
that stand on the way of development of an individual or the society.
3. Inter-dependency between the individual and the society
Individuals and society have always maintained unbreakable and inseparable
relationship between them since their existence. Man cannot live without
society. For the fulfillment of every single need from womb to tomb, man
depends on society in one or the other way. Starting from child care to education,
security, employment, livelihood, love and affection everything is possible only
through social relationship which is the life cell of the society. In the same way
society cannot exist without individuals and no social relationship can happen
without human beings. Hence, the sole priority of social work is individual and
his relationship with the society. When the relation between individual and his
society is disturbed, problem occurs. Social work does nothing but attempts to
make an adjustment in the relationship between the individual’s need and the
social environment.

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4. Multiplicity of the causal factors
A human or social problem doesn’t come from a single factor. Several factors
are responsible for a single social problem. For instance, if we take poverty as a
social problem, it is a result of not one or two factors. If you ponder about, you
can find several factors responsible for poverty of a person or a society.
Similarly, the problems of alcoholism, family disorganization, juvenile
delinquency, beggary, crime etc have multiple of causal factors. Social work for
this reason believes in holistic approach for intervention in solving social
problems. Social work does not simply believe in single factor for a problem. It
adapts scientific social diagnosis to find out related factors which may be
contributing to a particular problem. It also works on attacking all the factors
contributing to the problem at hand and tries to bring about a scientific solution.
5. Collective responsibility
Solution of a Psycho-social problem is not a single man job. It calls for collective
effort from all people especially those who are directly related to a given
problem. Life in the society has always demanded for collective responsibility.
Even in the ancient days the people with problems were helped by family, caste
panchayats and other human groupings. Social work believes in participatory
approach of solving problems and making development. It attempts to involve
all the possible forces to tackle problems. In the cases of individual problems
social work tries to organize the people around the individual and involves them
to solve his problems. In case of community/social problem social work attempts
to organize the community/society to solve the problems. Thus, collective
responsibility forms a foundation of social work philosophy.
6. Recognition of the concept of welfare state
Welfare state can be defined as “a state where well-being/welfare of the people
is the responsibility of the state/ government.” It implies that in a welfare state,
the government takes the mandatory responsibility for the well-being and
welfare of its citizens. The concept of welfare state has been recognized by most

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of the independent countries of the world including India. Social work upholds
the idea of welfare state and very often uses the popular forces to pressurize the
government to plan and work for the welfare of people. The recognition of
concept of welfare state has given social work a strong platform to make
conscious use of state resources for the upliftment of the needy people of the
society.
7. Belief in democratic values
Belief in democratic values is one of the fundamental components of social work
practice. It is a known fact that social work as a profession stands on the
democratic footings. The humanitarian principles of democracy like equal
rights, social justice, and equal opportunity are also accepted as fundamental
guidelines of social work practice. Under the guidance of democratic values
social work operates on the basis of humanitarian philosophy which upholds the
ideals of human welfare and happiness as the highest moral of the society. In its
noble mission of human happiness social work involves itself in attaining equal
rights, social justice and social equilibrium in the society. It looks forward to
establish a just society where everyone lives a happy and comfortable life.
8. Positive Change
There are serious political, economic and cultural maladjustment in our society.
The co-existence of such maladjustments calls for the conscious efforts to bridge
the underlying gaps for the good cause of the society. If these gaps are to meet,
there is a need for social change and for a positive social change; there is a need
of social planning. Social workers, otherwise known as change agents know the
intelligent direction of social change. They find the best possible ways and
means to bring about social change in the society.
To bring about a desirable change in the society, social work basically sets two
broad objectives:
1. to enable and organize the people and use their cooperative power for the
improvement of the society.

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2. To work on the system to make it suitable and functional so that people can
help themselves to contribute for their own development.
Chapter No. 3 : Historical development of Social Work in UK, USA, India and
Karnataka
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF SOCIAL WORK
Social work is a profession which deals with various problems and issues
systematically and scientifically. It empowers individuals, groups and
communities. It requires specific knowledge, skills and techniques to practise.
Social work has developed through centuries like any other discipline. This
discipline attained a professional status very recently. It was developed through
the practice of charity, social service, welfare measures, etc. Here we can go
through the evolution of social work in the United Kingdom (UK), the United
States of America (USA) and in India.
The evolution of social work in the United Kingdom
The need to help other people is stressed by the major religions. During the
Elizabethan period the needy people were helped by the authorities. Such charity
works are called 'relief of the paupers'. The Victorian reformers who were
distressed by poverty, child neglect and other social ills were pioneers in many of
today's social welfare services, although they too had called such services by
various other names such as organized charity or philanthropic work or 'relief of
destitution'. The history of social work in the UK had gone through various phases
a. A.D 1200 to 1500
From the beginning of religion, the priests assumed leadership in providing
protection for the helpless widows, orphans and the sick. Charity was promoted
primarily by the desire to receive the grace of God to secure the merits of good
deeds for eternal life. In the beginning of the14th century the poor were divided
into two categories; able-bodied and destitute.

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b. A.D 1501 to 1600
Citizens were discouraged from giving alms to the able-bodied beggars. In 1531
Henry VI issued license for begging in restricted areas; punishment was given to
those who violated the law - In1572, Queen Elizabeth introduced general tax for
the protection of the poor and appointed overseers of the poor. Thus, the
government was held responsible for the maintenance of the poor.
The church, especially monasteries played the role of relief centres to the destitute
and the disabled. Alms were collected and distributed by the parish and other
clergymen who knew the individual and his situation. The churches did not make
any effort to provide any permanent remedy for improving the conditions of the
poor. Later the responsibility was shifted from the church to the Government.
c. A.D 1600 to 1800
Elizabethan Poor Law introduced in 1601 was a landmark in the history of
organized social welfare. This law ensured many relief provisions for the eligible
poor. The law also insisted the able-bodied beggars to work in 'work houses'. The
poor were divided into three categories: able bodied, impotent poor and the
dependent child. The overseers of the poor were responsible for the execution of
the poor law. They verified eligibility and selected the applicants. The work house
act passed in 1692 made provisions for the training of the inmates of work houses.
The table given below shows the classification of poor based on Elizabethan Poor
Law.
Type Criteria
Able bodied Forced to work in the house of corrections or in the work
poor house, not eligible to receive alms.
Unable to work and placed in alm houses (sick,
Impotent poor
old, blind, deaf etc.)
Dependent Orphans, the deserted, children from very poor
child families.

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d. A.D.1800 to 1900
In this period social scientist Adam Smith stated that government should
minimize its involvement in any field for any purpose as it will lead to much
dependency. Malthus is of the opinion that 'if there were a lot of free services, this
will lead to the desire for more children'. So, he recommended an end to the
charity work. As per the recommendations of the Royal commission (1832) able
bodied continued to work in able bodied homes and better help for slum dwellers
were provided in 1834. In the Factories Act (1833) only minimum welfare
facilities were provided to the industrial workers.
Formation of Charity Organization Societies
The formation of charity organization society was an important milestone in the
development of charity programmes. London Charity Organization Society was
the first such organization formed in the year 1869. They undertook the following
strategies to help the needy effectively.
i. stopped giving doles.
ii. co-ordinated the distribution of relief.
iii. verified each application carefully.
iv. conducted interviews to assess the genuineness of the applicants.
v. formulated plans for the treatments.
Settlement House Movement
Cannon Samuel Augustus Barnet founded University Settlement House which
was named as Toynbee Hall. Its objectives were:
i. Educational and cultural development of the poor.
ii. Imparting information to the poor for their improvement.
iii. Developing consciousness towards health problems and the need for enacting
legislation.
e. A.D 1900 onwards
Newly formed Charity Organisation Societies (COS) started to practise
professional social work and began to provide training to social workers. In the

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year 1899 Social work training was started and introduced. At first two years
training programme in social work with theory and practice was started.
The table below shows the important legislations enacted to standardize the social
welfare schemes of UK.
Year Laws Purpose
Pensions for the aged and
1905 Poor Law Commission unemployed, Public employment
services.
1906 Meals Act Providing free meals
Free medical examination of school
1907 Education Act
children.
Compulsory health insurance to the
1911 National Insurance Act workers who belong to the lower
income groups.
1925 Old Age Contributory Act Old age pension.
Social Insurance, Public assistance,
1941 Beverridge Commission
Children's allowance etc.
Disabled Persons Employ the disabled persons in
1944
(Employment) Act commercial or industrial enterprises.

HISTORY OF SOCIAL WORK IN THE USA

The earliest forms of social work activities were started in the USA from time
immemorial. The history of social work in the USA can be divided into the
following stages.
i. The Colonial Period (1620-1776)
ii. Civil War and Industrial Revolutions (1776-1860)
iii. The Industrialization -The human side (1860-1900)
iv. Social work, seeking professional characteristics (1900-1930)
v. Highly professionalized discipline (1930-onwards)
Charity Organization Societies (COS)
The charity organization society movement was started in the USA at Buffalo in
1877. The New York Charity Organization Society made revolution in the field

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of organized charity work within 15 years by extending its activities to 92
American cities. The Scientific charity approach enabled Charity Organization
Societies (COS) to understand and take care of family problems. The charity
organization societies started in Boston and Philadelphia in 1878 operated on the
following principles:
i. Detailed investigation on applications for charity
ii. A central system of registration to avoid duplication
iii. Co-operation between various relief agencies.
iv. Extensive use of voluntary friendly visitors.
Settlement House Movement
Rapid urbanization, industrialization and immigration produced social settlement
movement in the USA. This movement combined social advocacy and social
service with proper intervention through group work and neighbourhood
organization strategies. The settlement house workers established neighbourhood
centres and offered services such as citizenship training, adult education,
counselling, recreation and day-care. The social group work, social action and
community organization methods have emerged from Settlement House
Movement.
Child Welfare Movement
The rapid growth of manufacturing industries aggravated the pathetic
condition of children, so Children Aid Society (1853) and Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Children (1857) were started in New York City. This
led to the formation of Child Welfare Movement. The aim of the agencies was to
rescue children from inadequate homes and from the streets.
Development of Professional Social Work Education in the USA
The employment of paid staff and their training by Charity Organization
Societies (COS) facilitated a shift from the unorganized charity and social service
to the beginning of an organized and systematic social work. The first such
training centre organized by New York

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 Charity Organization Society (NYCOS) in 1898 is currently known as
the Columbia University. Hospital based training and social work services were
also initiated around the same time at Boston Hospital. The First World War
increased the casualties among the poor, consequently various wartime charity
programmes were initiated and Welfare Acts were passed.
World War I provided unique opportunities for social case workers to
prove the necessity of their skills. Thus, the prestige of social work rose up in
war related activities such as the Red Cross home services. Mary E Richmond
could be considered the first professional social worker in the US. She became
the assistant treasurer of Baltimore Charity Organization Society. Later on, she
became practitioner, teacher and theoretician of the Charity Organization
Movement. In the National Conference on Charities and Corrections held at
Toronto, she advocated the establishment of training schools for professional
social workers (1897).
The other group of social workers like Hane Addams, Florance Kelly,
Edith argued for bringing of legislation to improve the working conditions of
neighbourhood organizations.
The book 'Social Diagnosis' by Mary Richmond in 1917 is considered as
the foundation for the theoretical basis of social work. Chicago School and Boston
school formed the second and third schools of social work in the USA
respectively. The American Association of Schools of Social Work was founded
in 1919 to facilitate communication among the schools.
EVOLUTION OF SOCIAL WORK IN INDIA
The systematic development of social work in India may be grouped into different
periods.
a. Social Reforms in Ancient Period (2500 BC-AD 1200)
b. Social Reform in Medieval Period
c. Social Reform in Modern Period
a. Social Reforms in Ancient Period (2500 BC-AD 1200)

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In ancient India, the nature of social service was that of charity. The earliest
reference to charity is to be found in the Rig Veda (Chap1 XIII, 2) which
encourages charity by saying ''May the one who gives, shine the most".
Upanishad prescribed that every house holder must practise charity.
In ancient India social welfare activities were performed by Yagnas. Each
one contributed his bit towards the Yagnas. The intention was the welfare of all.
Yagnashalas were classrooms where men and women were taught the spirit of
working together. Bhagavat Gita insists that the privileged class has a moral duty
to serve the poor. Such persons who served the society with all their ability were
free from all sins. But those who cooked for themselves or produced for their own
gain were eating sin (Gita chap-3-13) According to Manu it was his duty to
feed his guests first, then his servant, he and his wife might eat last of all.
Charity or dana became the instrument of virtue of the privileged sections
and it was to be dispensed voluntarily. Later in the Vedic period dana became
institutionalized and came to be associated with religious ideology. Dana was
given to acquire punya (merit). Kaudilya highlights the duties of the king
towards the welfare and happiness of his subjects, ''In the happiness of the
subjects lies the king's happiness.''
The evolution of Buddhism influenced the character of the Indian society-
from the tribal agricultural settlement to a class based agrarian economy.
Buddhism laid great emphasis on punya and dana (charity). Guilds were
important corporate organizations which performed a variety of economic and
welfare functions during Buddhist period. Guilds provided social security to the
oppressed class of the society. Bimbisara paid special attention to the
development of roads and agriculture.
Ashoka developed a comprehensive system of social welfare. He
appointed a superintendent to look after the welfare of women. The welfare
programmes were under the overall charge of High Commissioners of Charity
(Dharma mahamathras). Many reforms were introduced in the field of

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women's welfare, rehabilitation of prisoners, rural development, free
medical care, regulation of prostitution and provisions of public utilities like
roads, wells, rest houses for travellers etc.
Kanishka gave liberal donation and grant for the construction of Buddhist
Viharas, monasteries, stupas etc. These were the centres of learning and help to
the needy people. During the Gupta period some more welfare activities
executed. Harsha Vardhana was an enlightened ruler who established hospitals,
dispensaries, orphanages and homes for the destitutes.
b. Social Reform in Medieval Period
The duties of a King included the maintenance of peace, protection from external
attack and to provide justice. Malik Ali, a noble of Balban, was more generous
in giving alms. Giyas-Udheen Thuglak was charitable and King Muhammud
Gavan spent all his wealth on the poor and led a simple life. Humayun was the
first king who made a bold attempt to prohibit sati.
Akbar was a great ruler who brought about many reforms in Indian society
and abolished slavery in 1583. He maintained a policy of religious equality and
granted full freedom to his subjects on religious matters. Aurangzeb looked after
the welfare of his people and led a very simple life.
c. Social Reform in Modern Period
Rajaram Mohan Roy was the greatest Indian of the 19th century. He was the
morning star of Indian renaissance who sowed the seeds of religious and social
reforms. He used his power and influence towards the abolition of sati and he was
in favour of widow remarriage and female education.
Iswarchandra Vidya Sagar advocated widow remarriage, economic self-
reliance, women’s education and prohibition of polygamy. It was with the joint
effort of Mohan Roy and Vidyasagar that the Widow Remarriage Act was
passed in 1856. Professor Bal Shasthri Jain Bhaker of Bombay fought against
the evil customs like sati, female infanticide etc. and tried to frame laws to abolish
these customs.

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 Gopal Hari Desh Mukh of Bombay promoted modern education,
established dispensaries, maternity homes, orphanages etc. Sasipade Banerjee
was a notable reformer of Bengal who worked for the cause of women’s education
and widow remarriage. He arranged several marriages of widows and gave shelter
to widows at his residence. Sir Sayyid Ahmed Khan played a prominent role for
the education of women and to wipe out social evils among the Muslims.
Gandhiji became active in political as well as social fields in 1920. He
symbolized the integration of political reform with social reform. He worked for
the upliftment of women, Dalits and fought for the equality between men and
women. He emphasized the need for freedom from evils along with political
independence. The contribution of Gandhiji like Sarvodaya, Andhyodaya, Non-
violence struggle, Panchyathiraj are closely related with the philosophies of
social work.
Contributions of Organizations
The important organizations like Brahma Samaj, Prarthana Samaj, Arya
Samaj, Theosophical Society, Ramakrishna Mission, Muhammedan Anglo
Oriental Society, etc. played significant role in the development of social work.
Brahma Samaj was founded by Rajaram Mohan Roy and worked for the abolition
of Sati, promotion of widow remarriage and for women’s welfare. Arya Samaj
was founded by Swamy Dayananda Saraswathy in 1875. He opposed the caste
system and child marriage. Muhammedan Anglo Oriental Society was founded
by Sir Sayyid Ahammed Khan.
Theosophical society was founded in 1881 in Madras by Madame
Blavatsky and Colonel Olcott. Ramakrishna Mission founded by Swami
Vivekananda in1897 started its programmes with education, treatment and
general help. Gopal Krishna Gokhale established the Servants of India
Society for social service.

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Modern Social Work
Modern social work was introduced in India by Christian Missionaries in the
beginning of the 19th century. When they started making houses for orphans
and destitutes, Indian social reformers like Sasipada Banerjee, Phule and
Karve too started homes for the widows. Some social and religious
associations like Arya Samaj, Prarthana Samaj and Ramakrishna Mission
played significant roles in providing institutional welfare service in India.
EMERGENCE OF SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN WESTERN
COUNTRIES
UK: In the United Kingdom, social work education passes through three stages,
namely,
1) training on the job
2) training classes organized by the social work agencies, and
3) training programmes conducted by schools of social work of high standards.
Professional training for social work dates back to 1890s when the
Women’s University Settlement in Southwark organized training classes. The
first school of social science was established at Liverpool in 1903. And this
training was recognized in the university system. In 1907, the University of
Birmingham instituted a diploma course.
U.S.A.: The evolution of social work education in USA dates back to June 1898
when the New York Charity Organization Society offered a six-week summer
training programme to twenty- seven students. This programme is regarded as
the beginning of professional education in social work. The summer course
was repeated for a number of years and then expanded to become the New York
School of Philanthropy, the first full time school of social work. It is now the
Columbia University of School of Social Work.
A school of social work was established by the Simmons College and
Harvard University in 1904. In 1907, the Chicago School of Civics and
Philanthropy, now the University of Chicago School of Social Service

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Administration was established. By 1910, five schools of social work had been
established in the United States. Primary responsibility for training a cadre of
social work professionals was vested in such schools. With regard to field work,
agency supervision was seen as a supplementary educational resource.
In 1906-07, school of social work was established in New York,
Chicago, Boston, and New Haven. The expansion of such schools of social work
was encouraged in surrounding towns. The child labour legislation, the
progressive movement, which saw social work efforts initiated in the schools, and
community settlement programmes, also led to the growth. A study of
Truancy/absenteeism in Chicago supported the findings of the need for school
attendance officers who understood the social ills of the community, and that
school social workers were best equipped for that responsibility.
By 1920’s, the mental hygiene movement was concerned with treating
nervous disorders and behavioural problems in difficult children. In the 1930’s,
like school counseling, school social work also declined. From the 1940-60, case
work in schools had become an established specialty; the profession began to
emphasize collaboration and communication with teachers and other school
personnel. Now the school social worker was an expert who could help
schools with psycho- social issues.
In July 1994, a group of 64 school social workers from across the country,
realizing the need for more specific services for school social workers, met in
Edwardsville, and decided to form the School Social Work Association of
America and drafted the first constitution and bylaws for the organization.
SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN INDIA
• The first training course for social work as claimed through University
Grants Commission was organized through Social Science League in
Bombay in 1920.
• This was a short-term course meant for voluntary workers occupied in
welfare work.

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 • The first professional institution that provided training for a career in
social work was recognized in 1936 in Bombay.
• The genesis of social work education in India has its roots in this
establishment of Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of Social Work
(later recognized as Tata Institute of Social Sciences).
• It admitted mainly graduates (sometimes few undergraduates also) and
awarded Diploma in Social Service Administration after two-year course
of training.
• Till 1942, Institute admitted students every alternate year. It did not seek
affiliation to University as the management felt that it would hinder
freedom to experiment. Though, University status was granted to TISS
under Sec 3 of UGC Act.
• After Independence, Kashi Vidyapeeth, Varanasi and College of Social
Service, Gujarat Vidyapeeth, Ahmadabad were recognized in 1947;
• In 1948, Delhi School of Social Work, (DSSW) came under auspices of
North YWCA of India with assistance Division of American from Foreign
YWCA.
• It is the pioneer institution offering two years post graduate course
leading to Master's degree.
• In 1949, University of Delhi granted affiliation and took up management
of School in 1961.
• The first school as part of the University was recognized in Baroda in 1949-
50 and Department of Social Work, Lucknow University was recognized
in 1949.
• Subsequently, Madras School of Social Work (l952) arid others were-
recognized crossways the length and breadth of the country.
The emerging social scenario necessitates programmes and services for social
change in the region of social development, as also for welfare and crisis

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intervention, which in turn required professionally, qualified manpower, with
dedicated knowledge and skills. Therefore, the effectiveness and efficiency of the
developmental initiatives, social reform and social action to enable the
marginalized sections of society to participate in this procedure is invariably
connected with the excellence of human resource in the developmental and
welfare institutions, both governmental and non-governmental.
• Throughout the past six decades, the number of educational institutions
within the university system offering professional social work courses has
multiplied.
• At present the number of professional training institutions is more than
hundred some of which offer Bachelor's and Master's degree and some
offer Certificate course in Social Work. Some of them also offer Ph. D
program.
• Data shows that Maharastra clearly leads in the field of social work
education with roughly fifty institutes recognized therein.
• Therefore, while Maharastra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka having a cluster
of institutions, there were none till recently in states in extreme north and
east, such as Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, and the Himalayas and the north
eastern hill states.
• This brings out the skewed nature of territorial representation of Social
Work institutes and the need to ensure a systematic development of social
work in conditions of geographical sharing.
The University Grants Commission appointed the First Review Committee for
Social Work Education in 1960 and the Second Review Committee in 1975 for
the promotion, maintenance of standards of education, coordination of social
work education, training, research and practice.

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• The report has been prepared with the perspective in view that any
profession necessity review its past and necessity look ahead to its future
so that it may be able to equip its members for practice.
• One of the significant decisions was to establish a National Council on
Social Work Education for the promotion and development of social work
education in India.
• The Third Review committee for social work education in 2001 has
highlighted the need for linking social work education to the social realities
in which the profession is practiced.
• It advocates that curriculum be divided into four sets or domains. The four
domains are the core domain. The supportive domain, interdisciplinary
domains and elective domains.
• The core domain consists of the philosophy, ideology, values, ethics,
theory and concepts.
• The supportive domain gives the knowledge and skills to assist the core
domain.
• The interdisciplinary domain has the theories and concepts from other
disciplines which are related to the social work profession.
• The elective domains are optional courses.
• The committee also stressed the importance of giving the learners
opportunities for practice learning.
• Further it recommended the use of dissimilar teaching methods for the all-
round development of student.
Association of Schools of Social Work in India, a voluntary standard setting
organ of the training institutions acts as a spokesman of the social work
educators.
• Recognized in 1959 it is national forum on all matters of social work
education.

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 • It has played a prominent role in organizing seminars for staff growths,
constant review of syllabi and course contents, research pertaining to social
work education, preparing teaching materials etc.
• It has always attempted to establish teaching standards but has not been
much successful in enforcing due to its being an association of voluntary
nature.
Indira Gandhi National Open University, a pioneer in education has taken
initiatives in providing social work education. Seeking to replicate the model of
regular education in both fieldwork and classroom teach.
• It has developed curriculum with the learner in perspective.
• It aims to develop professional manpower capable of performing tasks and
functions that ultimately achieve the goals the profession has set it to seek
and serve.
Social Work as a profession in India has already passed its infancy long back, and
in the last few decades, it has emerged as one of the most demanding professions
in India. In India, a person holding a Bachelor (BSW) or Master (M.A. in Social
Work/MSW) degree in Social Work – is generally considered a professional
social worker.
SOCIAL WORK EDUCATION IN KARNATAKA
The first Postgraduate Diploma Course in Social Work was started at the St.
Agnes College, Mangalore by Frances Maria Yasas, an American Citizen of
Albanian origin, in 1958.
• Another initiative to start a postgraduate one-year diploma course in social
work was by a private registered society in 1961-62.
• Captain Prasad who had done a ‘brief service in the army’, after his
retirement from the military service, was running four nursery schools as a
commercial venture, and made a living out of the income of these nursery
schools.

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• Perhaps, it struck him that there was a more lucrative avenue- post graduate
social work course aimed at the industrial sector.
• He managed to get General K. M. Cariyappa to be the Patron of the Society,
using his military service connection, and he also managed to find a
prominent political personality –Devaraj who was Labour Minister in S.
Nijalingappa`s Cabinet during 1962-67.
• Captain Prasad was the Honorary General Secretary and the honorary
director of the institution, which he named as the “National Institute of
Social Sciences”.
• Dr. K.V. Sridharan who had a Diploma in Social Service administration
from the Tata Institute of Social Sciences, and had worked at the newly
established Madras School of Social Work for about 4 years from 1953, for
a brief period was its Acting Director.
• Sridharan got a Fulbright scholarship to do his PhD in social work at the
University of Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A., around 1957-58 and returned in
1961 with his PhD. Dr. K. V. Sridharan and offered him the position of the
Director, National Institute of Social Sciences.
• Dr. Sridharan, keen to return to the field of social work education, accepted
the offer and came to Bangalore in 1966-67.
• He tried to improve NISS by recruiting qualified social workers- one lady
graduate from Roshni Nilaya, and another young man, a graduate of the
Madras School of Social Work. He probably added one more teacher to the
staff of NISS.
• He strove to raise the visibility and stature of NISS in the field of social
work education and in the employment field.
• Many universities have laid their emphasis towards the growth of social
work education in the professional social work courses, right from the
beginning.

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• Autonomous universities like the Azim Premji University aspire to do this
through the development of talent and the creation of knowledge, which
can facilitate systemic change in education and allied development areas.
• This is an explicit commitment to the idea that knowledge and learning
have human and social consequences and that their pursuit cannot be
separated from these consequences.
• Their efforts through programmes like MA in Education/ Development
provides access to high-quality and high-impact professional courses that
actively reach out to students from disadvantaged backgrounds.

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 UNIT II
PRINCIPLES, VALUES AND ETHICS OF SOCIAL WORK
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK
Principles are statements of dos and don'ts to get best results while practicing
social work. They are the guide- posts for the professional to carry out the work
in the field. Principles are elaboration of the values in the form of understandable
statements to practice a profession. For example, the value of dignity and worth
of an individual is expressed in the principle of belief in the self -determination
of an individual or group or a community. The principles are time tested and
arrived at out of vast experience and research.
The most widely discussed generic principles of social work are as follows:
1. Principle of Acceptance
2. Principle of Individualisation
3. Principle of Communication
4. Principle of Self-determination
5. Principle of Confidentiality
6. Principle of Non-judgmental Attitude
7. Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement
1. Principle of Acceptance: The client and the social work professional
should both accept each other for getting the best results.
• The client should accept the worker because the worker is the one who is
helping the client to overcome his problem situation.
• In social work situations the client may approach the social worker directly
or the social worker may be nominated by the agency or someone might
have referred the client to the social worker.
• Unless the client feels that the social worker has the potential to understand
his predicament and is concerned about helping him out of the problem
the client may not cooperate in the relationship through which the social
work intervention is to be planned.

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 • Any doubt about the competence of the social worker by the client results
in serious complications in the helping process.
• Similarly, the worker should also accept the client as a person with a
problem who has come to him for help.
• Irrespective of the appearance and background of the client the worker
should accept the client as he is, without any reservations.
• Sometimes the personal experiences of the worker may come in the way of
accepting the client. For example, a worker who was abused by his
alcoholic father during his childhood may find it difficult to accept an
alcoholic client who has come for help in restoring his family relationships.
• In this case the social worker should not be influenced his childhood
experience of being abused by his alcoholic father whom he hated and
rejected or show hostility or indifference towards the client.
• Mutual acceptance is the beginning of the process of establishing a
strong professional relationship towards working out a solution to the
client's social dysfunctioning.
2. Principle of Individualisation: This principle reminds the social worker that
while dealing with the client it is to be kept in mind that the worker is not dealing
with an object or inferior being.
• Because the client could not find a way out of his problem, he need not be
looked down upon as a person without dignity, worth or value. This is a
general response the client gets from the community.
• And this makes the client feel that he is a human being without any worth
and develops a poor image of himself.
• The social worker, as a caring and helping professional should believe that
the client is an individual with dignity, worth and respect and has the
potential to come out of his undesirable situation with dignity and respect
given the right environment and encouragement.

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 • Further, the social worker should always consider that each client is
unique and distinct from other clients having a similar problem as each
person responds and reacts to the same stimuli differently and gets into or
get out of different problem situation in different ways.
3. Principle of Communication: In social work, the communication between
the social worker and the client is of paramount importance.
• The communication could be verbal, that is oral or written, or non-verbal
where gestures, signs or actions are used to send the message.
• Most of the problems concerning human relations arise due to faulty
communication.
• In communication, a message is sent by the sender and received by the
receiver.
• A true communication takes place when the meanings of the terms and
other symbols the sender and the receiver use and act upon are shared and
have the same meanings.
• If the message of the sender is properly or correctly understood by the
receiver then the communication is smooth.
• But if the receiver fails to interpret the message correctly (the sender wants
to convey), then there is a break or misunderstanding in the
communication process, which results in confusion and problems.
• Sometimes, the sender is unable to express the feelings or what he wants to
communicate, then also there is miscommunication.
• In addition to these there are other barriers to the smooth flow of messages,
such as distance, noise, temperament, attitudes, past experiences, mental
capacity to comprehend and so on.
• The social worker should have enough skills to grasp the verbal and
nonverbal communication of the client.

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 • Communication is stressed in social work relationship because the
backgrounds of the client and the worker may be different, the mental state
of the client and the worker may vary.
• The environment in which the communication takes place may change from
time to time giving enough scope for miscommunication.
• Therefore, the worker should make all the efforts to see that the
communication between him and the client is proper.
• The client should be made to feel comfortable and at ease to express his
thoughts, feelings and facts.
• Further. He/client should be assured that the worker understands correctly
what he wants to convey.
• For this, techniques such as clarifications and reclarifications, elaborating
what the client has said, questioning and reframing of what the client has
said, can be effectively used.
• Similarly, the worker has to make sure that the client understands correctly
what he is conveying to him. For this the worker may ask the client to
repeat what he is saying.
• In this way, miscommunication between the worker and client can be
reduced and make sure that the worker client relationship is well
established and strengthened
4. Principle of Self-determination: This principle emphasizes the client's right
to self-determination.
• Every individual has the right to assess what is good for him and decide
the ways and means to realise it.
• In other words, it points out that the social worker should not impose
decisions or solutions on the client simply because, the client has come to
him for help.

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 • No doubt, the client has come to social worker because he could not solve
the problem by himself.
• The social worker should support and guide the client to develop insights
into his social situation in the correct perspective and encourage and
involve him to take decisions that are is good and acceptable to him.
• In this way the client is helped not only to realise his potentialities but also
to feel independent and like a person with worth and dignity.
5. Principle of Confidentiality: This principle provides a strong base for
effective use of social work intervention. It helps in building a strong worker
client relationship.
• In social work it is most important to provide information to the worker.
This ranges from simple factual information to what may be very
confidential.
• A person may not be willing to share certain information about his personal
details with anyone unless the person with whom it is shared is trustworthy.
• He must have confidence that workers will not misuse it to cause
discomfort, or to ridicule or to cause damage to his reputation.
• In social work unless the client provides all the information that is necessary
for the worker, it is not possible to help the client.
• For this to happen the client should have absolute faith in the worker that
the information passed on to the worker will be kept confidential and will
be used only for assessing and working out possible solutions to the client's
problem.
• That is why the worker should assure the client that the confidential
information about the client is not divulged to others to the disadvantage of
the client.
• To follow this principle the worker faces certain dilemmas. Firstly, should
the confidential information be shared with other agency personnel who

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 are associated with the case and fellow professional social workers who too
can assist the worker in resolving the problem of the client.
• Secondly, what should he do about some information concerning the
criminal activities of the client, wherein as a responsible citizen he may be
required to pass it on to the investigation agencies whenever he is asked?
• In the case of the former the social worker may share the information in the
best interest of the client.
• But in the case of the later, it is really tough for the social worker to
withhold information as it has been received under the promise of keeping
it confidential.
• In such circumstances, the decision is to be left to the client whether to
disclose it to the social worker or not.
• And the social worker shall make it clear to the client that he cannot give
any guarantee of non-disclosure to the concerned authorities. Where legal
requirements compel ordinary citizens to make disclosure of information
received by him.
• Failure to maintain confidentiality seriously affects the worker client
relationship.
• Therefore, the worker has to show discretion while securing and sharing
information about the client with others.
• Information that is needed should only be gathered from the client.
• Prior consent of the client is to be taken before sharing the information
with even those who are concerned about the client.
6. Principle of Non-judgmental Attitude: The principle of non-judgmental
attitude presumes that the social worker should begin the professional
relationship without any bias.
• The social worker should not form opinions about the client, good or bad,
worthy or unworthy.

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 • He has to treat the client as somebody who has come to him for help and
he should be willing to help the client without being influenced by the
opinions of others about the client or his situation.
• This enables the worker to build the professional relationship on a sound
footing as both the worker and the client feel free to their understanding of
each other.
• However, it is to be noted that a non-judgmental attitude does not mean not
making professional judgments about the problem situation and the various
options being considered in order to tackle the problem.
7.Principle of Controlled Emotional Involvement: The principle of controlled
emotional involvement guards social worker from either getting too personally
involved in the client's predicament/difficulty or being too objective.
• In the case of the former the worker may over-identify with the client
because he finds a lot of similarities between the problem situation of the
client and over life situation/s or with the personality of the client.
• This may interfere with the professional relationship and judgments about
the client's problem.
• The worker may start sympathising with over indulging in the client's life
and this may interfere with the client's right to self-determination and
independence.
• In the case of the latter, by being too objective and detached the client may
feel that worker is not interested in him and his predicament.
• This may inhibit the client from coming out with all the confidential
information. The feelings of worthlessness and helplessness may be
reinforced in the client. All this may result in a premature end to the
professional relationship.
• Therefore, the social worker should maintain a reasonable emotional
distance even while sympathising with the client.

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 • He should indicate the understanding of the predicament of the client
without showing pity or appearing to be indifference
PRINCIPLES OF SOCIAL WORK AND THEIR APPLICATIONS
Social worker should practice social work - Social work is expected to focus
on social functioning and helping improve interaction between people and their
environment.
The social worker should engage in conscious use of self - The social worker
should have the ability to communicate or interact with others to facilitate change
and they reveal this through verbally, non-verbally, directly, or indirectly. The
social workers must be consciously aware of how own beliefs and perceptions
impact their professional relationships.
The social worker should maintain professional objectivity – The Clients
usually come for help after they have tried on their own or with the help with
family and friends that did not work due to conflicting advice. Professional acts
with a degree of personal distance and neutrality should be practised by the social
worker. If the social worker becomes too involved the objective can be lost.
The social worker should embrace human diversity - Social work involves
working with people from all walks of life. A failure to recognize shows itself as
an obstacle in any helping role. Respect for diversity requires sensitivity to the
differences to persons from within the same group.
The social worker should adopt people-first thinking - The words the social
worker use make a difference, and they can shape our attitudes and opinions.
Using people first language is important e.g. "She is an individual that suffers
schizophrenia.
The social worker should challenge social injustices - Fighting problems like
discrimination and oppression and watching how we treat members of society
such as the poor, the vulnerable, or an outsider. Challenging injustices is a long-
term proposition.

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The social worker should seek to enhance professional competence - Social
work is a contemporary discipline. It focuses on a here and now in an ever-
changing environment. The social worker needs to have a broad knowledge of
experiences and not immerse oneself into work restricting knowledge of broader
issues. Social worker must be current on all the latest professional information.
The social worker shall do no harm - Social work is about the facilitation of
desired change. Because it is a human process, one must anticipate that mistakes
will be made. The goal must be to minimize any harm. In no way should the social
worker actions discourage or undermine responsible client behaviours
The social worker should engage in evidence-based practice - Consciously
using the best available evidence regarding the client condition, not fall into a
pattern when busy with caseloads, using careful consideration, including similar
situations. A social worker cannot know all current materials, however is
obligated to be familiar with all materials that relates to his or her practice.
The social worker should engage in value-guided and ethical practice - The
social worker will make a conscious effort to identify and address relevant value
and ethical issues in the social work practice. Social worker must recognize that
their values are a powerful force in human behaviour, and are critical to change.
Social workers must be ready to put aside their own values and beliefs to avoid
pushing them onto a client.
The social worker should address all relevant client systems - Social work
does not focus one dimension of the person like a doctor. It focuses instead on the
whole person. Concern for the whole person requires that social workers to look
at past, present, and future. The social worker must address both the symptoms
and the causes of the symptoms.
The social worker should serve the most vulnerable members of society -
Social workers are concerned with the people that are most likely to experience
social difficulties in social functioning. This includes at risk groups such as
homeless, poor, disabled, etc.

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The social worker should treat the client with dignity - Each person or group
deserves the right to be treated with dignity and respect regardless of behaviour,
appearance, or circumstance. This means recognizing the client may make wise
or irrational decisions. Being non-judgemental and avoiding making moral
judgements.
The social worker should individualize the client - The social worker must be
conscious and sensitive of the uniqueness of client and their situation, history and
possibilities. Readiness to change and be flexible as what works with one client
may not work with another. "Start where the client is". The client’s needs may
change day to day or by the week and the social worker may need to change the
approach appropriately.
The social worker should consider clients experts on their own lives - Social
workers, sometimes may focus on theoretical knowledge and forget to consult
with their clients on the circumstances of their own lives. The social worker
should empower the client to become an expert on their own lives and offer
alternative interpretations of the situations the clients are in.
The social worker should lend vision to the client - The social worker should
bring new vision, perspectives, or ideas. Social worker must introduce a sense of
hopefulness and that change is possible. The social worker must be realistic and
honest about limits and possibilities.
The social worker should build on client strengths - Too often social workers
become preoccupied with the limitations, weaknesses, deficits of a client. Since
change in social functioning is under the client's control, it is important to help
clients recognize strengths and utilize them.
The social worker should maximize client self-determination – “Guide the
process-not the client". Those that ultimately have to live with the outcomes of
the decisions should have the freedom to make those decisions. Self-
determination assumes that the client is capable and legally competent to make

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the decision. There are times the social worker should take on the decision-
making role and it should be reluctantly.
The social worker should maximize client participation - "Help your clients
help themselves". While the social worker guides it is important that the client
participates in identifying the problem, formulating and implementing a plan. "Do
with the client, not to or for the client" Meaningful change will only occur if the
client is willing to make the changes required. Social workers should always
maximize client involvement.
The social worker should help the client learn self-directed problem-solving
skills - "Helping people help themselves now and in the future" client needs to be
prepared to maintain the change over time. "Don't do for clients what they can do
for themselves". Important to teach clients how to reach out to resources in their
environment such as family, friends, religious Institutions etc.
The social worker should maximize client empowerment - Social workers are
committed to society's most vulnerable, and regularly work with victims and
oppressed groups or individuals. All of a social workers practice activity should
have empowerment as a goal. Empowerment reflects effort to help people secure
the power needed to regain control over their life. Social worker needs to
emphasize teaching, encouraging and facilitation.
The social worker should protect client confidentiality - Clients reveal private
aspects of their lives that may be embarrassing or damaging if made public.
Confidentiality depends on where the information is given, the information that
is provided and clients can be advised early in the process as to what may be done
with their information. Social worker must be careful with files, office discussions
and any other place that client information way be kept or possibly repeated.
Social worker should adhere to the philosophy of normalization - Many
clients have evident physical and mental disabilities and are often referred to as
different. It is the social workers role to assist them is resembling so called normal

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or as close as possible. Normalization connotes helping people, especially those
with disabling conditions.
The social worker should continuously evaluate the progress of the change
process - Practice of social work is far from an exact science. Objectives must be
clear and continuous monitoring and evaluation of the process of change is
necessary. If the desired change is not occurring the current plan may need to be
redesigned.
The social worker should be accountable to clients, agency, community, and
the social work profession - The social worker must answer to a number of
parties. They are accountable to more than just the client. Social workers are
obligated to give their best service to clients at all times and must be accountable
to the client, families, and groups they directly serve. Social workers are
responsible to be accounted for by their agency and the Social work profession is
accountable to NASW Code of Ethics.
VALUES OF SOCIAL WORK
Any professional activity is guided by a set of values. The body of knowledge of
social work has certain core values, evolved over a period of professional practice,
that are common to all social work practice situations.
Values are beliefs about what is good and desirable. It is defined as a
conception of a standard, cultural or merely personal, by which things are
compared and approved or disapproved in relation to one another, held to
be relatively desirable or undesirable, more meritorious or less, more or less
correct. The profession of social work is grounded in a value system that focuses
on social justice and fairness.
Social work values focus on three general areas: values about people, values
about social work in relation to society and values that inform professional
behavior. Following are the core values of social work:

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 1. Respect individuals' worth and dignity, encourage mutual participation,
demonstrate acceptance, uphold confidentiality, express honesty and
handle conflict responsibly.
2. Encourage individuals' active participation in the helping relationship and
uphold their right to make their own decisions.
3. Assist clients in securing resources needed to enhance their social
functioning.
4. Ensure that social institutions are humane and responsive to human needs.
5. Accept and appreciate diverse populations.
6. Hold themselves accountable for ethical conduct, quality of their work and
continuous professional development.
Some of the fundamental values of social work are discussed below:
The first value is the conviction in the Inherent worth, integrity and dignity of
the individual.
• A person failing to perform or follow the social functioning prescribed to
him is considered an unworthy and undesirable element by society.
• He is denied dignity and considered as person with no integrity and treated
degradingly by the society.
• This value reminds the social worker that every client that comes (with a
problem) to him is not to be considered as a person having no value and no
virtue because he is in a disadvantageous situation.
• For a social worker the client is as worthy as any other person and the
client is in that situation because of many other factors acting upon
him/her.
• Given an opportunity to understand and analyse the social situations better,
the person may get out of the problem and may not get into a similar
problem situation again.

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 • Making a person feel worthy of himself and treating him with dignity,
encourages the person to engage seriously and overcome his problem and
lead a purposeful life.
• The conviction in the dignity, worth and the integrity of any individual,
enables the social worker to deal with any type of client with a positive
frame of mind.
The second value is belief in democratic functioning.
• Social work relies on the democratic process while dealing with the client
system.
• This implies that decisions are taken through consensus and nothing is
imposed on the client.
• The worker, the client and others, are all involved in the decision-making
process.
• While doing so, the right of the client system in choosing the solution is
given utmost importance.
The third value is the firm belief in equal opportunity for all, limited only by the
individual's capacities
• This value expresses the need for social justice.
• Social work fights against social injustices meted out to the disadvantaged
and vulnerable sections of society.
• Irrespective of caste, religion and economic status, intelligence, etc.,
everyone must have equal access to societal resources.
• At the same time, socia1 work also takes into consideration, the limitations
of the individual's capacity to access to these resources and make use of
them.
• For example, if a disabled person wants to pursue mountain climbing as a
leisure activity, he should not be disallowed because he is disabled.

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 • But at the same time, if he does not have the physical strength and capacity
to climb mountains, then he may be made to realise that mountaineering is
not suitable for him and he should choose some other activity more suitable
which is more suitable for him.
The fourth value is social worker's social responsibility towards himself, his
family, and his society.
• This value cautions the social worker not to neglect himself, his family and
the society in which he is living while discharging his professional duties.
• If he fails to perform his responsibilities towards himself and his family,
then he himself or his family may fail to perform their social functioning
and may become failures needing social work intervention.
The fifth value is to transmit knowledge and skills to others
• This value instructs the social worker to provide the information that he
has, that would enable the client to take care of himself, in case the client
faces similar problems in future.
• This is to ensure that the client does not become dependent on the social
worker throughout his life.
• Further, it also suggests that sharing of information and skills among the
co-professionals goes a long way in promoting the competence of the
professional practice.
The sixth value is separating personal feelings from professional relationships.
• This value reminds the social worker that he should not allow personal
feelings to interrupt in a professional relationship, as this may make him
over concerned or develop a biased or prejudiced view about the client and
his problem situation.
• The social worker might have undergone similar experiences and been in
similar social situations in his personal life.

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 • And there is a possibility that he might for him to relate these to the present
client and may lose the objectivity needed for social work intervention.
• Therefore, he should be watchful about any of his personal feelings are
affecting his professional relationship.
The seventh value assumes high standards of personal and professional conduct.
• It emphasizes that the conduct of the social worker should be exemplary at
both personal and professional levels.
• As a professional, he should follow the code of ethics outlined for the
social work practitioner.
• The success of any profession depends on the integrity and character of the
professionals practicing it.
• In social work practice situations, clients come with a number fears,
hesitations, doubts and distrust about everything around them.
• They have to confess a number of confidential and emotional information
and expect a lot of trust from the worker.
• Revealing the confidential information carelessly or making fun of the
clients plight/difficulty or looking down upon the client does great harm.
• Even social workers personal behaviour outside practice hours should not
only be acceptable to people but should also gain him respectability.
• The social worker is a respectable member of society and he should not
indulge in any conduct that is considered bad or disapproved by society.
• Therefore, it is essential that a social worker be a person of high integrity
and of high ethical conduct.
ETHICS OF SOCIAL WORK
Ethics also called as moral philosophy is concerned in relation to the right and
what is wrong. It can be divided into two sections - normative ethics and
metaethics. Normative ethics deals with the principles we live through.
Metaethics has a superior concern and its deals with the nature and methodology

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of moral judgments. In other words, it deals with the basis on which decisions
should be made.
• As social workers we are interested in ethics so that our relationships with
clients, our colleagues, our superiors and our subordinates are within the
framework of social work values.
• Social workers try to incorporate indigenous values into the profession so
that the profession gets better recognition and acceptance from the people.
• Scientific values and methods have also influenced the practice of social
work.
• Social work rejects those religious values that advocate that an individual
suffers due to other- worldly reasons like god‘s anger or predestination.
• It believes that every individual has the capability to solve his/ her troubles
if he/ she are provided with the necessary possessions.
• Consequently, factors that cause an individual‘s problem or a social
problem are recognized using scientific methods namely observation,
account, classification and explanation.
• Solutions based on rationality are recognized and formulated.
• The following values are the basis of social work profession - social justice,
the dignity and worth of the individual importance of human relationships;
integrity, and competence.
The professionals who deal with the human body, human psyche and human
relationships always have a code of conduct.
• Doctors have a code of conduct which they have to follow while they are
practicing.
• Doctors pledge to prescribe only beneficial treatment, just as to their
abilities and judgment; to refrain from causing harm or hurt; and to live an
exemplary personal and professional life.

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 • Lawyers have their own code, which they have to follow when they are
interacting with clients, pleading before a judge and questioning witnesses.
• These codes have evolved in excess of time throughout which these
professions appeared in society.
• As these professions appeared there were many instances of misuse of these
positions through unscrupulous individuals who harmed the professions.
• The codes were formulated so that behaviour of these professionals is
controlled and society‘s trust in them is not lost.
Social work is a problem-solving profession. Ethics help professionals to act
morally in hard situations. The need for such behaviour in social work is
significant due to the following reasons.
Social workers throughout their interaction with clients and their
important others have to sensitive information: The purpose of the client to
share information is to enable the social worker to get better insight into the
problem and then help the client to solve the problem. But if the social worker
reveals this sensitive information inadvertently or purposely to others, he/she
will be damaging the client‘s cause and furthering complicate the problem. Strict
observance of the principle of confidentiality is necessary in this situation.
Social workers are often in situations where their decisions can cause
serious damage to the client: Social workers often deal with clients who are
facing serious troubles. Their personalities are often disintegrated and they may
be vulnerable to emotional and physical abuse. Even otherwise there is a power
relation flanked by the social worker and the client. The case worker has more
knowledge and is in greater control of his/ her emotions than the client. This
power should not be used to the disadvantage of the client. In some cases, the
caseworker may unconsciously commit an error which causes damage to the
client. The chances for such errors are minimized when the social worker has
internalized the social work ethics.

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 • Almost certainly no other profession deals with these characteristics as
directly as social work.
• A policeman has to only think whether his action would reduce the crime
rate and whether he is following the due procedure of law when he is acting.
• The lawyer has to only think whether his/her client‘s interests will be served
through his/her actions.
• A priest has to only worry whether his actions will help fulfill the
individual‘s religious needs.
• But the social worker‘s decisions should express concern for human dignity
and human self.
Social workers are often in positions where they can allocate possessions: In
mainly cases, allocating possessions to one party means not allocating it to others
who are also is needy. This is true of a country like India where scarcity exists
approximately everywhere. In an adoption center a social worker may be asked
whether a trustworthy couple can be allowed to adopt a child. The social
worker's opinion will have a bearing on the lives of at least three individuals.
Social workers have to preserve professional autonomy: In a democratic
country the government is the ultimate power and it plays a significant role in
regulating other institutions. But sometimes this regulation becomes an
interruption into the internal affairs of the professions which is not desirable. If
the professionals themselves regulate their affairs, government action becomes
unnecessary and their professional autonomy can be preserved.
CODE OF ETHICS (NASW) OF SOCIAL WORK
We have seen the importance of ethical behaviour in social work. Those
countries, in which social work has been fully accepted as a profession through
the society, have a code of ethics.
• A code is a systematic collection of regulations and rules of procedure or
conduct.

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 • Code of ethics in social work can therefore be defined as a set of rules and
regulations that should govern the conduct of the social worker in his/her
relationships with his/ her clients, fellow professionals, colleagues, the
agency and society in general.
The NASW Code of Ethics is a set of standards that guide the professional
conduct of social workers.
▪ The first Section, "Preamble," summarizes the social work profession's
mission and core values.
▪ The second section, "Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics," provides
an overview of the Code's main functions and a brief guide for dealing
with ethical issues or dilemmas in social work practice.
▪ The third section, "Ethical Principles," presents broad ethical principles,
based on social work's core values, that inform social work practice.
▪ The final section, "Ethical Standards," includes specific ethical standards
to guide social workers' conduct and to provide a basis for adjudication.
Preamble
The primary mission of the social work profession is to enhance human well-
being and help meet the basic human needs of all people, with particular
attention to the needs and empowerment of people who are vulnerable,
oppressed, and living in poverty. A historic and defining feature of social work
is the profession’s dual focus on individual well-being in a social context and
the well-being of society. Fundamental to social work is attention to the
environmental forces that create, contribute to, and address problems in living.
The mission of the social work profession is rooted in a set of core values. These
core values, embraced by social workers throughout the profession’s history, are
the foundation of social work’s unique purpose and perspective:

▪ service
▪ social justice

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 ▪ dignity and worth of the person
▪ importance of human relationships
▪ integrity
▪ competence.
This group of core values reflects what is unique to the social work profession.
Core values, and the principles that flow from them, must be balanced within the
context and complexity of the human experience.
Purpose of NASW Code of Ethics
Professional ethics are at the core of social work. The profession has an obligation
to articulate its basic values, ethical principles, and ethical standards. The NASW
Code of Ethics sets forth these values, principles, and standards to guide social
workers’ conduct. The Code is relevant to all social workers and social work
students, regardless of their professional functions, the settings in which they
work, or the populations they serve.

The NASW Code of Ethics serves six purposes:

1. The Code identifies core values on which social work’s mission is based.

2. The Code summarizes broad ethical principles that reflect the profession’s core
values and establishes a set of specific ethical standards that should be used to
guide social work practice.

3. The Code is designed to help social workers identify relevant considerations

when professional obligations conflict or ethical uncertainties arise.

4. The Code provides ethical standards to which the general public can hold the
social work profession accountable.

5. The Code socializes practitioners new to the field to social work’s mission,
values, ethical principles, and ethical standards, and encourages all social workers
to engage in self-care, ongoing education, and other activities to ensure their
commitment to those same core features of the profession.

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6. The Code articulates standards that the social work profession itself can use to
assess whether social workers have engaged in unethical conduct.

Ethical Principles
The following broad ethical principles are based on social work’s core values of
service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human
relationships, integrity, and competence. These principles set forth ideals to which
all social workers should aspire.

Value: Service
Ethical Principle: Social workers’ primary goal is to help people in need and to
address social problems
Social workers elevate service to others above self-interest. Social workers draw
on their knowledge, values, and skills to help people in need and to address social
problems. Social workers are encouraged to volunteer some portion of their
professional skills with no expectation of significant financial return (pro bono
service).

Value: Social Justice

Ethical Principle: Social workers challenge social injustice
Social workers pursue social change, particularly with and on behalf of vulnerable
and oppressed individuals and groups of people. Social workers’ social change
efforts are focused primarily on issues of poverty, unemployment, discrimination,
and other forms of social injustice. These activities seek to promote sensitivity to
and knowledge about oppression and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers
strive to ensure access to needed information, services, and resources; equality of
opportunity; and meaningful participation in decision making for all people.

Value: Dignity and Worth of the Person

Ethical Principle: Social workers respect the inherent dignity and worth of the
person.

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Social workers treat each person in a caring and respectful fashion, mindful of
individual differences and cultural and ethnic diversity. Social workers promote
clients’ socially responsible self-determination. Social workers seek to enhance
clients’ capacity and opportunity to change and to address their own needs. Social
workers are cognizant of their dual responsibility to clients and to the broader
society. They seek to resolve conflicts between clients’ interests and the broader
society’s interests in a socially responsible manner consistent with the values,
ethical principles, and ethical standards of the profession.

Value: Importance of Human Relationships

Ethical Principle: Social workers recognize the central importance of human
relationships.
Social workers understand that relationships between and among people are an
important vehicle for change. Social workers engage people as partners in the
helping process. Social workers seek to strengthen relationships among people in
a purposeful effort to promote, restore, maintain, and enhance the well-being of
individuals, families, social groups, organizations, and communities.

Value: Integrity
Ethical Principle: Social workers behave in a trustworthy manner.
Social workers are continually aware of the profession’s mission, values, ethical
principles, and ethical standards and practice in a manner consistent with them.
Social workers should take measures to care for themselves professionally and
personally. Social workers act honestly and responsibly and promote ethical
practices on the part of the organizations with which they are affiliated.

Value: Competence
Ethical Principle: Social workers practice within their areas of competence and
develop and enhance their professional expertise.

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Social workers continually strive to increase their professional knowledge and
skills and to apply them in practice. Social workers should aspire to contribute to
the knowledge base of the profession.

Ethical Standards

The following ethical standards are relevant to the professional activities of all
social workers. These standards concern

(1) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to clients,

(2) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to colleagues,

(3) social workers’ ethical responsibilities in practice settings,

(4) social workers’ ethical responsibilities as professionals,

(5) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the social work profession, and

(6) social workers’ ethical responsibilities to the broader society

Professional v/s Voluntary Approaches to Social Work

Professional social work is a 20th-century invention. It is the most recent addition
to the social sciences. Although its roots can be traced back to the pre-
independence era, when people began to take voluntary responsibility for
their fellowmen and members of their community through activities such as
'charity,' Seva, Philanthropy, poor relief, and social reform.
Gandhiji frequently emphasized the importance of constructive social
work done with a volunteer spirit. Gandhian social workers, like professional
social workers, saw social work as a full-time job or a career. Through a variety
of Gandhian institutions in which they were employed, they operated
outside the framework of government programmes. They mostly worked
in rural and tribal areas. Through planned programmes based on
Gandhian ideas of developing a 'Sarvodyoya Samaj' through constructive
social work, they were involved in a wide range of development fields

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such as agriculture, village industries, rural health, and education. It could
however, be professional or voluntary social work, all of which, in all
circumstances, go hand in hand. They are all concerned with the well-being and
prosperity of humanity as a whole. They are interconnected and reliant on one
another.
Professional Social Work
Social work, like other professions such as medicine, law, and engineering, is a
profession. In the practice of social work, social workers are trained in dealing
with human relationships and have the necessary outlook to assist
individuals in achieving personal and social satisfaction. It has its own set of
values, principles, philosophies, training, process, and ethical code, among other
things. It includes specialised knowledge for interacting with people. In this way,
social work tries to assist individuals, groups, and communities in finding
appropriate and long-term solutions to their underlying problems.
In general, social work has the following objectives under its belt:
1. To solve psycho-social problems
2. To fulfil human needs
3. To solve adjustment problem problems
4. To create self-sufficiency
5. To create and strengthen harmonious relation between individuals,
individual and group, between groups, and individual and his social environment.
6. To make provisions for correctional and recreation services.
7. To develop democratic values
8. To provide opportunities for growth and development.
9. To conscientize the community
10. To change the environment in favour of the individual growth and
development
11. To Bring about change in the system for social development
12. To provide socio-legal aid

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In the task of getting all the above objectives fulfilled the social work profession
generally undertakes the following functions.
i. Curative Function:
Medical and health services, psychiatric services, child guidance, child
welfare services, and services for the handicapped or disabled in the
form of protection and rehabilitation are all provided under this function.
These services are aimed at curing individuals' physical, social, material,
and psychological illnesses.
ii. Correctional Function:
This function of social work has three broad areas, such as:
1. Individual reform service which includes prison reform, probation,
parole and other related services.
2. Services for improving social relationship which includes family welfare
services, school social work, industrial social work etc.
3. Services for social reform that includes employment services, prevention of
commercial sex work, beggary prohibition services and removal of untouchability
etc.
iii. Preventive Function:
It includes services such as life insurance, public assistance, social legislation,
adult education, and disease prevention, among others. This type of function
primarily deals with services relating to the prevention of issues such as
insecurity, illegality, ignorance, and illness, among others
iv. Developmental Function:
The tasks of socio-economic development activities such as education,
recreational services, urban and rural development programmes, and integration
programmes, among others, which are primarily concerned with the
development of individuals, families, groups, and communities, are included in
the developmental function.

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To summaries, social work as a profession has demonstrated that it possesses
all of the necessary characteristics of a profession. It encompasses a
unique body of knowledge, a structured training programme, specialised
skills techniques, professional organisation, a code of ethics, social recognition,
and specialised functions and objectives. In India, social work is still in the
process of professionalization, with the goal of attaining the status of a full-
fledged profession.
Voluntary Social Work
The word 'volunteer' comes from the Latin word 'Volunas,' which is
thought to mean a variety of impulses, desires, or instincts to do something
for the betterment of others, for the betterment of society, without expecting
anything in return. As a result, voluntary social work can be defined as
voluntary activities that provide physical, material, or non-material assistance
to any individual, group, or community in order to solve the problem at hand.
Voluntary social work is driven by an inner instinct or impulse to
help those who are in need. Construction or repair of public roads, digging
wells for drinking water for the people, building community halls, teaching
destitute children and adults are all examples of voluntary activities.
Activities in voluntary social work are carried out without remuneration.
As is commonly assumed, there is no need for training, and problem
solving through a systematic process is not a part of voluntary social work.
"Voluntary action is that which is not directed or controlled by the state,"
Lord Beveridge said when discussing voluntary action. He refers to it
as a for-profit social enterprise. As a result, it is a private action for the
greater good. It is carried out by an individual or a group of individuals
(association) who are guided by their own instincts or desires rather than
any external control.
Social workers are also referred to as philanthropists and members
of any agency's board of directors (Samaj Sevaks). There are people of outgoing

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disposition in every rural village and urban neighbourhood who come forward
to help during times of crisis such as illness, death, accidents, or important
occasions such as birth, marriage, and so on. They may also provide free advice
and assistance in the area of abstinence.
There have been complaints about ration card registration, as well as the
makers of a registration for providing a bus stop and a milk booth in the area.
Facilitators with relevant contacts and experience drafting petitions are
available. People's workers later identify such individuals. It's not surprising
that many of those elected to various levels of representative bodies declare
themselves to be social workers on the local level. People don't see much of a
difference between social workers and politicians. As a result, the general
public refers to all of these individuals as volunteer social workers
In our society, there are a variety of volunteer organisations. A voluntary
organisation, properly defined, is one that is initiated and governed by its own
members without external control, regardless of whether its workers are paid
or unpaid. However, voluntary action's independence does not imply a
lack of collaboration with government action. The voluntary organisation,
on the other hand, implies that the organisation has its own will and method of
operation. A voluntary action, according to the National Council of Social
Service, is defined as the activities of a self-governing body of people who have
voluntarily joined together to undertake activities for the betterment of
the community.
Voluntary social work cannot be overstated in terms of its importance
to the healthy functioning of society. It serves as a training ground for the
community's future leaders and contributes to the ongoing expansion of the
concept of fellow feeling and social justice. It also aids society's members
in developing a sense of responsibility for their fellow citizens who are suffering
from various issues.

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 UNIT–III
SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION IN INDIA
PROFESSION
‘Professional‘ is someone who derives their income from their specific
knowledge or experience. A “Professional” has a broader meaning, typically
around some moral or ethical foundation within the practice of a specific and
usually established expertise.
A Professional is a member of a Profession. Professionals are governed by
codes of ethics and profess commitment to competence, integrity and morality,
altruism and the promotion of the public good within their expert domain.
Professionals are accountable to those they serve and to society
A Profession is a disciplined group of individuals who adhere to ethical
standards and who hold themselves out as, and are accepted by the public as
possessing special knowledge and skills in a widely recognised body of learning
derived from research, education and training at a high level, and who are
prepared to apply this knowledge and exercise these skills in the interest of others.
‘Professionalism’ is defined as the personally held beliefs of a Professional
about their own conduct as a member of a Profession. It is often linked to the
upholding of the principles, laws, ethics and conventions of a Profession in the
form of a code of practice.
Professional Standards
Professional standards are a set of practices, ethics, and behaviors that members
of a particular professional group must adhere to. These sets of standards are
frequently agreed to by a governing body that represents the interests of the group.
Examples of professional standards include:
• Accountability – takes responsibility for their actions
• Confidentiality – keeps all sensitive information private and away from
those who shouldn’t have access to it
• Honesty – always being truthful

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 • Integrity – having strong moral principles
• Law-abiding – follows all governing laws in the jurisdictions they perform
activities
• Loyalty – remain committed to their profession
• Objectivity – not swayed or influenced by biases
• Transparency – revealing all relevant information and not concealing
anything
CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROFESSION
Great responsibility
Professionals deal in matters of vital importance to their clients and are therefore
entrusted with grave responsibilities and obligations. Given these inherent
obligations, professional work typically involves circumstances where
carelessness, inadequate skill, or breach of ethics would be significantly
damaging to the client and/or his fortunes.
Accountability
Professionals hold themselves ultimately accountable for the quality of their work
with the client. The profession may or may not have mechanisms in place to
reinforce and ensure adherence to this principle among its members. If not, the
individual professional will (e.g., guarantees and/or contractual provisions).
Based on specialized, theoretical knowledge
Professionals render specialized services based on theory, knowledge, and skills
that are most often peculiar to their profession and generally beyond the
understanding and/or capability of those outside of the profession. Sometimes,
this specialization will extend to access to the tools and technologies used in the
profession.
Institutional preparation
Professions typically require a significant period of hands-on, practical
experience in the protected company of senior members before aspirants are
recognized as professionals. After this provisional period, ongoing education

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toward professional development is compulsory. A profession may or may not
require formal credentials and/or other standards for admission.
Autonomy
Professionals have control over and, correspondingly, ultimate responsibility for
their own work. Professionals tend to define the terms, processes, and conditions
of work to be performed for clients (either directly or as preconditions for their
ongoing agency employment).
Clients rather than customers
Members of a profession exercise discrimination in choosing clients rather than
simply accepting any interested party as a customer (as merchants do).
Direct working relationships
Professionals habitually work directly with their clients rather than through
intermediaries or proxies.
Ethical constraints
Due to the other characteristics on this list, there is a clear requirement for ethical
constraints in the professions. Professionals are bound to a code of conduct or
ethics specific to the distinct profession (and sometimes the individual).
Professionals also aspire toward a general body of core values, which are centered
upon an uncompromising and unconflicted regard for the client's benefit and best
interests.
Merit-based
In a profession, members achieve employment and success based on merit and
corresponding voluntary relationships rather than on corrupted ideals such as
social principle, mandated support, or extortion. Therefore, a professional is one
who must attract clients and profits due to the merits of his work. In the absence
of this characteristic, issues of responsibility, accountability, and ethical
constraints become irrelevant, negating any otherwise-professional
characteristics.

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Morality
The responsibilities inherent to the practice of a profession are impossible to
rationally maintain without a moral foundation that flows from a recognition of
the singular right of the individual to his own life, along with all of its inherent
and potential sovereign value.
Important distinctions between Professionals and Non-Professionals
• A professional makes deliberate choices where others have choices made
for them or they simply react to what comes their way.
• A professional is afforded the luxury of making deliberate choices because
he has made deliberate preparations.
• A professional can make deliberate preparations because his understanding
of and familiarity with the relevant (professional) landscape informs him
on how to prepare. Also, like the chess master, he is trained to understand
the inevitable results of hundreds of different patterns; he has disciplined
himself to observe the whole board and not just the most immediate
features or the area with the most tension in the game.
• A professional is seldom caught off-balance. The discipline for deliberate
preparation and the understanding that comes with it allow that even when
something unexpected or unfamiliar is introduced, a professional can
quickly understand its basis and easily extrapolate the appropriate tactic,
strategy, or process for ethically and successfully resolving issues.
In this capacity, and most fundamentally, a professional habitually makes the
right choices because all of his choices are based on the integrity provided by his
moral and ethical foundation. Any choice of expedience over integrity can quite
easily be recognized by anyone as the wrong choice. Here, the professional simply
acknowledges what is obvious, makes the right choice, and acts deliberately.
The Attributes of a Profession
There are five attributes that are generally associated with all recognized
professions, whether they be accounting, engineering, law, medicine and so forth.

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 1. A Unique Body of Knowledge
2. Standards of Entry
3. A Code of Ethics
4. A Service Orientation to the Profession, and
5. A Sanctioning Organization
1. A Unique Body of Knowledge
This first attribute implies the existence of principles and concepts that are unique
to the profession and are codified and documented so that they can be studied and
learned through formal education. In most professions, the body of knowledge is
taught in graduate or professional schools; for example, the specialized body of
knowledge for the legal profession is taught in law schools. A degree does not
necessarily qualify an individual to practice in the profession, but it does provide
a means of assuring that the individual has at least been exposed to the basic
principles on which the profession is based. Every profession has at least one
degree that can be earned by those wishing a knowledge of the profession's
principles. Many professions have several different degrees, allowing for
specialized fields within the profession.
2. Standards of Entry
Defined minimum standards for entry into the profession imply progression in a
career; entry standards define the place from which a career path begins. All
professions must have an accepted route open to the public by which a person can
become a recognized member of the profession. Law, engineering, accounting,
medicine, teaching, all have entry standards. These standards typically involve
formal education leading to an academic degree; several years of experience, as
in an apprenticeship program or as a beginner in the profession; test score
requirements, which may or may not be legally enforceable; or some combination
of the three.

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3. Code of Ethics
Ethical standards, or a code of ethics, are common to most professions. Their
purpose is to make explicit what is considered to be appropriate behavior and to
provide a basis for self-policing unethical behavior, thus avoiding or limiting the
necessity for legal controls on the profession.
4. Service Orientation to the Profession
The Service orientation actually reflects an attitude of the members of the
profession, an attitude by which members are committed to bettering the
profession itself. Professionals will commit their time, money, and energy to
attending conventions, publishing their ideas and experiences, and generally
contributing to the body of knowledge and the administration of the profession.
A professional's commitment to the profession is frequently stronger than to the
employer. In many cases professionals will leave their employing organization
rather than violate the profession's standards of ethics or practice.
5. A Sanctioning Organization
The authenticating body or sanctioning organization has many purposes. It sets
standards and acts as a self-policing agency. It promotes publications and the
exchange of ideas, encourages research, develops and administers certification
programs, and sponsors and accredits education programs. Through public
information and recognition of professionals, such organizations provide a voice
for their profession. In a word, the purpose of the authenticating body is to
administer the profession.
Professionalization of Social Work in Indian Scenario
In India, the beginnings in professional education was made with the introduction
of specialised training in social work by the Sir Dorabji Tata Graduate School of
Social Work in June, 1936, later called the Tata Institute of Social Sciences. The
purpose of starting the school of social work in India was:
• to offer professional education in social work; and

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• to make a continuous study of idealism and nationalistic feelings of the student
generation for the service of the country.
There are four approaches of social work in India in the order in which they made
their appearance: the religious traditional approach, the liberal reformist
approach, the secular missionary approach, the ethical revolutionary approach
and the professional social work approach.
Social work education in India is based on the American model in its
approach and curriculum contents. Social work essentially emerged in the western
countries from their culture, traditions and values. The approach was more
individual oriented, ameliorative and suited to an urban, metropolitan culture
rather than a vast, rural and poor country like India. The model of social welfare
conceived by the Indian national leaders of that time like Gandhi and Nehru was
developmental, with prevention as the essential characteristic feature. Gandhi's
goal of social development was Sarvodaya, the welfare of the entire population.
Nehru envisaged a planned change in society through technology and science and
the upliftment of the rural poor through land reforms and community
development programmes.
Although the concept of professional knowledge of social work is of
universal nature, the practice of social work needs to be adapted to the
requirements of the country concerned. In India the emphasis is on field work
rather than on methods as was done earlier in the USA. The syllabus of the two-
year degree or diploma course included generic and specialised courses. The trend
towards specialisation started at the first school of social work, the Tata Institute
of Social Sciences, a decade after it was established in 1936. Many of the other
schools followed this model. Government policies and programmes and the
influence of American social work education seem to be the two main factors that
led to the development of the specialisations.

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The specialisations at the Tata Institute of Social Sciences developed across
fields, methods and functions. Labour welfare; medical and psychiatric social
work; and criminology and correctional administration developed in social work
fields which are settings. Family and child welfare indicates a target group that is
all encompassing and not confined to a setting. These specialisations were built
more or less around case work as the method of social work. Specialisations
across methods or functions such as group work and community organisations,
social work research and social welfare administration were started later and have
already been terminated. Tribal welfare and rural welfare developed as
specialisations because all the other specialisations were urban based.
The specialisations offered at schools of social work in India lack the
developmental emphasis which is needed. Though this is relevant in a vast
developing country like India, remedial work cannot be done away with either.
Developmental social work is imperative to cater to the underprivileged,
marginalised groups who form the majority of our population. Hence, this aspect
can be emphasised as a specialisation in all schools of social work. Clinical social
work for remedial work may also be offered where qualified staff and relevant
job opportunities are available.
There have been strong criticisms about the suitability of the American
model of social work education in developing countries. It is argued that the
content and level of training offered in schools of social work is not suited to
conditions prevailing in India. At present, there are about 60 institutions of social
work education in India. The social workers trained at the postgraduate level may
be expected to be employed at the higher supervisory and administrative
positions. Social work training programmes are not geared towards actual social
work practice by social work professionals in their work milieu. This also gives
the impression that these schools presupposed the existence of an organised
network of social welfare agencies who would seek and afford the services of

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such trained, qualified personnel. The possibility of getting jobs at this level could
be only in the government and industry.
The 1978 report of the University Grants Commission Review Committee
stated that there must be more social workers at the graduate and undergraduate
levels as the need for frontline workers is great, without which it is not possible
to touch the mainstream of national development. The lack of clarification of the
role of social workers in various settings and uneven conditions of work which
persist can often be a problem.
Social work with a knowledge-based derived from Indian experience and
material has a long way to go. According to Prasad (1987) the main reasons are
the lack of research activity in professional schools, absence of involvement of
the teaching faculty in social work practice, irrelevant role situations of the
'practitioners' in the field, and so on.
The First Indian Conference of Social Work was founded in 1947, which played
an important role in the growth and development of social work in India but the
objectives of the Conference were very broad based and included any helping
activity and any worker from the helping professions. During the years 1961-67
two important events took place in the history of Indian social work education.
These are:
• the formation of the Association of Schools of Social Work in 1960 and
• emergence of a national organisation of professional social workers renamed as
the Indian Association of Trained Social Workers.
These Associations have not been successful in influencing new schools of social
work to follow certain basic minimum standards for developing a suitable
curriculum. For the growth of social work, there is a need for standardisation of
the curriculum at an all-India basis.
The Indian Association of Trained Social Workers is now non-functional.
It was not adequately represented by trained social workers and it was not
effective in developing programmes which would bring social workers on a single

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platform to take up basic issues related to social work. Both the Associations have
not been able to contribute effectively towards the development of proper social
policy and the efficient functioning of social welfare services.
Establishment of a 'Code of Ethics' is the next characteristic feature of a
profession, but in India a code of ethics has not been formulated. For any
occupation to attain the status of a profession, there must be the sanction of the
community as a requirement for practice. Social work in India hardly fulfils this
criterion, for even people with no degree in formal training in social work are
allowed to take up jobs that would require a trained social worker. In India social
work is still identified with charity and voluntary service to the poor and needy.
Even a doctor, lawyer or a nurse working voluntarily (without fees) is called a
social worker and political workers and activists are referred to as social workers.
In fact, 'voluntariness' is equated with social work. The very terms 'social work'
and 'social worker' evoke images of occupations which require little erudition or
scholarly learning. Coming to the next characteristic of development of a
professional culture, practitioners here too follow certain norms and values
characteristic of the profession. For example, it is a norm among trained social
workers to respect the client's right to privacy by maintaining confidentiality.
Social workers also adhere to the values of equality, recognising the worth
and dignity of every individual, and so on. A majority of the social work
institutions are urban based. Thus, the visibility of trained social workers in India
is not as high as compared with the well-established professions. Degree of
autonomy for individual practice is almost nil, for there are very few social
workers who take up private practice. They are usually employed in agencies as
employees and often do not have a say in the matters of administration and
management.
Taking an overview of social work as a profession in India, one can at best
conclude that social work is less professionalised here than in the United States.

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However, professionalisation as an end in itself, which may increase the distance
between professionals and the masses, may not necessarily be our goal.

SOCIAL WORK PROFESSION: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES

1. Public Recognition of Professional Social Work(er)
Lack of public recognition of social work as a profession is another critical
shortcoming that has a lot to do with its future prospects in India. The notion of
professional social work in people’s mind is in contradiction to an idealized
image of conventional social service workers who possess the sterling qualities
of heart rather than of mind. The idea of a paid professional social worker is still
an anathema/disgrace to most people in India who even now cling to the notion
that doing social work is quintessentially/typical a voluntary activity of a selfless
kind. Under Indian conditions ‘service’ and ‘sacrifice’, this is selfless and
without any remuneration, is looked upon as higher. A paid social worker,
however good, efficient and capable, is more likely to be looked down upon by
the people whom he/she serves as a professional. With no self-sacrifice to his/her
credit, many persons would not regard the professional social worker as a social
worker at all. They would regard him/her as an ‘officer’, a ‘para-professional’
or a ‘mercenary’/ a person who cares only about money and would be willing to
behave unethically to get it.
2. Low Prevailing Level
The prevailing level of Indian social services and welfare services is extremely
low and that most of the voluntary welfare agencies lack the necessary resources
to meet some of the basic human needs of common people. Even the Central
Social Welfare Board which assists financially more than 12,000 voluntary
social welfare agencies has failed to promote the cause of professional social
work. Actually, the Board which employs a large number of specialists has not
given proper representation to professional social workers. It is true that formal
education for social work has taken root and about thirty institutions offering

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graduate courses at present, besides many others which are imparting training in
related fields both at the graduate and undergraduate levels. It is also true that a
number of organizations do exist which continue to promote the cause of
professional social work. But there is no denying the fact that both Indian social
work education and its professional organizations have been propagating a
system of social work which derives its inspiration mainly from American social
work philosophy with its ideas, techniques, structure and goals.
3. Lack of Indigenous Materials or Literature:
The major shortcoming of social work education in India is its inability to
sufficiently indigenize its knowledge-base. The basic teaching material with
respect to interventionist methods (the holy trinity of social case work, social
group work and community organisation) is still primarily American. The
challenge, as mentioned before, has not been met and there is often a lingering
doubt in the mind of many social work educators and trained social workers
whether social work in India can afford to be only concerned with specific
individuals, groups and communities when the problems are really the problems
of large masses of people.
Many of the problems that are identified as problems of the socially
oppressed and economically deprived sections cannot be called adjustmental
problems (to use the American phraseology). The social and cultural context of
these problems is well beyond the reach of moral-ethical and /or psycho-social
paradigm of intervention. Since social work literature, modes of practice,
approaches, theories, have been heavily borrowed from western countries, so we
need to develop the indigenous approaches too. This requires that the
academicians and practitioners must document their experiences so as to
facilitate the process of developing indigenous approaches.
4. Missing of Fundamental Feature:
The professionals alone have not yet acquired any dominant place to shape and
formulate social policies or to administer social welfare organizations. Again,

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the professional group itself has not developed any social code which the
profession also should accept and practice as the fundamental feature of their
profession. In view of the dominance of foreign influence on the existing
professional social work in India and its lack of integration with the cultural
mores of Indian society, there is as yet no agreement on a professional code of
ethics for the practice of social work.
The profession has failed to develop consciousness of kind and has not
created a common platform to express its point of view on broad issues and
problems confronting the society. Moreover, the educational institutions offer
very few courses on social administration, social planning and social action, and
most of the existing courses do not develop intellectual interest and creativity to
promote research orientation. In 1975, one of the leading social work educators
wrote that social work had remained almost static for more than 25 years. After
a decade this still hold true.
5. Strengthening of Professional Associations
The absence of effective functioning of professional association of social work
practitioners and educators is the most pronounced handicap in professional
development in the country. Unless these are revived and made effective, the
future of the profession of social work is likely to remain bleak/gloomy. The
history of two national level of Association viz. Indian Association of Trained
Social Work (IATSW) and ASWI is a checkered one.
In addition to these associations, Regional Associations of trained
professional social workers are situated in different states. However only a few
of these Regional Associations are active. In fact, among these national levels
associations of the profession, the National Association of Professional Social
Worker in India (NAPSWI-2005), Indian Society of Professional Social workers
(ISPSW-1970) are doing tremendous work for the professional advancement
and for the Continuous Professional Development (CPD) of the educators,
practitioners as well as learners of social work across the nation by organizing

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national level seminars and conferences. The Association of Schools of Social
Work in India (ASSWI-1959) did lot of work for the profession after its
inception for several years, unfortunately now it is not in that much active
position.
6. National Council for Social Work
We need to have national level council to maintain the uniform standards of
education and give accreditation to institutions as well to practitioners. Efforts
have been made to form National Council in the lines of Medical Council of
India through discussions between eminent social work educators and
practitioners at various forum. Unless a uniform system of accreditation on all
India bases is developed and enforced, the development of social work education
and programmes on sound lines is likely to proceed very slowly for a long time.
In 1965, one committee recommended the establishment of a national social
work council, and then another committee in 1978 supported this
recommendation. But no action seems to have been taken in this behalf so far.
The second event related to the emergence of a national organization of
professional social workers in 1961. Earlier there existed an informal
organization of social workers since 1951. This organization, however, had not
been effective in attracting a large number of social workers as members.
7. Inbreeding in Several Institutions
Inbreeding that is appointing their own students within the Departments due to
political and other pressures. This is resulting in lack of innovation and very
stereotyped disinterested practices in teaching, field work practicum as well as
research. By absorbing outside candidates only best practices can be adopted.
8. Meager Salaries to Social Work Teachers
Low salary and job stagnation, high turn-over, easy burnouts are some of the
crucial issues that would be resolved if we are able to bring standardization in
the social work teaching, and practice and at the same time portray a desirable
and advantageous image of social work profession in the country. Paying

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Meager Salaries to Social Work Teachers lead to poor quality of teaching,
practicum and research and best practices cannot be adopted.
9. Social Work Educators are not Practitioners
When the educators, practitioners and students are talking about social work as
a profession like medicine, law, and engineering etc. the professors of medical
college or university practice their profession by visiting wards of hospital along
with the medical students, professors of engineering college involve in practice
and professors of law college also practice their profession and update their
knowledge levels, enhance their competencies to deal with the issues. In social
work, the holistic view on teaching, practice and research is missing very much,
majority Social Work Educators are found to be comfortable in conventional
classroom teaching and rarely found in practice and research domains.
10. No activity for Continuous Professional Development (CPD)
According to UGC there are 250 schools/departments of social work in India.
Most of them not doing anything for the Continuous Professional Development
(CPD) in the form of conducting Workshops, organizing Seminars, doing
research studies, conducting survey, begging field action projects from funding
organizations, taking students for study tours to out of the state. Through field
action projects/field work labs at the departments/schools lead to the growth
opportunity to the staff, learning opportunity to researchers and students.
11. Non-Professionals
The conducted seminar by Association of Schools of Social Work in India
(ASSWI) disapproved of the practice of appointing persons who are not trained
in social work as members of boards of examiners and board of studies in social
work and selection committees for appointing social work teachers by the
universities (Nair: 1981). In the same way only social work professionals can
teach, guide and train the students of social work like medicine students can only
be trained by medical professors, law students only can be capacitated by the
law graduates likewise same will be applicable for social work profession, but

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unfortunately, In some universities and colleges other discipline teachers such
as anthropology, psychology, sociology, geography teach the social work
students.
12. No Uniform Syllabus and Lake of Standards in Education and Training
We need to standardize the quality of education and training that are provided
by numerous schools of social work across the country. These social work
educational institutions differ from each other in terms of curricula, generic
course vs. specialization offered, activities, focus, duration, training inputs of
fieldwork components and so on. There should be minimum standard of
education and fieldwork training inputs provided to students in these institutions
(Thomas: 2010). Across the nation no university is fallowing homogeneous
syllabus, guidelines and other standards. Several schools/Departments are not
giving any importance for practicum; simply the students are being awarded
with the degrees. Undoubtedly standard of education in social work in not that
much good.
13. Lack of Awareness on ODL
In spite of over thirty years of the existence of Open and Distance Learning
(ODL) system in the country and over 40 years of the existence of social work
education through ODL in several advanced countries, the social work fraternity
in India are yet to recognize the need, relevance, scope and feasibility of ODL
for social work education in India. The principal tenet in distance education is
social inclusion, justice and equity. In educational management these principles
play a crucial role in making available the fruits of development across the
different sections of people aiming at fundamental social work principles of
social justice and equity. Distance Education (DE) and Correspondence
Education (CE) are not same. D E is based on multimedia approach.
In India there is a Distance Education Council which has a mandate to
certify the standards and quality of Distance Education Programmes in various
disciplines. All the programmes of IGNOU, the largest Open University in the

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world has the approval of University Grants Commission (UGC), Distance
Education Council (DEC) and the Association of Indian Universities (AIU). In
fact, National Association of Social Work (NASW), International Federation of
Social Work (IFSW) and several councils of social workers in many countries
have approved and recognized Distance Education Programmes for several
decades now.
14. Developing Field (Service) Action Projects
The University Grants Commission (UGC) clearly mentioned in its major of
areas of concern for the development of social work education and training in
India that is development of field and field service project to provide learning
opportunity to the students, growth opportunity to the staff and service
opportunity to the people. But the process of developing projects and executing
is missing a lot

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 UNIT–IV
APPROACHES, IDEOLOGIES, AND FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
Human Rights - Introduction
Human rights are those rights that belong to all people; humanity is their only
prerequisite. Human rights are unlike the rights that citizens possess due to birth
or naturalization in any particular country: human rights are universal and
internationally guaranteed; they focus on the inherent dignity and worth of all
human beings, and they can neither be given nor taken away; also—and
critically—they impose obligations on states (and other large actors, like
corporations) to respect, protect, and fulfill them. In the modern world, they also
represent a body of law, a bureaucracy, and a field of practice.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), unanimously
adopted by the U.N. member states in 198. The UDHR asserts the existence of
inalienable human rights that all humans possess and places new limits on the
ways in which leaders can treat their citizens, challenging the “natural right of
each sovereign to be monstrous to his or her citizens”.
The rights & freedoms enumerated by the UDHR
Article 1 Right to freedom, equality & dignity
Article 2 Right to non-discrimination
Article 3 Right to life, liberty & security of person
Article 4 Freedom from slavery
Article 5 Freedom from torture & cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment
Article 6 Right to recognition as a person before the law
Article 7 Right to equal protection of the law
Article 8 Right to effective legal remedy before a competent tribunal
Article 9 Freedom from arbitrary arrest, detention or exile
Article 10 Right to fair public hearing
Article 11 Right to be presumed innocent until proven guilty

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Article 12 Freedom from arbitrary interference with privacy, family, home or
correspondence
Article 13 Right to freedom of movement
Article 14 Right to asylum
Article 15 Right to nationality
Article 16 Right to marriage, family & divorce; freedom from forced marriage
Article 17 Right to own property
Article 18 Freedom of thought, conscience & religion
Article 19 Freedom of opinion & expression; right to access media
Article 20 Right to peaceful assembly & association
Article 21 Right to participate in government; right to vote
Article 22 Right to social security; right to indispensable economic, social &
cultural rights
Article 23 Right to work & fair pay; right to join trade unions
Article 24 Right to rest & leisure; right to paid holidays
Article 25 Right to an adequate standard of living, including food, clothing,
housing & medical care & necessary social services
Article 26 Right to education
Article 27 Right to cultural life; right to share in scientific advancements
Article 28 Right to a social order in which rights & freedoms can be realized
Article 29 There are duties to the community which accompany rights &
freedoms
Article 30 Freedom from state (or other) interference with rights & freedoms
Human rights are the natural rights of human beings. The Vienna
Declaration (1993) states that all human rights begin with human dignity, and
humans are the central subject of human rights and basic freedoms. In other
words, humans themselves are the objects of human rights and are at the core of
this basic freedom. To develop a human rights basis for social work requires that

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the concept of human rights and the problems and criticisms associated with it
be carefully examined.
• Human rights refer to rights of individuals which are deemed necessary by
virtue of their being the members of human community.
• It is in bracketing these rights for effective practice that human rights took
the form of a bunch of rights that spread to all-political, economic and
social areas.
• In 1987 United Nations defined human rights as those rights which are
inherent in our nature and without which we cannot live as human beings.
• Human rights and fundamental freedoms allow us to fully develop and use
our human qualities, our intelligence, our talents and our conscience and to
satisfy our spiritual and other needs.
Human rights have priority over other claims of rights and need to be
differentiated from other rights. For example, the right to food needs to be
differentiated from the right to bear arms. Questions can be raised as to which
and what kinds of rights are or claimed to be human rights.
Jim Ife (2001) has proposed five-fold criteria to define what constitute a human
right or to make a claim on the basis of human rights:
1. Realisation of the claimed right is necessary for a person or group to be
able to achieve their full humanity, in common with others.
2. The claimed right is seen either as applying to all of humanity, and is
something that the person or group claiming the right wishes to apply to
all people anywhere, or as applying to people from specific disadvantaged
or marginalised groups for whom realisation of that right is essential to
their achieving their full human potential.
3. There is substantial universal consensus on the legitimacy of the claimed
right; it cannot be called a ‘human right’ unless there is widespread
support for it across cultural and other divides.

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 4. It is possible for the claimed right to be effectively realised for all
legitimate claimants. This excludes rights to things that are in limited
supply, for example the right to housing with a panoramic view, the right
to own a TV channel, or the right to ‘own’ large tracts of land.
5. The claimed right does not contradict other human rights. This would
disallow as human rights the ‘right’ to bear arms, the ‘right’ to hold other
people in slavery, a man ‘right’ to beat his wife and children, the ‘right’
to excessive profits resulting in poverty for other, and so on.
SOCIAL WORK AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Social workers have focused on valuing social justice and social change in
micro-level relationships and attempted to work with clients in ways that are
ameliorative and respectful of their diversity and differences. These concerns
have provided the backdrop for the development of a human rights-based social
work.
National Association of Social Workers (2000) in its policy statement
International Policy on Human Rights endorses the Universal Declaration,
conventions and treatises that according to National Association of Social
Workers, provide a human rights template for social work.
• Human rights framework provides a prism through which to view the social
work profession’s values, ethics, and principles which are necessarily
expected from social workers in their practice settings.
• Section 4 of the International Federation of Social Workers and
International Association of Schools of Social Work document provides
two principles fundamental to social work viz., Human Rights and Dignity
(section 4.1), and Social Justice (section 4.2).
• These illustrate how social work professionals are mandated to uphold and
promote human rights perspective:

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Human Rights and Human Dignity
Social work is based on respect for the inherent worth and dignity of all people,
and the rights that follow from this. Social workers should uphold and defend
each person’s physical, psychological, emotional and spiritual integrity and
wellbeing.
1) Respecting the rights to self-determination: Social workers should
respect and promote people’s right to make their own choices and
decisions, irrespective of their values and life choices, provided this does
not threaten the rights and legitimate interests of others.
2) Promoting the right to participation: Social workers should promote
the full involvement and participation of people using their services in
ways that enable them to be empowered in all aspects of decisions and
actions affecting their lives.
3) Treating each person as a whole: Social workers should be concerned
with the whole person, within the family, community and societal and
natural environments, and should seek to recognize all aspects of a
person’s life.
4) Identifying and developing strengths: Social workers should focus on
the strengths of all individuals, groups and communities and thus
promote their empowerment.

Social JusticeSocial workers have a responsibility to promote social justice, in

relation to society generally, and in relation to the people with whom they
work. This means:

1. Challenging negative discrimination: Social workers have a

responsibility to challenge negative discrimination on the basis of
characteristics such as ability, age, culture, gender or sex, marital status,
socio-economic status, political opinions, skin colour, racial or other
physical characteristics, sexual orientation, or spiritual beliefs.

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 2. Recognising diversity : Social worker should recognise and respect the
ethnic and cultural diversity of societies in which they practice, taking
account of individual, family, group and community differences.
3. Distributing resources equitably : Social workers should ensure that
resources at their disposal are distributed fairly, according to need.
4. Challenging unjust policies and practices : Social workers have a duty
to bring to the attention of their employers, policy makers, politicians and
the general public situations where resources are inadequate or where
distribution of resources, policies and practices are oppressive, unfair or
harmful.
5. Working in solidarity : Social workers have an obligation to challenge
social conditions that contribute to social exclusion, stigmatisation or
subjugation, and to work towards an inclusive society.
When beginning to study human rights, a social worker needs to understand the
basic concepts relating to those rights.
• Human rights are commonly referred as: universal, indivisible, inalienable,
inabrogable and intergenerational.
• The concept of universality underpins human rights and implies that human
rights apply to all human beings and every individual has a claim to
enjoyment of human rights, irrespective of his other attributes.
• The concept of indivisibility means that human rights come as a package.
It refers to necessity that governments and individuals recognize each
human right and not to selectively promote some rights over others.
• One cannot pick and choose, accepting some and rejecting others as the
denial of one human right can easily impact the enjoyment of other rights
and directly or indirectly deny other human rights.
• Inalienable nature of human rights provide that they cannot be taken away
from someone and remain all through human life span.

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 • Human rights are also inabrogable which means that one cannot voluntarily
give up one’s human rights or trade them for additional privileges.
• Human rights are not to be idly dispensed with. We may choose not to
exercise all our rights all the time, but we still have those rights.
• The concept of intergenerational rights reflects the most recent and
important changes that have taken place in human rights discourse in
extending our understanding of human rights obligations beyond present.
• This temporal extension of human rights is a relatively new understanding
of human rights and their corresponding obligations because we used to
think spatially about human rights — the obligations of communities or
nations to each other — but not temporally, where there are human rights
obligations that extend back into the past and forward into the future, but
which affect our present behaviour.
• It forces us to think historically, to locate our actions in their historical
context, and to understand that the definition and realisation of human
rights are not static but have an important historical dimension
SOCIAL ACTION
The term ‘social action’ refers to the structured and lawfully acceptable
activities, which are planned to address public opinion, legislation and public
management in favour of the major social welfare objectives. Social action is
defined as “a systematic, conscious effort directed to influence the basic social
condition and policies out of which arise the problems of social adjustment and
maladjustment to which service as social workers is addressed.”
This method of social work is an organized group effort to solve mass social
problems and is applied in an organized social welfare activity; directed towards
shaping, modifying and maintaining the social institutions and policies that
collectively constitute the better adjustment of the social environment. Social
action may also be defined as ‘a public promotion of a cause, measure or
objective in an effort to obtain support or official action’. Generally, social

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action involves organized efforts to influence public opinion or official policy
or executive action through mobilization of the support of groups or individuals.
1. First phase- socio religious reform movement 1800-1857
2. Second phase- emergence of a national movement 1857-1920
3.third phase- a mass based political movement 1920-1950
4.Forth phase – from 1950 to emergency period 1977 5. Fifth phase – anti
corruption movement by anna Hazare – 2011
Social action as an Approach
This approach presupposes the existence of an aggrieved or disadvantaged
segment of the population that needs to be organized in order to make demands
on the larger community for increased resources or equal treatment. This
approach aims at making fundamental changes in the community, including the
redistribution of power and resources and gaining access to decision making for
marginal groups. Practitioners in the social action domain aim to empower and
benefit the poor and the oppressed. The style is primarily one in which social
justice is a dominant ideal.
Causes of Social Action
1. Helping cause
2. Protest cause
3. Revolutionary
Although social action has been used in other fields as well, such as the field of
social reform and of political movements for transfer of power. A social
movement arises when there emerges an issue or a set of issues that affect a
significant proportion of people in some way or the other. Gradually, these issues
start gaining importance and result in mass participation of people and in
collective action.
Reform Movements: The Civil Rights Movement, Women’s Liberation
Movement, Save the Environment Movement, the Arya Samaj Movement,

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Brahmo Samaj Movement, etc. are some of the noteworthy reform movements
in India.
Revolutionary Movements: The revolutionary movements are based on the
belief that the entire social system has gone dysfunctional . For example, The
Protestant Reformation Movement, the Socialist Movement, the Communist
Revolution of Russia and also of China, the Indian National Freedom
Movement.
Reactionary or Revivalist Movement: known as reactionary or regressive
movements. The Catholic Counter Reformation, The Brahmo Samaj, Arya
Samaj, The Sarvodaya Movement, “Khadi and Gramodyog Movement of
Gandhiji, and the like are some of the movements of this kind.
Resistance Movements: like Anti-Abortion Movement, Anti-Hindi Movement,
Anti-Reservation Movement, the ‘Swadeshi Movement against the movement
towards Economic Liberalisation
Utopian Movements: These are attempts to take the society or at least a section
of it towards a state of perfection. “Rama Rajya” as envisioned by the B.J.P. and
the “Sangh Parivar” (The community of the supporters of the R.S.S. School of
Thought), the Communists’ and Socialists pronouncement of a movement
towards the classless, casteless society free from all kinds of exploitation.
SOCIAL MOVEMENTS
Social movements are any broad social alliances of people who are connected
through their shared interests in blocking or affecting ( moving) social change.
Social movements do not have to be formally organized. Multiple alliances may
work separately for common causes and still be considered as a social
movement.
Social movements are conscious, concerted and sustained efforts by
ordinary people to change some aspects of their society by using extra-
institutional means. They last longer than a single protest or riot. There is more
to them than formal organizations, although such organizations usually play a

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part. They are composed mainly of ordinary people as opposed to army officers,
politicians or economic elites. They need not be explicitly political, but many
are. Social movements are one of the principal social forms through which
collectivity give voice to their grievance, concerns about rights, welfare, well-
being of themselves and others by engaging in various types of collective action,
such as protesting in the streets, riots.
Social movements can be viewed as collective enterprises to establish a new
order of life. They have their inception in the condition of unrest, and derive
their motive power on one hand from dissatisfaction with the current form of
life, and on the other hand, from wishes and hopes for a new scheme or system
of living.
Ideology of Action Groups and Social Movements
Ideology very simply denotes a set of related beliefs held by a group of people.
It helps in understanding a situation. Further it legitimises actions pursued by
the people. Therefore, just as a leader is important for guiding a movement, an
ideology is also important as it makes people understand and justify the
implications of their actions. One can rarely conceive of a social movement
without an ideology.
Ideology therefore indicates the goals, means and forms of practical activities of
social groups and of individuals. It supplies the justification for various social,
political and moral ideals.
Apart from helping to distinguish one movement from another, ideology helps
to sustain a movement. It distinguishes a social movement from mere instances.
People can be mobilised when they feel that they are being deprived
ideology is an important component of a social movement. It conceives a
movement, sustains it and offers solutions

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Contemporary ideologies of Social Work and Social Change
If the global historical background of social work is analyzed, we can understand
the following ideologies of social work.
Social Work as Charity: Religion encouraged individual to help their
neighbours who were in need of help. The people who were in need of help were
given alms. Those who are helped them, given alms out of charity. Thus, western
countries started their social work practice with charity mode. As religion
encouraged them to help their fellow-human beings who were poor, they started
giving alms in cash and kind. Soon they realised that could not give enough to
the increasing poor and a way-out was required to overcome the problem. At
that time the state (Government of UK) intervened by enacting legislation and
initiating state responsibility to take care of the poor.
Welfare Social Work Approach: The state started providing its share of
service in giving alms, and by passing the Elizabethan poor Law (1601) in LK
to deal with the poor. The Act divided the poor into three categories, the able-
bodied poor, the impotent poor and the dependent children. The first category
was forced to work in the workhouses, whereas the other two categories were
given alms in alm houses. The Act, as well as subsequently passed enactments
were unable to solve the problem of poverty. The government realised that an
individualized approach was needed to understand the problem. The problem
may be one, but different individuals have different causes for the same problem.
They realised that the individual cause has to be investigated for its solution.
Hence charity organisations were started to do that work.
Clinical Social Work Approach: In 1935, the Social Security Act was passed'
recognising the need for helping the poor. The Act was meant to handle the
problem that were a consequence of industrialization. The state took over some
of the financial problems of the people. A large number of volunteers were taken.
As volunteers are trained people who can do case work practice, they also
supervise untrained people. Most people realised that money alone could not

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solve problems and they turned to counselling roles. Counselling has drawn its
base from psychological sciences particularly from Psychoanalytical theory.
Clinical social work is a specialised form of direct social work intervention
with individuals, groups and families, which mostly take place in the worker's
office. In this approach with the disciplined use of self, the worker facilitates
interaction between the individual and his or her social environment
Ecological Social Work Approach: In ecological social work approach
problems are seen as deficits in the environment and not as personal deficits of
the individual. Social work tradition emphasised social treatment and social
reform which become the basis for ecological approach. Professional social
workers and their employing agencies consider themselves as change agents
aiming at systemic change. Identifying the problem, identifying the clients and
target system (which is causing the problem) finding out the decision making on
the goals of change in collaboration with clients and identification of "action
system" with which change agent can achieve goals for change are the steps in
ecological approach.
Radical Social Work Approach: Social workers are not satisfied only with care
of the disabled and the deviants. In 1970, due to influence of Marxism, they
advocate oppression as the cause for many problems. They broadened their
professional responsibilities to include reform and development in order to bring
about an equitable social order.
Some radicals in the profession have gone beyond social reform and
development. The social workers aim is changing the system by bringing basic
changes in the social institutions and relationships instead of dealing with
adjustment problems and seeing individual as victims of an unjust social order.
This is called radical social work and for various reasons it has also failed to deal
with the problems.
Progressive Social Work: Progressive social workers may identify themselves
with radicals, activists etc., They are unhappy about the injustice in the society.

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The progressive social workers strive to alter the oppressive element in the
society. They help them heal their wounds and educate them to make proper
choices so as to build their future.
Feminist Social Work: Liberal feminism is the school of thought that
emphasises equality of sexes and demands legal reforms and equal opportunities
for suffrage, education and employment to both men and women. Liberal
feminists do not analyse the roots of gender oppression in the society.
Marxist feminists view women's oppression as the outcome of capitalist
mode of production. Where there is division between domestic work and wage
work, only by the latter is productive.
FIELDS OF SOCIAL WORK
Social workers apply the methods while working with diverse types of clients
with diverse demands. Professional Social worker makes use of scientific
knowledge, skills and techniques to help the clients. Social work is considered to
be a science as well as an art. Social workers are performing their roles in a
variety of fields. Some of the fields are hospitals, psychiatric clinics, community,
school, industry, correctional fields like jail and children's home, observation
home and so on.
Social workers are known by different names as per the areas in which they
function like Medical social worker, Psychiatric social worker, School Social
worker, Industrial social worker and so on. Let us discuss the various roles played
by social workers in different fields.
COMMUNITY
The term ‘community’, as Raymond Williams (1976) suggests, has been in the
English language since the 14th century, when it meant a community of relations
or feelings. The word ‘community’ is commonly used in social sciences,
particularly in sociology, while it is an area of practice for the Social Work
Profession.

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 Two well-known sociologists (MacIver and Page) have identified four
major features of the concept – any area of common life; somehow distinguished
from other areas; having typical characteristics; and the boundary should have
meant.
1. The concept of community has territorial or geographical
implications - To refer to any group of people as a ‘community’ would
mean that they reside in a common territory or occupy the same
geographic space. The most common example, which comes to the mind,
is of a village. Residence in a common area is the defining element.
2. There are common socio-economic characteristics - Mere residence
would not be sufficient. There must be some common socioeconomic
characteristics. For instance, a village is considered to be a good example
not only because of a common residence, but also because they speak the
same language, share common cultural traits, must be using the same
well, school and going to the same religious shrine. The primary items in
food consumption, such as eating of rice or wheat must be common to all
the members. A majority of the villagers are linked to the agricultural
system. The festivals and marriage festivities will have common
elements, irrespective of caste and economic differences.
3. There is an element of we-feeling and cohesiveness - The first two
features lead to the third feature. Common residence and sharing a
common socio-economic pattern of life induces a feeling of cohesiveness.
People begin to identify with each other and a sense of we-feeling
develops. This we feeling is of being an insider vis-a-vis non-community
members, who are viewed as outsiders.
The definition of community is linked to its construct. It is useful to look at it
from a historical perspective as well as from the geographical and ideological
backgrounds in which it evolved.

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 Maciver and Page state that “a community is wherever the members of any
group, small or large, live together in such a way that they share, not this or that
particular interest, but the basic condition of common life, we call such a group
a community”.
Robert Bellah defines community as “a group of people who are socially
interdependent, who participate together in discussion and decision making, and
who share certain practices that both define the community and are nurtured by
it.”
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT
Community Development is a process designed to create conditions of economic
and social progress for the whole community with its active participation and
fullest possible reliance upon the community's initiative. The concept of
community development is determined by the needs and demands of the
community and brings about self-reliance. These needs and demands are
dynamic and keep changing over a period of time.
Frank and Smith (1999) has defined community development as “The
planned evolution of all aspects of community well-being (economic, social,
environmental, and cultural) process, whereby community members come
together to take collective action and generate solution to common problems”.
The community development programme was started in India just after
independence (1952). It was a multi project programme with the aim of an
overall development of rural people. This programme consisted of agriculture,
animal husbandry, irrigation, cooperation, public health, education, social
education, communication, village industries etc.
Community Development Programme promotes self-confidence and
develops self-reliance in the community. It is people-oriented; community
thinking and collective action are encouraged through people’s institutions like
the Panchayaths, cooperative societies, etc.

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Objectives of Community Development
Let us discuss the major objectives of community development.
• To motivate the people to achieve better standard of living.
• To address the felt needs of the people.
• To develop responsible and responsive local leadership.
• To increase food and agricultural production, both quantitatively and
qualitatively.
• To solve the problem of unemployment.
• To promote primary education, and public health.
• To set up and encourage cottage industries and indigenous handicrafts.
• To bring about an attitudinal change and encourage people’s participation.
• To promote self-help and mutual aid.
The community development programmes in India can be broadly divided into:
i. Employment and Income Generation Programmes/Poverty Alleviation
Programmes
ii. Housing Programmes
iii. Drinking Water Programmes
iv. Infrastructure Development Programmes
v. Social Assistance Programmes
TYPES OF COMMUNITY
The Indian society comprises of individuals belonging to different castes,
creeds, races, ethnicities, religious groups and socio-economic backgrounds.
Individuals practice their own traditions, cultures and norms. The distribution of
the Indian society is on the basis of urban, rural and tribal areas. India is a
country where people have come to obtain numerous characteristics, based on
region, language, religion and so forth. There are many aspects within the Indian
society that create a linkage between individuals belonging to diverse
backgrounds.

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 When understanding Indian society, one is required to obtain knowledge
about urban, rural and tribal societies. The division of the Indian society is
broadly on the basis of urban, rural and tribal societies taking into account their
socio-economic characteristics and geographical locations
Rural community
Rural societies are the societies that are residing in rural areas, where agriculture
is stated to be the primary occupation. In rural areas too there have been certain
progressions and developments. There has been development of schools,
medical and health care centres and measures have been implemented for
leading to the advancement and progress of the rural communities, as in India
over 70% of the population reside in rural areas.
Characteristics of Rural Society
The characteristics of the rural society have been stated as follows:
In rural areas, agriculture is stated to be the primary occupation of the
individuals. It is not only considered to be the source of income but also way of
life of the individuals. They consider their work in the agricultural and farming
sector as a primary source of their living. In the present existence, there have
been usage of technology and innovative methods in the agricultural and
farming practices. With the development of agriculture, individuals began to
lead a well settled life and stability began to develop within the human
communities. The rural communities depict a transformation that has come
about within the individuals from practicing a nomadic mode of life to the one
which is established and stable.
The communities within rural areas are small in size, they live in small
geographical areas with lesser population as compared to the urban areas.
Large number of villages in India are small, with the population of only about
five hundred each. The small population of the villages has enabled the
individuals to interact with each other on a face to face and on individual-to-
individual basis, they have a primary group behaviour. The individuals residing

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in rural areas are not much aware of modern and innovative techniques and
methods in the implementation of tasks and operations. They lead a simple life
and in the present existence too, make use of traditional methods to carry out the
household tasks.
The social structure of the individuals in rural areas is based on
kinship and family relationships. The individuals are much concerned about
their family and in most cases desire for the male children. They possess this
viewpoint that males are considered to be the assets and will contribute in bringing
wealth and reputation to the family. The individuals believe in obtaining
education and appropriate employment opportunities for the male children. On
the other hand, they believe in getting their girls married at an early age, they are
discouraged from acquiring education and are provided knowledge about the
implementation of the household chores.

The people in rural areas mostly live in joint families. Joint families are
the families, where two or more nuclear families reside under the common roof.
These families have the common place where they prepare their meals, they have
joint property, in the organization of various ceremonies and functions, participate
jointly and have close kinship ties. The families provide assistance and support to
each other in case of any difficulties and problems. This concept in rural areas,
provides information about the strengthening of the social bonds and bring
stability to the society in numerous ways. Individuals within rural communities
generate awareness amongst themselves regarding how to adequately socialize
with the other individuals.

The culture of the rural communities is known as folk culture. This

culture comprises of traditions, norms, values which are mostly in an unwritten
form and these are learned and transmitted in an oral manner. The rural
communities are homogeneous in nature. They have a common socio-economic
background and there are not any differences in the ideology towards life. People

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have faith in the religions and due to which, they practice child marriages. People
normally lead a simple life and adopt traditional methods and practices in carrying
out of their daily life activities, such as, for the preparation of meals fire-wood is
made use of.

The rural communities are based on the caste system. The caste system
is ranked in accordance to the hierarchy. The Brahmins are at the top, they
comprise of the priests and the teachers. At the second position are the Kshatriyas,
they are the rulers and the warriors, at the third position are the Vaishyas, they are
the merchants and traders and at the lowest rank are the Shudras, they are the
cleaners and the sweepers. Brahmins are regarded to be the purest, because they
perform the occupations of teaching and rituals. Shudras are regarded to be
impure as they perform the occupations of cleaning.

Individuals in rural areas are not aware of modern technology, due to

this they are not aware of bringing about innovative techniques and methods in
the implementation of day-to-day activities of life. In the agricultural sector too,
they in some cases, make use of traditional methods of cultivation. The use of the
animal power in the agricultural sector has made this occupation more productive.
The rural communities make use of the old methods of cultivation and in
providing solutions to the problems that they experience in their daily routine.
They are required to work hard throughout the day as it is a labour-intensive
occupation.

In rural areas, individuals are largely dependent upon the natural

resources, for instance, when they are located near the water bodies. They fetch
water from them for daily use. The rural individuals need to be aware that they
should not pollute the water bodies by throwing any kinds of waste materials into
them. The individuals mostly keep livestock and they are dependent upon their
livestock to generate a source of income. It is vital for the individuals to be aware
of how to take care of their livestock in an appropriate manner. Individuals in

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rural areas get engaged in the production of various kinds of handicrafts and these
serve to be their source of income. Agriculture and farming practices, production
of handicrafts, keeping livestock etc. are some of the sources that lead to the
generation of their income.
Urban community
Urban society is formed with the establishment of industries, offices,
educational institutions, training centres and the services sector. In the urban
areas, individuals are mostly engaged in non-agricultural occupations and they
adopt a western way of life. Individuals learn and acquire awareness of advanced
and modern innovative techniques and methods. Provision of health and medical
care is also available on a comprehensive scale and individuals belonging to
rural and tribal communities migrate to urban areas in search for better living
standards.
Characteristics of Urban Society
The characteristics of the urban society have been stated as follows;
The urban areas comprise of the cities and the towns and they have the
higher density of population as compared to other areas. Since urban areas
are considered to be developed regarding education, medical and health care,
employment opportunities and so forth, therefore, individuals migrate from rural
areas to the urban. People belonging to rural and tribal communities, who are
residing in the conditions of poverty and backwardness possess this viewpoint
that they will be able to enhance their living conditions by migrating to urban
areas. The primary feature of urban areas is characterized by higher population
density and vast human features in comparison to the areas surrounding it. Urban
areas are created and developed by the process of urbanization.
In urban areas, cultural heterogeneity is commonly found. This is due
to the fact that individuals migrate to urban areas on a large scale. The main
aspects that lead to migration of the individuals are education, employment
opportunities and health care and medical facilities. Urban areas are considered

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to be places which satisfies the following criteria, a minimum population of 5000,
at least 75% of the male working population are engaged in non-agricultural
pursuits and a density of population of at least 400 individuals per sq. km.
In the urban areas, more social mobility is found amongst the
individuals. Individuals get easily adapted to the class structure, which can be
upper, middle or lower class on the basis of the economic criteria. The
development of urbanization has contributed in the enhancement of skills and
capabilities of the individuals, training of the managers and the administrators,
distribution of technology and other innovative techniques and methods.
In urban areas, the role of telecommunications has played an
imperative role in the growth and advancement of the economy. There is a
broad potential for leading to an increase in the telecommunication services
within the country. Advanced communication services such as, fax, data
transmission and leased circuits are becoming increasingly common. In urban
areas, the usage of technology in the implementation of all kinds of transactions
and operations have largely led to progression of the individuals. In offices,
individuals make use of technology to prepare reports, documents and create
communication links with the other individuals.
In urban areas, individuals normally remain occupied with their own
lives. They normally adopt an urban way of life. Individuals who are working and
are engaged in full time jobs, normally leave their homes in the mornings and
come back in the evenings. Full time employment opportunities are six days in a
week and individuals are required to work eight to ten hours each day. Formal
interaction, impersonal behavioural traits, non-kinship relationships, are some of
the attributes that the individuals possess. Establishment of shopping malls, parks,
playgrounds, clubs and so forth are some of the features that have occupied
individuals living in urban areas.
In urban areas, individuals mostly reside in nuclear families and
family disintegration is considered to be an important feature. In the present

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existence, there are number of individuals who are migrating to foreign countries.
In the local urban areas, too, individuals may live separately from their parents.
The family system within the urban areas is characterized as unstable. Individuals
normally move out of their homes to other regions with the main purposes of
education or employment opportunities. Moving away from the family is not
considered to be negative when one has the objective of looking for a better living
opportunity.
Tribal community
The tribal communities are found all over the country. Tribals live in isolation
and they have their own cultures, traditions, religions, norms, values and
lifestyles. They have their own languages and in most cases are dependent upon
the natural resources to sustain their living conditions. In the present world, they
are considered to be backward communities and are in most cases unaware of
modern, advanced and innovative techniques and methods and adopt a simple
lifestyle.
Characteristics of Tribal Society
The characteristics of the tribal society have been stated as follows:
Tribal people generally live in forests and hilly areas. They usually have a
geographically well demarcated territory. They earn their living by being
dependent upon the natural resources on a large scale. They live by hunting and
gathering of fruits, tubers and edible roots. The only traces left by the tribal people
of the Palaeolithic Age are the stones that they made use of on the surface of many
parts of the Deccan. These individuals are dependent upon the forests on a large
scale for meeting their needs and requirements. The tribal people do not possess
much belongings, their belongings consists primarily of tools, instruments and
some clothing.
Amongst the tribal communities, there is no existence of financial
economy. They usually practice the barter system. Economically they are self-
sufficient and are able to sustain their needs. Their economy is based on the

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subsistence level, where there is no surplus. They make use of primitive technical
methods and do not possess awareness regarding the usage of modern technology
and innovative methods. The barter system is when goods are exchanged for
goods, for instance, when they give one product, they obtain the other one.
Through this system, the tribal communities are able to sustain their living by
trading commodities for commodities.
Tribal communities have their own language and not any kind of
script. The communication amongst the tribal communities takes place on the
basis of their own language. The tribal people enjoy a strong sense of freedom
and personal independence. They are free to migrate and transfer from one place
to another. They are not bound by any rules and regulations and have their own
customs, traditions and cultures. The differences between them are characterised
by material and intellectual development. They may differ from each other on the
basis of cultures, norms, values and practices.
The tribal communities have their own political system. There are two
kinds of political systems that are found within the tribal communities. These are
both stateless and state. In the earlier period, there was prevalence of the stateless
system, it is when there is not any tribal chief. In the stateless system, the law and
order within the community was managed through family and kinship ties. The
head of the family was responsible and authority was bestowed upon him. Later
on, came the state system, when the tribals nominated and elected their own
chiefs. In the present existence, this autonomy is not available and they have
become part of the local administration.
The tribal communities have their own religion. Religious beliefs are
considered to be imperative amongst them and they worship their own deities.
Their forms of religions are known as animism, which means worshipping of the
souls or the ancestors, animatism, which worshipping of any non-living object,
such as a stone or wood, totemism, which means worshipping of the tree or any
animal, as they possess the belief that their ancestor has assumed the form of a

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tree, and naturism, in this, they worship objects of nature, such as, river, stream,
sun, moon, forest, lake, water bodies, natural resources and so forth. These
individuals possess this belief that worshipping of the natural resources will make
their living productive.
The basic unit of the tribal communities is the nuclear family. The
families consist of husband, wife and their children. For carrying out day to day
operations of the households and other concerns, husband and wife are equal
partners with equal rights. This equality of status means, that family may live with
either the husband’s or the wife’s tribal group. The men usually consult women
in case of making of any kinds of decisions, they usually involve women to
express their ideas and give suggestions. The tribal individuals possess a strong
sense of belonging to their family and community, they possess this viewpoint
that they are the sons of the soil and possess a strong ethnic identity.
The tribal individuals are dependent upon the forests and the natural
resources to meet their nutrition and health care requirements. In case of
illnesses and diseases, they usually obtain medicinal roots and plants from the
forests and provide cure to their illnesses and health problems. Proper medical
and health care facilities are lacking amongst the tribal communities. Their
abilities to get involved in indigenous medicine and magical practices have been
productive in the past. But in the present existence, the prevention and cure of
illnesses and diseases require specialized medical treatment and consultation with
professionals. The tribal communities are gradually possessing awareness
regarding advanced and innovative medical and health care facilities.
There has been prevalence of agriculture amongst the tribal
communities. The kind of agriculture that is prevalent amongst them is known as
primitive agriculture. It is known mainly as shifting or slash and burn cultivation.
In the present existence, these individuals are leaving these types of agricultural
practices. The tribal communities of south India, depended to a great extent upon
slash and burn cultivation. The cultivation of products such as, various types of

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millets, maize, pulses and vegetables were common amongst them. The dwellings
of the tribal communities consisted of thatched huts during rains and cold weather
and in hot weather conditions, they live in camps in the open, under overhanging
rocks or in temporary leaf shelters.
Role of Social Worker in Community Development
Social work is a vibrant profession; longitude and latitude of the profession are
largely widened. Direct roles of social worker begin with the practicing primary
methods of social work. Primary methods are the participatory method with the
individual, group and community. Secondary methods are both participatory and
non-participatory to be used for the benefit of society at large. Therefore, role of
social worker is widened for the betterment of individual, group and community.
Social workers may play all of these roles in different contexts and at
different times in their career; the roles are as follows:
Caseworker: who looks after the issues of individual, it is to help every
problematic person in a holistic way. Case work is about to addresses the personal
issues of every individual, who seek help from case worker and solve them in a
professional manner.
Group Worker: he looks after the treatment and fulfilling the psychosocial needs
of the problematic groups of the community. Constitutes Teams, Committees, and
invite delegates to fulfill the tasks of psychosocial needs of group members. He
tries to develop leadership quality; increase awareness levels of group members
on varies issues, and educate them for sustainable development. Community
Organizer: major role of social worker in community development begins with
the organising community on varies social issues. Initially it is all about bring out
the match between societal needs or objectives and resources available to deal
with those needs. Doing so, it extends and develops cooperative and collaborative
attitudes and practices in the community . Further community organizer must
concentrate on developing skills on interesting profession of the members and

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create the political awareness among them, thereby community members will be
more strengthen and they leads in to individual and community development.
Need Analyzer: in order to fulfill the societal needs, scientific need analysis must
be undertaken, by which needs to be priorities. Therefore, social workers analyses
the needs of the community with the help of community members and priorities
them. Various client groups, NGO s govt officials of the community take active
part in the process of need analysis and ideas of member to be incorporate with
the proposals of needs of the community.
Project manager: Project or Programme sanctioned for community benefit is
always headed by the professional social workers. Social worker have vital role
in the need analysis, implement and manage the project, as they trained in
preparing and administrate projects and they know every pulse of the individual,
group and community. Active participation with the various groups of the
communities they can contribute extremely well for community development.
Facilitator: Social worker facilitate with the various benefits provided by the
govt, NGOs, international agencies like WHO, UNICEF, WTO, UNO, etc to the
poor, socially excluded, disadvantaged or disempowered individuals and groups
and marginalized sections of the society.
Middle manager: who help the community members to take the services from
government; especially he is middle manager in arranging social security
programmes, general insurances and health insurances provided to various
beneficiary of the society. He is the true middle manager between employer and
employee in collective bargaining and in to get sanction with the various benefits
from employer in the view of labor welfare.
Counselor: every individual of the society having unique character in nature,
therefor individualizing the people and fulfilling their needs is the biggest task
before social workers. Meaningful and scientific interaction between social
worker and every individual of the society is expected in the preview of
counseling, which is the only solution to address the issues of community

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members also individuals whose behavior is problematic. Such effort helps to
improve tolerance among all and it leads to community development.
Researcher: social worker takes the scientific investigation of the social and
individual issues. Every community (Tribal, Rural, Urban) have its own issues
which are the major obstacles of the development, scientific as well as emotional
investigation by the social worker may help every, individual groups community
and forecasted community development may possible.
CORRECTIONAL SETTINGS
According to the CASW Code of Ethics (1991 Preamble), "social workers are
dedicated to the welfare and self-realization of human beings... and to the
achievement of social justice for all."
The term “corrections” refers to the system response to individuals
(women, men, and young persons of both sexes) who have come into conflict with
the law and have been convicted of a crime. The correctional system is one
component of the larger criminal justice system and is dedicated to improving
public safety by helping offenders to become law-abiding citizens, while
exercising secure and humane control. Most of the social workers believe that
community safety can be best achieved in a system that places emphasis on
individual accountability and answerability through personal development and
intensification, as well as equal emphasis on accountability of the system. Social
workers within corrections have to continually balance the needs and interests of
the individual in conflict with the law.
Correctional Setting and Social Work
A Correctional setting (or Criminal justice social workers or prison social workers
which are synonymous) as they are sometimes called are social workers whose
clients are, have been or may soon be imprisoned or incarceration. Social workers
in correctional or criminal justice settings have two basic ethical and professional
obligations:

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(1) to ameliorate the mental health needs of their clients, to return individuals to
the community who will be productive, and
(2) to serve the interests of public safety. In America’s criminal justice system, a
clear need to provide rehabilitative services and change policy to better help
inmates.
Prisons are a challenging place to work and social workers have had to fight
in order to win a measure of influence in this complicated environment. Social
workers can play a key role in reducing recidivism.
Correctional or Criminal justice social work includes:
1. Providing mental health and substance abuse counseling;
2. Finding alternatives to incarceration, such as rehabilitation programs for low-
level offenders;
3. Helping formerly incarcerated individuals negotiate successful re-entry into
society;
4. Working with clients to change patterns of criminal behavior;
5. Advocating for clients within the criminal justice system;
6. Advocating for policies that address both clients’ interests and need for public
safety;
7. Work in the areas of Parole Programme and Juvenile Courts
8. Working with communities to eliminate the root causes of criminality.
Social Work seeks to enhance the social functioning of individuals, singly
and in groups, by activities focused upon their social relationships, which
constitute the interaction between man and his environment.
The activities can be grouped into three functions: restoration of impaired
capacity, provision of individual and social resources and prevention of social
dysfunction.” Hence, social work is a discipline, which takes preventive and
remedial action on problems in several areas of society. It helps families in
economic or emotional difficulty. It works in medical, and school situations. It
seeks to correct the causes underlying delinquency and crime.

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 The three functions of social work, restoration of impaired capacity,
provision of individual and social resources and prevention of social dysfunction,
are intertwined and interdependent.
Restoration can be curative or rehabilitative. Its curative aspects are to eliminate
factors, which have caused breakdown of functioning, and its rehabilitative
aspects are to organise and rebuild inter-actional patterns. Provision of resources
can be developmental and educational. The developmental aspects are designed
to further the effectiveness of existing social resources or to bring to full use the
personal abilities for more effective social interaction. The educational aspect is
structured to make familiar the public with specific conditions and needs for now
or with changing social resources.
Prevention of social dysfunction involves early discovery, control, and
elimination of conditions and situations, such as delinquency and crime, which
potentially could hamper effective social functioning. The two main divisions of
prevention of social dysfunction are prevention of problems in the area of
interaction between individuals and groups and secondly the prevention of social
ills.
The underlying assumptions of social work in the context of corrections are:
1) Social Work, like all other professions, has problem solving functions and
hence, it can help offenders in their treatment and rehabilitation.
2) Social Work practice is an art with a scientific and value foundation and, hence,
correctional work is professional in nature.
3) Social Work as a profession came into being and continued to develop because
it meets human needs and aspirations recognized by society. Hence, it assumes
some of the socialization and control functions of society and helps the offenders
to reshape their behaviour.
4) Social Work practice takes its values from those held by the society of which
it is a part. However, its values are not necessarily or altogether those universally

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or predominantly held or practiced in society and hence, it emphasizes in
treatment and rehabilitation of the offender.
5) The scientific base of social work consists of three types of knowledge:
a) tested knowledge,
b) hypothetical knowledge that requires transformation into tested knowledge,
and
c) assumptive knowledge (or “Practice wisdom”) that requires transformation
into hypothetical and then into tested knowledge. The correctional social worker
uses all three types of knowledge, and carries a professional responsibility for
knowing, at any time, which type of knowledge he is using and what degree of
scientific certainty is attached to it.
6) The knowledge needed for social work practice is determined by its goals and
functions and the problems it seeks to solve and, hence, they are applicable in the
administration of correction.
7) The internalization of professional knowledge and values is a vital
characteristic of the professional social worker, since he is himself the instrument
of professional help and he helps the offender to change his behaviour.
8) Professional skill is expressed in the activities of the social worker. It
constitutes his artistic creation, resulting from three internal processes: first,
conscious selection of knowledge pertinent to the professional task at hand in
order to help the offender, second, fusion of this knowledge with social work and
correctional values; and third, the expression of this synthesis in professionally
relevant activity to administer correction and to modify offending behaviour.
In correction, Social Work not only helps individuals, groups and
community to solve problems, but also assists them to prevent offending
behaviour and enrich daily living. So, the main focus of the social worker is upon
helping people to prevent and control crime. The social worker usually works
with clients on a conscious level, helping them to face realities and solve problems
in preventing and controlling offending behaviours

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 In correction, Social Work is an art because it requires great skills to
understand delinquent and criminal behaviour. It is a science because of its
problem-solving method and its attempt to be objective in determining delinquent
and criminal activities and in developing principles and operational concepts to
deal with delinquency and crime. It is a profession because it encompasses the
attributes of a profession in dealing with offending behaviour.
MEDICAL AND PSYCHIATRIC SOCIAL WORK
Medical Social Work
Social work practice in the health field is a specialized job and it would be
necessary to bear in mind the following facts in order to make a success of it. All
serious illnesses invariably put a very heavy demand on the patient as well as the
family members for their respective adjustive abilities.
The impact in the form of stress will be greater if the experience is new for
both the parties or if the illness is such that it is likely to leave a residual damage
to the body, even after recovery. In the event of the latter happening, the patent
must be prepared (by casework) for accepting his illness together with the
handicap; otherwise, it will be difficult to involve him in any future plans for
rehabilitation.
In case where hospitalization has been effected, preparation for such
experience in order to know what exactly to expect during the period of
hospitalization, would be necessary. What is needed in such a situation is the
fullest possible understanding of all its implications and acceptance of the reality
situation. In addition to the above formulations there may be others also needing
the attention of the social work profession.
Social workers being an integral part of the health set up, their role bears
special significance. Purpose of medical social work is to help each individual
sick person in matters of personal and social adjustment including rehabilitation
in the society through the use of patient’s capabilities as well as community
resources. Medical Social Work Services are organized in various OPDs, Wards,

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Clinics and Casualty by professionally qualified social workers designated as
Medical Social workers. They provide the following services to the indigent,
needy and deserving clients:
• The Medical social worker (MSW) acts as the doctor’s mouthpiece and
furnishes information to the client about the following: his or her illness,
how it occurs, how it spreads, and how it can be controlled. She/he helps
to remove the patient’s doubt and misconceptions about the diseases and
its treatment. She/he ensures the patient cooperates fully with the doctor
and accepts the treatment wholeheartedly.
• For patients needing hospitalization, the Medical social worker helps in the
smooth transition from home to hospital, and after discharge, back from
hospital to home.
• MSW collects information about the patient’s family, occupation and
socio- cultural background and prepares his medico- socio history. MSW
provides the social history to the doctor. MSW helps the doctor to see the
correlation between the medical and the social data. MSW assists the doctor
decide the social recommendation for solving the patient’s medical
problems.
• The Medical social worker works with the client and family and provides
them emotional support and helps them with stress management. MSW
explains to them the changes that have to be made in the home conditions,
in cooking etc., for the benefit of the client.
• MSW conducts group sessions for the in- patients and their attendants.
• MSW participates in all the field activities of the hospital and medical
college.
• MSW obtains people’s cooperation in multidisciplinary camps, cataract
camps, sterilization camps, blood donation camps, HIV/AIDS Awareness
Camps.

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 • MSW arranges for financial assistance to the patient for treatment,
hospitalization, transportation, etc. from welfare agencies in the
community. If client requires legal help, she/he arranges for it. If client has
come from a long distant place, she/he arranges for low-cost lodging for
his family members.
• If there is fear of the patient losing his job because of illness and myths
associated with it, MSW meets the employer, dispel the myths and
convince the employer not to terminate the services of the patient.
• The Medical social worker participates in the teaching and training
activities of the department of preventive and social medicine. MSW takes
classes for medical, nursing, dental and pharmacy students.
• MSW actively takes part in the research activities of the medical colleges
or hospitals.
• MSW provides recreational services to the inpatient by organizing film
shows, video presentations. etc., and by providing toys and playthings for
children.
Psychiatric Social Work
Psychiatric Social Work, a specialised branch of Social work, which concerns
with theoretical as well as clinical work and the knowledge of Psychiatry; which
primarily deals with problems of the mind and associated disorders. The essential
purpose of Psychiatric Social Work is to help the people with problems of the
mind and/or with behavior problems or we can say precisely the problems
of mind and brain and their solutions.
It has grown as the result of the need felt and its realization for people with
mental or emotionally disturb could be helped more effectively by understanding
their social and/or environmental factors responsible for the problems
of mind and brain in their management. Professionally trained Psychiatric Social
Worker is the qualified member of psychiatric team treating comprehensively the
patients with psychiatric disorders or behavioral problems. These professionals

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utilize social work principle, techniques for the purpose of diagnosis, patient care
and treatment and finally plan the rehabilitation of the patients in the family and
in the community. Besides they also provide other services to mentally challenged
people like therapeutic treatment, social rehabilitation, crisis intervention or
outreach services in the community.
A psychiatric Social Worker (PSW) works in close association with
psychiatrist, child guidance clinics, social services department as the team in the
psychiatric hospital; and they also extend their work in families and communities
for mentally challenged people. Mental health professional includes various
professional includes all practitioner who offers their services for improving an
individual's mental health or to treat mental illness include psychiatrists,
Clinical/Psychiatric social workers, clinical psychologists, psychiatric nurses,
mental health counsellors, professional counsellors, pharmacists, as well as many
other professionals like medical anthropologists. These professionals often treat
comprehensively the psychiatric illnesses, disorders, conditions and other issues;
however, their scope of practice varies cases to case.
Role of Psychiatric Social Worker
• A psychiatric social worker helps the mental health
professional/psychiatrist and families of patients in a similar way as
counsellors and psychologists do.
• Their main job is to assess patients and develop patients’ specific plans of
care.
• They also provide therapy or counselling services to patients, as well as
help family members to deal with patients with mental illness in the family.
• Psychiatric social workers generally interviews with admitted patients,
members of their families, agency staff and others, and through collateral
investigations, the range of services needed by residents and their families;
plans and develops a social plan of care for each resident and his/her family
which may include

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 a) direct counselling,
b) treatment provided by other agency support services and/or referral to
other agencies;
c) conducts individual and group therapy sessions;
d) instructs and directs other agency support staff in therapeutic techniques;
e) arranges for services from referral agencies;
f) reviews resident and family social situations as necessary and modifies
social plan of care as indicated;
g) explains the scope of services to the resident and family as is appropriate;
h) provides direct crisis intervention services when required;
i) maintains case records and prepares reports;
j) participates in development of multidisciplinary plans of care and their
reviews;
k) facilitates development of interdisciplinary active treatment plans,
l) writes monthly summaries of progress toward active treatment goals and
m) arranges interdisciplinary reviews of active treatment plan periodically.
Their role includes to explain the treatment plans to patients and their families,
maintaining patient records, preparing reports, monitoring progress, and reviews
of psychosocial treatment plans.
Psychiatric social workers may also offer individual and group therapy
sessions to patients, instruct other mental health staff in therapeutic techniques,
and provide crisis interventions, arranging the services from referral agencies and
to help patients send back to the community.
There is wider demand of Psychiatric Social Worker (PSW) can work as
Case Manager, Researcher, Rehabilitator, in mental health institutions, in
community mental health programme, as a member of multidisciplinary team.
A psychiatric social worker helps people who struggling with mental health
problem and cope with them. A PSW provides counselling services to patients
and family members and to helps them to obtain both financial and medical

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services. He or she might also investigate homelessness and job placement
options for recovering patients.
The PSW is appointed for most of the cases, a mentally ill patient in prison
or in psychiatric hospital to help him or her deal with psychiatric issues. Some
people voluntarily seek help from social workers to learn how they can obtain
financial, medical, or personal assistance. Many licensed social workers provide
interpersonal counselling services, helping patients, family members, and helping
the caregivers to learn more about mental disorders and the best ways to cope
with them.
Another main goal of most psychiatric social workers is to help patients to
live and work in society with the highest degree of self-dependent. These
professional also arranges the special living facilities for inpatient in hospitals,
halfway houses/ home, or assist in home living facilities. He or she may also
contact potential employers to find out about job possibilities and explain a
client's situation. In addition, a psychiatric social worker helps patients and their
families obtain services and financial assistance from non-profit community
organizations or other government organisations.
Psychiatric social worker can also help with future employment and
housing needs of the patient. The way how this is done is by liasoning with
potential employers and landlords and explains to them the needs of the such
person. Social workers can also help the patients get financial assistance from
various government organizations, non- profit organizations and NGO’s
Clinical and Non-Clinical Role of Psychiatric Social Worker:
They work in close association with Clinical professionals and Non-Clinical and
they do both kind of the work- clinical and non-clinical.
The Clinical Psychiatric Social Work may include one or more of the following:
- Intake
- Reception- Accepting the patient
- Diagnosis / Analysis of Patient

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- Treatment
- Rehabilitation of Patient
- Pre- convalescent
- Pre-Parole Services
- Follow- Up : after care
- Case History
- Case Work with Patient
- Case Work with Relative
- Orientation of the Staff
- Advocating for care
- Protecting the vulnerable
- Providing forensic practice functions
- Increasing social well-being
- Providing case management for complex and high-risk cases
- Providing clinical supervision or direction of clinical programs
- Providing psychosocial treatment
Whereas the non-clinical work may include the following:
- Promotion of Mental Health
- Conducting Workshop
- Case Identification
- Providing Referral Services
- Providing Recreational Therapies
- Program Administration
- Training for Health Volunteer
- Mental Health Awareness Camp
- Program planning and development
- Providing education and resources
- Administration of community services or programs
- Assessment of client needs for macro community programs or services

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- Coordination and/or evaluation of service delivery
- Advocacy on behalf of persons or groups with unmet service needs
- Analysis and development of social welfare policy
- Organizational analysis
- Provision of training about community needs and problems
- Human Right of Psychiatric Patients
To become a Psychiatric Social Worker
In India, any person who has the regular post graduate degree in Social work with
Medical and Psychiatric specialization; are eligible for the M.Phil. or Ph.D. in
Psychiatric Social Work. The minimum requirement for psychiatric social
workers either M.Phil. or Ph.D. in Psychiatric Social Work as a full time
residential clinical programme from recognised Institute. However, the
psychiatric social work aspirants often choose to major in medical and psychiatric
social work during their post-graduation.
In other countries, fresh psychiatric social work professional, besides the
M.Phil./PhD in PSW, must pass a written examination to practice the psychiatric
social work and they are awarded the license to practice it independently.
Licensing tests are designed to ensure that a professional practice the psychiatric
social worker fully understands the fundamentals requirements of his job, legal
matters-which varies country to country, and the importance of confidential
practices and professional ethics.
There are some of the Premier Institutes in India offering the highly specialized
Research Degree (M.Phil. or PhD) programme in Psychiatric Social Work:
• National Institute of Mental Health and Neurological Sciences
(NIMHANS), Hosur Road Bangalore, Karnataka.
• Ranchi Institute of Neuro- Psychiatry and Allied Sciences (RINPAS),
Government of Jharkhand Kanke, Ranchi, Jharkhand.
• Central Institute of Psychiatry (CIP), Government of India, Kanke, Ranchi,
Jharkhand.

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 • Pt. B.D. Sharma University of Health Sciences, Rohtak. Haryana.
• Lokopriya Gopinath Bordoloi Regional Institute of Mental Health,
Sonitpur, Tezpur, Assam.
Psychiatric Social Work: Skills and knowledge
A professional PSW is well equipped with the skills imparted during their training
the knowledge of generic social work methods and principles; various
interviewing techniques, psychiatric assessment- principles and evaluation
methods; knowledge of natural human growth and development of behaviour;
knowledge of mental health treatment modalities used in individual or in group
and for family therapy; knowledge of health and welfare measures and the ways
these resources may be utilized; knowledge of programs, planning and
techniques; ability to write the medical case history and mental status
examination; knowledge about classification of mental and behaviour disorder
(i.e. Personality Disorder, Psychoactive Substance use Disorders, Schizophrenia,
Mood Affective Disorders, Neurotic Stress Related and Somatoform Disorders,
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder etc.) according to ICD -10 & DSM-IV and their
diagnostic criteria, Knowledge of psychopathology (illusions, hallucination,
delusion, Neologisms, Perseveration and circumstantiality, etc.)
FAMILY, WOMEN AND CHILD CENTERED SOCIAL WORK
Family social work aims at working with the individuals of the family who are in
a strained and stressed situation. Social workers help families improve
relationships and cope with difficult situations such as divorce, illness or death.
They guide families through the counseling process by helping them identify
problems, set goals and find suitable solutions to their troubles and tribulations. In
a crisis situation, such as neglect, substance abuse or violence, they may also
recommend a legal action, such as having children temporarily removed while the
parents work through their difficulties.

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Role of Social Workers engaged in working with families
The social worker engaged in working with families is often involved in multi-
tasking, taking up the appropriate role according to the need and issue at hand.
Listed below are a few roles that social workers take up while working with
families.
1. Facilitator: Social workers initiate their role by simply facilitating and
encouraging family members to communicate. Sometimes, families have barely
spoken to each other for months by the time they seek professional help. The
social worker acts as a neutral third party, helping family members share their
fears, concerns or disappointments in a non-confrontational way. Probes are
designed to help families to discover the underlying causes of their problems. For
example, if a child is misbehaving, it may not be because he disrespects his
parents, but rather because he is troubled by the stress in his parents' marriage. A
social worker would help him articulate and vent these thoughts and disturbed
feelings, so the entire family could discuss and understand perfectly that these are
the disturbing factors hindering their peaceful living.
2. Advisor or Guide: Social workers suggest immediate solutions, even if short-
term, to help families work through problems or defuse potentially volatile
situations. A social worker will often attempt to stabilize the family unit,
including addressing individual members' issues, for interventions to be more
effective. For example, if one family member has a serious drug or alcohol
problem, the social worker may recommend undergoing or having a treatment
facility before continuing with therapy. Or, if one family member has a mental
illness such as depression or bipolar disorder, the social worker may advise him
to visit a psychiatrist who can prescribe medications to help him manage his
condition.
3. Mentor: Social workers take up the role of a mentor and enable venting of
mounted feelings that members face frequently or occasionally which disturb
their peace of mind and peaceful living. Bottling up of feelings often results in

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undesirable consequences and hence channelizing them properly is one way to
handle feelings and thoughts for behavior to be rational and appropriate. Social
workers also provide guidance and support for the members of the family for
amicable living.
4. Advocate: Social workers act as advocates and work on taking up the cause of
their clients. They represent the client in different forms and advocate the benefit
and well-being of the unit. During therapeutic sessions, they also take up
advocacy roles for a particular member to represent his/her viewpoint that may
play a crucial role in the dynamics of the therapeutic intervention.
5. Catalyst: Social workers often act as catalysts in bringing about change in the
family unit. The arguments placed, clarifications sought, communications held
and therapies conducted all bring about a dynamic change process in the minds
of the members for a decent, dignified, respected and peaceful living.
6. Counselor: The social worker also takes up the role of a counselor, if need
arises. The goal of family counseling is to help families create a home atmosphere
where family members can communicate with and support each other through
times of conflict, quarrel and disagreement with one another. A conflict can have
many causes, including poor relationships, substance abuse, behavioral problems,
or financial or work concerns. Conflicts can arise between parents and their
children. They can also occur in the marriage. The social worker counsels the
members and thereby enhances their family relationship A social worker trained
in working with families has a special skill set. The goal of a social worker is to
be an objective guide for family members and help them understand their
relationships and roles in the family. The family dynamics, or how family
members relate to each other, will be carefully reviewed by the social worker.
There is also a focus on communication patterns and behavior patterns among
family members which would be clearly studied and identified by him. Therefore,
the social worker will work with the family to establish healthy patterns of

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communication, find appropriate ways to express frustration and anger, and set
boundaries.
Intervention Strategies
Intervention is a strategy adopted by social workers to involve with individuals,
families and groups to enable them to meet their needs and issues. The main
purpose of interventions is to aid clients in alleviating their problems and
improving their well-being and healthy living, which in turn promotes peace,
tranquillity and good understanding. In working with families, the intervention
strategies adopted by the social worker often depend on the nature of problem and
its dynamic impact on the individuals of the family. Listed below are few common
disputes found among Indian families.
Reasons for Common Family Disputes
• Wife battering, dowry, bride burning
• Violent behavior of either of the spouses
• Egoistic behavior or inferiority complex
• Addictions and related behavior
• Abuse in all forms - sexual, verbal, physical, emotional or psychological
• Needless interference from in-laws
• Provocations and hurting each other by taunts, sarcasms and abuses
• Indiscriminate and insensitive attitude and behavior towards spouses
• Extra-marital relations by either spouse or promiscuity
• Doubting the integrity/character of the spouse

Redressal Mechanisms
1. Family Courts
Family courts are a specialized type of courts entrusted with the disposal of cases
concerning disputes relating to the family. In brief, these courts deal with
litigation concerning marriage and divorce, maintenance, guardianship and the
property of spouses. They are established under the Family Courts Act, 1984.The

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objective of family courts (as stated by the legislature) is to promote conciliation
and secure speedy settlement of disputes relating to their marriage and family
affairs.
2. Family Counselling Centres (FCC)
The concept of family counselling was conceptualized by the Central Social
Welfare Board (CSWB) in the 1980s when there was a spate of dowry deaths.
The Board spearheaded the campaign by setting up Voluntary Action Bureaus,
which subsequently took the shape of Family Counselling Centres. The objective
of the Family Counselling Centres is to provide preventive and rehabilitative
services to women and families who are victims of atrocities and family mal-
adjustments through crisis intervention and systematic counselling.
(a) FCCs at Police Headquarters
Family Counselling Centres are being run in some Police Headquarters premises
under the administrative control of the State Social Welfare Boards. These FCCs
were established with the objective of providing speedy crisis intervention to
those women whose cases were registered in Police Stations.
(b) FCCs in Mahila Jails
Twenty-three FCCs have been set up in Mahila Jails in Bihar, Chandigarh, Delhi,
Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Punjab, Tamil Nadu,
Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
(c) Pre-marital Counselling Centres
This new initiative is being implemented in Women Development Centres at
various colleges in Delhi. They lay special emphasis on pre-marital counselling
and deal with other areas of psycho-social crisis management for young women.
(d) Counselling Centres for Devdasis and Sex Workers
At present there are two FCCs working for the welfare of Devdasis and sex
workers and their children, one each in Mumbai in Maharashtra and Belgaum in
Karnataka. The Centres are set up with the objective of providing preventive
services through awareness campaigns on STDs, AIDS and other health and legal

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matters and also rehabilitative measures for children of female sex workers.
Family Intervention Strategies
The social workers involved in working with families engage in interventions
such as emotion-focused intervention for couples, strategic intervention, intensive
family preservation approaches, solution focused brief intervention,
psychotherapeutic approaches, family psycho-education and family stabilization.
1. Emotion-Focused Intervention: This intervention is basically aimed at
enabling the members to let out their hatred and negative emotions and channelize
them appropriately. The social worker aims at skilfully handling the emotions and
revealing the true meaning hidden behind them. They are also enabled to excavate
and make the other members understand the underlying need, purpose and impact
of such emotional outpours. This helps family members to take stock of things
and revive relationships and look forward to new ways of mending relationships
and leading peaceful lives.
2. Strategic Intervention: This is an approach which involves meticulous study,
analysis, diagnosis and planning for the interventions to be undertaken by the
social workers in working with the families. It is a systematic approach and
involves meticulous preparation and scheduling according to the nature of the
problem and the need.
3. Intensive Family Preservation approach: This intervention aims at ensuring
the preservation of relationships of the members of the family. The frictions and
divisions that have erupted among the members of the family are identified,
barriers are highlighted, misunderstandings and misinterpretations are clarified
and relationships are strengthened. The social worker aims at rejuvenating and
preserving the family ties and strengthens the bonds between the members for a
healthy relationship and peaceful living.
4. Solution-focused brief Intervention: These interventions are used to bring
about solutions to the existing problems in the family. They are very brief and
focused and aim at alleviating the situation and providing the best possible

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remedies or solution to the issue at hand. Therefore, the social worker needs to
work rapidly and cleverly for solution-focused brief intervention.
5. Psychotherapeutic Interventions: These interventions are used in situations
where the members of the family or individuals may need deep psychological
help. It is a clinical therapeutic process of working with individuals to enable
healing from within. It often extends over a period of time.
6. Family psycho-education: This involves briefing and educating family
members on the situation or condition of a member of the family for supportive
well-being of the individual and the family.
Skills Required for Practice:
Basic skills sets employed by social workers engaged in any helping process can
be listed as follows:
• Listening
• Interviewing
• Communicating
• Motivating
• Problem solving
• Conflict resolution
• Empathizing
• Decision Making
• Networking
Apart from the above basic skills, social workers working with families need the
following skills for effective practice:
1. Attending Skills: It is the act of truly focusing on the individuals who come
for help. Conscious efforts need to be taken to be aware of what the client is saying
or trying to communicate.

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2. Confronting Skills: An attempt to make a respectful invitation to the client to
consider discrepancies. This is to help the client become more integrated and
consistent in his behavior and in his relationships with others.
3. Information Sharing Skill: Providing the client with knowledge and
information that is pertinent to his problem. This is to make the client well-
informed about the facts he needs to know in order to cope effectively. The
information should be factual, clear and comprehensive.
4. Skills in Interpreting Non-Verbal Clues: Getting the meaning of the client’s
non-verbal clues to his or her underlying feelings and motives. It helps the social
worker to get additional information about the client’s thoughts and feelings and
project warmth and sensitivity towards the clients. The social worker can watch
for inconsistencies during this process.
5. Empathetic Listening Skills: The basic listening skills include observation,
the use of open and closed questions, and the use of encouraging, paraphrasing,
summarization and reflection of the client’s feelings. It includes the process of
tuning in carefully to the client’s message and responding accurately to the
meaning behind the message. It involves entering the inner world of the client.
The social worker conveys understanding, concern and empathy, avoids
interpretation, and suspends judgment.
INDUSTRIAL SOCIAL WORK
Industrial social work is one of the areas in which the social worker extend their
skill and expertness in helping personnel managers in the industry directly and
organisational development indirectly, by intervening the employee management.
Industrial organisation forms a secondary setting for the proactive of
professional social work. It is different from other secondary welfare setting due
to its primary orientation to production and profit rather than to the welfare needs
of the workers. There is a growing recognition of the fact that the human
personality is influenced by and influences the organisation.

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 Industrial social work can go a long way in improving the social climate
and quality of human relations in an organisation. Human relations propose in
general that productivity should be achieved by means of building and
maintaining employee dignity and satisfaction rather than at the cost of these
values.
In social work, human dignity is always upheld and man is helped to
integrate and adapt to his social environment. There is plenty of scope for social
work practice in industry. This is because the larger the organisation, the more
complex are the problems faced by human beings. In small organisations,
employees have direct access to the managers and so many of their problems get
sorted out early. In larger organisations, there is no such opportunity for the
employees, as everything has to go through proper channels and, thus, they have
access only to the supervisors and junior managers, who are not decision makers.
Relationships between employees and management are more formalized
and availability of the management to the employees is reduced. Paternalistic
attitudes towards employees and authoritarian kind of approach seem more
prevalent in organisations. A social worker can help the employees to overcome
their problems and continue to function as productive workers. According to
M.M. Desai, the professionally trained social worker can develop his/her
programmes at the following levels:
Preventive and Developmental
1) Informal educational programmes aimed at enlightening the workers on issues
pertaining to work life like industrial safety, functional literacy, saving habits,
social security, etc.
2) Promoting the use of health and medical programmes for workers and their
families (health check-ups, inoculation campaigns, family planning, informative
sessions on nutrition, low-cost diets, childcare, etc.
3) Personal and environmental hygiene, etc.

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4) Developing recreational programmes like library services, prime sports
gatherings, various skill competitions, exhibitions, film shows, etc. celebration of
cultural festivals, supplementary income programmes, hobby classes, vocational
guidance programmes, etc.
Curative
Curative programmes are aimed at handling problem situations faced by the
individual worker by helping him to make maximum use of his own potentials
and the resources offered by the industry and the community. Counselling to the
individual employees and their families can be given for problems, such as
alcoholism, indebtedness, and absenteeism, etc. The counselling services can be
coupled with concrete assistance by the way of:
1. Securing medical help within or outside industry.
2. Planning the family budgets.
3. Helping employee family members in obtaining funds.
4. Seeking employment for worker’s dependents.
5. Referring the worker/his dependents to welfare agencies in the community
like child guidance clinic, marriage counselling bureaus, alcoholic
anonymous groups and the like, wherever there is a need.
Thus, social work skill can be actively used for preventing problems from
happening, as also for enriching the life of the workers and their families. Early
detection and prompt treatments may prevent some workers from becoming
serious casualties.
Social work intervention in industrial sector can be at micro and macro
level. At micro level, the social worker can provide treatment to the worker and
his family, employer and union members. Help may be given in relation to
problems related to work, self and others around them, such as job performance,
job satisfaction, absenteeism, conflict situations, etc. Further problems, such as
anxiety, depression, phobia, mental disturbance, substance abuse, marital and
family conflict, may also be attended to.

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 At the macro level, it can be organisational intervention where the social
worker can provide individual and group consultation to supervisors and
managers at all levels regarding understanding of human behaviour. The
intervention may be in the form of proposing a new job design. Organising and
planning of the services at the preventive, developmental and curative levels
requires a basic study of the organisation. It is through an open and sensitive
approach, rather than a predetermined blue print that the intuitive social worker
can positively integrate the social work objectives with the management
objectives. However, the scope of social work in business and industry would, in
real terms, depend upon:
1) the attitude of the management
2) the quality of the goodness of bet between needs of business and the extent to
which these needs can be addressed by social work;
3) cost effectiveness of the services provided.
SOCIAL WORK WITH MARGINALIZED SECTIONS OF THE SOCIETY
Social inequality in India is the by-product of Hindu caste-ridden society in India.
Almost 2/3rd of the Indian population is socially and educationally backward.
Since time immemorial, Indian social system has been maintaining social and
economic inequality among the people. Because of this practice some people (so
called higher castes) who are advanced socially, economically and educationally
exploited the so-called weaker sections (marginalised or backward people) that
suffered from historical exploitation and went on becoming more backward and
weaker with the passage of time. This section of the population is known as
weaker section. Amelioration of their living condition, protection of the rights of
the weaker section and provisions for their social justice has been a serious
concern for all of us.
As of now, the scenario has changed. Due to spread of the idea of
democracy, equality, social justice and human rights people to a large extent have
come out from the nasty idea of inequality, oppression, injustice and violation of

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human rights. Under the auspices of the government and non-governmental
initiatives efforts are being made to reduce the gap between the stronger sections
and the weaker sections. But the long-established effects of the disparity are still
ruling in our society. Therefore, there is a need for more intensive and organized
efforts for mitigating such gaps between the weaker and the stronger.
After India’s achievement of independence several attempts were made to
remove socio-economic imbalances existed between the backward and forward
classes and to stamp out the unjust social order through various protective
discrimination measures and other promotional measures.
Social work in this regard is doing a tremendous job. The whole gamut of
practice of social work is centered around and the established on the philosophy
of egalitarian society with justice and happiness for all. The weaker and deprived
members of the society are the prime target of social work intervention. As a
problem-solving profession, Social work shares its values, principles, methods,
tools and techniques for the removal major problems of the weaker sections.
Weaker Section or Marginalised section
The term “Weaker Section‟ or “Marginalised section” in ordinary sense refers to
the section of the population who are socially, economically, politically and
educationally backward than the other sections of the population and have been
suffering from different kinds of disabilities due to their backwardness.
According to Government of India Act, 1935 “weaker section implies to
those sections of society who are either because of traditional custom of practice
of untouchability or because of tribal origin, tribal way of living or other
backwardness have been suffering from educational and economic backwardness
and some aspects of social life.”
On the basis of their overall status in a view to their socio-economic and
cultural life, for the convenience of effective administration of development and
welfare programmes with special focus to their socio-economic stands, the
weaker sections have been grouped basically into three distinct categories by

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different resolutions of Government of India. Those groups can be serially stated
here on the basis of magnitude of their problems or vulnerability to various
disabilities suffered by them.
1. Scheduled Caste
2. Scheduled Tribes and
3. Other Backward Classes
In addition to the above major groups, there are also some vulnerable groups like
women, destitute children, and handicapped people etc who are generally
considered as weaker members of the society.
1. Scheduled Caste
The scheduled castes are the people who occupy the bottommost rung of the
Indian social ladder. They constitute a major part of the weaker sections. They
are generally regarded as „untouchables‟ and popularly known as “harijans”.
They are economically backward, socially depressed and educationally neglected
section of the Indian population.
The people who are known by the name of scheduled caste at present were
identified with different names during different points of time in the past. In the
early Vedic days, they were called “panchamas” or the fifth varnas because they
were out of the “chaturvana” system. During the Vedic period they were known
as “chandalas” and “asprushas” or untouchables because they were thought to be
born from the illicit relation between the man of the lower caste and a Brahmin
woman. Some other times they were called as “Dalits” means broken men. The
British called them as “outcastes”, “exterior caste” and depressed caste”. Finally,
the government of India Act, 1935 designated them as “scheduled caste”. Since
then, they have been recognized in this name. Our constitution after independence
also recognized them in this name. But Gandhiji addressed them as “harijans”
which he meant people of God. Common people in India know them and call
them as “harijans”

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Criteria of Scheduled Castes
No clear criterion so far has been made to consider a particular group as scheduled
caste. But one obvious criterion is clear in this regard i.e., to born to scheduled
caste parents. Simon commission had prescribed questions to decide whether
caste belongs to scheduled castes. Those questions are:
i) Whether the caste in question polluted the high castes through touch or physical
contact?
ii) Whether the caste was not allowed to enter into temples?
iii) Whether the caste was prohibited from the use of public places?
iv) Whether the caste received services from the priests and rest of the society?
v) Whether a higher caste Hindu can take water from the caste in question?
vi) Whether well-educated member of the said caste get equal treatment with the
higher caste members in the matter of ordinary social interaction?
vii) Whether the caste is depressed from social disability and not due to its own
ignorance, illiteracy or poverty?
Classification of Scheduled Castes
1. Social classification
1.1 Highly untouchable SCs -
Some of the scheduled caste people are found to be highly untouchables.
Generally, the people who belong to this group engage in so called dirty works
such as cleaning human excreta, animal carcass etc.
These people are not allowed to go around street in the day time because it
is believed that they may be in contact with other people in the public places and
their shadow formed by daylight may fall on others and impure others. They are
strictly prohibited to collect water from the public wells and to attend the public
meetings. They are not allowed to settle in the east and/or west of the village
because their presence in these places may create long shadows in the morning
and may impure

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the people in the opposite directions. Thus, the highly untouchables are strictly
excommunicated from the mainstream society and are made to suffer from worst
form of socio-economic disabilities.
1.2 Moderately untouchable SCs -
The moderately untouchables are the people who are also the victims of
untouchability but not as much as that of highly untouchables. Unlike the highly
untouchables, these people are engaged in less impure occupations like sweeping,
fishing, snake charming, petty trading etc, go around the street in the day time,
collect water from the public wells. But after their collection of water from the
public wells, the wells are cleaned properly before other could collect water. They
are allowed in the public meetings but given a separate place to sit. They are not
allowed to eat and/or drink with the other people. They are restricted from
entering certain parts of the temple but not all. They are allowed to serve the so-
called higher caste people in agricultural activities and other domestic works.
Thus, these people enjoy at least some amount of social status and suffer less
critical social disabilities as compared to the highly untouchables.
2. Geographical classification
The scheduled caste people are group of people spread all over the human
civilization. They are so sporadically spread over the population that no
significant effort so far could be made to classify them geographically. But it can
be stated that they are found to have larger concentration in certain area such as:
2.1 SCs in the Coastal belts
Coastal belts can be divided into Urban coastal areas and Rural coastal areas. The
urban coastal areas are characterized by industrialization, developed market
system, and civilized living. The SCs in the urban coastal areas include the
fishermen, scavengers, industrial workers and domestic workers. These people
are culturally approximate to the people in the coastal belt and most of them make
their living from fishing, scavenging and working in the industries as labours. Due
to their meager income, they live in the outskirt of coastal cities and slums in poor

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living conditions. They do not have to face the disability of untouchability due to
absence of strict practice of caste system in the city environment, but due to their
poor economic condition they are marginalized from the mainstream society
socially, economically, politically and educationally. The SCs in the rural coastal
areas mainly live by fishing and fisheries related activities. They are having the
same features as the SCs in the urban coastal areas but they suffer from the
practice of untouchability due to dominant presence of caste system in the rural
areas. Hence, in the rural areas they are socially more ostracized than those in the
urban areas.
2.2 City-dwellers
Scheduled caste people in India have spread all over the civic population. They
are seen by and by the modern population. They support the affluent people in
their domestic work and constitute the largest labour force in the industrial cities.
They have major role in industrial production, cleaning the city habitats, serving
the reach people etc. They live in wretched condition and fall prey to exploitation
and poverty leading to deplorable condition of living. They are also economically,
socially, culturally, educationally and politically marginalized people in the
modern society of India.
2.3 SCs in the Hilly areas
The SCs of hilly and mountain foot areas live very close to the tribal people. They
have cultural, social, economic, political and educational proximities to tribal
people in India. They are the worst victims of caste ridden practice of
untouchability. Since time immemorial to till date, they continue to suffer from
various disabilities like social exclusion, political exclusion, and educational
exclusion by their ST counterparts and other groups of people. They are mainly
engaged as agricultural labours, iron smiths, petty traders, snake charmers etc.
and make their poor living. Till today they are denied land ownership. Hence are
forced to work as bonded labour, forced labour and suffer under the vicious cycle
of abject poverty.

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3. Economic Classification:
3.1 Petty-traders: This group people live at foot areas of the hills and forest and
semi-forest areas adjacent to the tribal people. They supply small consumer goods
in exchange of forest products to the tribal people who generally are ignorant of
the market system or due to many other reasons such as language problem, busy
schedule in agriculture are not able to get the consumables from the market. They
make their living from the small margins they receive from the exchange of forest
and agricultural product for the consumers good from the market.
3.2 Bamboo-makers and artisans: There is another economic group which
engages itself in bamboo-making. It makes baskets, grain-bowls, furniture’s, and
other containers and give them in exchange of other goods. Some people from
this group also are famous for their artistic skills. They make statues, dolls, pen
stands, photo frames, hand fans, etc out of bamboo, skin, fur and horns of animals,
bones and other forest materials and make their living out of that.
3.3 Iron smiths (Komaras): Some of the people from scheduled caste categories
are known for their iron works. They make and repair simple implements used in
agriculture like axe, plough nails, sickle, knife, hummer, chisels which take
important place in agricultural and other activities. They sell these implements to
the tribal people and other Scheduled caste people and others and make their
living.
3.4 Pot makers and Brick miners: Pot making an important occupation of some
of the people from Scheduled Caste. These people make earthen pots and other
implement which are used for domestic purposes like drinking water collection,
cooking, grain storage etc. These people or people approximate to them engage
themselves in bricks making which supports their economic life.
3.5 Skin tanners-leather workers (mochi): Skin tuning as an occupation has
historical reference to Scheduled Caste people. From the concept of purity and
pollution the scheduled caste people were destined to do the dirty works which

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included disposal of dead animals. This led them to think about some earning
from skin tunning or leather works.
3.6 Scavengers (safai karmacharis): this is one of the largest of economic
groups among scheduled caste people. The Scheduled caste people are also
known all over the country for their traditional occupation of scavenging. The
practice of purity and pollution considered them as polluted (impure) people. So,
they were traditionally forced to do dirty work like scavenging. This group of
people lives all over the human population, in the cities, in rural areas and
industrial belts to perform cleaning activities. Their work is considered dirty but
in real sense they are the people who clean our environment. They earn meager
amount from scavenging and live in abject poverty. In the present days,
movements are initiated and government measures are taken to uplift their
economic and social condition.
3.7 Fishermen (Dhibaras/Keutas): This economic group of scheduled caste
category basically lives in the coastal plains areas. They make their living from
fishing. They fish from the sea water, rivers, lakes and ponds and sell in the
market and meet their economic needs.
3.8 Tenants/ Agricultural labours: In the past, people from scheduled caste
were socially prohibited to own land of their own. They were forced to work as
tenants in others‟ land. This practice since the past led to landlessness of the SCs.
Still, they continue to go without land. Large numbers of them work as landless
workers for others such as farmers, land lords etc. and make their living from the
small earnings in cash or kind. At times they suffer from bonded labour.
Characteristics of Scheduled Castes
Most of the characteristics have a strong reference to the past. At present as result
of implementation of various welfare programmes, abolition of untouchability
and practice of discrimination and development of cosmopolitan attitude, the
scenario has change to a great extent. Still then most of the characteristics
continue to persist in some rural and remote areas of the country.

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Socio-demographic Characteristics
1. They possess the lowest rung/stage in the social ladder owing to their birth to
the so-called humiliated caste in India
2. They are the worst victims of various social disabilities like restriction on
commensality/practice of eating together, inter-caste marriage, sitting in the
public meetings etc.
3. The scheduled caste people lowest income group and often deprived of the
economic rights due to their social disabilities.
4. Low standard of living is another glaring feature of the SCs
5. Due to the historical educational disability and acute poverty low literacy rate
is another feature of these people.
6. Acute poverty and high-rate illiteracy among the people have direct bearing on
high morbidity among them.
7. Due to the continuous humiliation by the so-called higher caste they still have
very low level of self-confidence
8. Alcoholism is a common feature among people who very often justify it on the
ground of their nature of occupation low standard of living.
9. Due to torture in Hindu caste ridden culture they have high preference for
religious conversion
Economic Characteristics
a) They economically are the poorest people in our society.
b) They are landless owing to the socially prescribed restriction from property
ownership in the past.
c) They are restricted from taking the occupation of their own choice
d) They are not allowed to possess business centres, shops or hotels for the other
castes
e) In the past, they were not allowed to hold any public or administrative post.
f) They are the victims of physical, psychological, sexual and financial
exploitation in the work places.

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g) They are the worst victims of forced and bonded labour and child labour in
India.
Educational Characteristics
a) The SC children were not allowed to take education in the schools with the
children of other people.
b) They were restricted from taking education from a Brahmin teacher
c) Even today, due to their poor economic condition they have very less
representation in education
d) Very high rate of drop outs is seen among the SCs due to lack of financial
support, lack of study atmosphere in the family and humiliation in the public.
e) Very low rate of interest for education is found among SCs
Disabilities suffered by the SCs
Studies have revealed that SCs are most vulnerable groups of weaker sections of
Indian society. Since the ancient days they have been considered as untouchables
and debarred from living a normal life like their counterparts of other castes in
India. They have been suffering from various social, religious, political, economic
and educational and other disabilities for centuries. During the British rule, noting
was done to uplift them. In spite of numbers of welfare programmes and schemes,
their lot has not change even today. Their problems can be discussed under the
following points:
1. Social Disabilities
The scheduled castes of harijans in India suffered from numbers of social
disabilities since time immemorial in the following ways:
a) Lowest status in the social hierarchy: The scheduled castes are given the
lowest status in the caste hierarchy. They are considered to be impure, inferior
and untouchables. They have been treated as the servants of the rest of the
population in our society.

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b) Prevention from public places: For quite a long time the so-called
untouchables were not allowed to use the public wells, ponds, temples, hotels,
schools and dharmasalas etc. they were strictly debarred from public meetings.
Restriction on were enforced on them to wear good dress, put on ornaments, to
build good houses. They were asked to settle outside the core villages. In some
instances, they even were denied to cover their bodies. They were not allowed to
use umbrellas, foot wears etc. All these restrictions speak volumes of disabilities
and injustice they suffered for a long period.
2. Religious Disabilities
It is a matter of great concern that even today we come across such incidents
where SCs are not allowed to enter some temples for which recently there was a
law order issue in Jagannath temple, in Puri district of Odisha. The Brahmins deny
the SCs to offer sacrifice in the temple. In the similar way, in the past they were
not allowed to read and learn scriptures, to enter the temples. They are allowed
only to use Upanishad mantras which are considered less pure.
3. Educational Disabilities
The harijans were forbidden from taking up education during the early days.
Sanskrit education was denied to them. Public schools and other educational
institutions were closed for them. It is for this reason that most of the SCs are
illiterate and ignorant even today.
4. Economic Disabilities
For centuries before independence, the SCs were not allowed to own a piece of
land and business of their own though today they are allowed. They were also not
allowed to perform the occupations of their choice. They were stick on to some
inferior occupations like removing human wastes, sweeping, scavenging,
grinding, shoemaking etc. It for this reason that today one can see most of them
as daily wagers.

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5. Political disabilities
The so-called untouchables hardly participated in political matters. They were not
given any place in politics, administration and general governance of India. They
were not allowed to hold any public post. Political rights were denied to them.
They were only used as vote banks. After independence though the SCs are given
equal opportunities, they are yet to become organized for the same.
2. Scheduled Tribes
A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality,
absolutely illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living
within their own community whose marriage always takes place among
themselves, engaged in hunting and searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their
veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food, completely oblivious of the
country’s political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of development
and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.
D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation,
endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary
or otherwise, united in language or dialect recognizing social distance with other
tribes or castes.
T.B Naik has given the following criteria of tribes in Indian context:-
• A tribe should have least functional interdependence within the
community.
• It should be economically backward (i.e., primitive means of exploiting
natural resources, tribal economy should be at an underdeveloped stage and
it should have multifarious economic pursuits).
• There should be a comparative geographical isolation of its people.
• They should have a common dialect.
• Tribes should be traditionally organized and community panchayat should
be influential.

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 • A tribe should have customary laws.
Classification of Tribes
There are more than 570 tribes spread all over India. Tribes are well known as
socially, economically and culturally homogeneous groups. So, it is difficult to
classify them on any of such grounds. Nevertheless, thin line of classification can
be made on the basis of different grounds. The tribes are classified on the basis of
1. Ethnicity
2. Geographical location.
3. Economic practices etc.
Ethnic Classification:
Based on Ethnicity the tribes in India are classified into the following categories:
a) Negritos
Negritos are believed to be the earliest inhabitants of the Indian peninsula who
were unable to defend themselves and were gradually forced to recede before the
invading hordes of Indo-Aryans, Mongoloids, etc. coming from the North-West
and North-East. These tribes were not only superior to them in numerical strength
but also in mechanical equipment.
These tribals took shelter in the mountains and thick forests where a
considerable number of them are still found and have been estimated to be about
ten million. Some tracts of them are still found among the tribals of the Andaman
and Nicobar Islands known as the Onne, the Great Andamanese, the Sentinelese
and the Jarwas also in Kerala among the Kadars, the Irulars and the Paniyans.
Physical Features of these group of tribes are dark skin, curly hair, broad nose and
medium height.
b) The Mongoloid
Mongoloid represented by the tribal people of sub- Himalayan region. They may
be divided into two mongoloid Sub-categories:
Palaeo Mongoloids: This category of tribes is generally seen in the states of
Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland and Manipur.

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Tibeto–Mongoloids: They are generally found in Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.
They are believed to have migrated from Tibet. They have typical eyes and facial
features. They speak Mon-Khmer and Tibeto-Burmese dialects.
c) Mediterranean (Dravidians): They form bulk of the tribal population and are
generally known as the Dravidians. Dravidian is; however, the name of the
language group spoken by these people and has no ethnic significance. The tribes
believed to be belonging to the Dravidian race are found in the Chhota Nagpur
Plateau, Rajmahal Hills region, Aravalli ranges, Central Vindhyachal, Deccan
Plateau region and Nilgiri Hills.
Dravidian language still survives not only in Southern India where Tamil,
Telugu, Malayalam and Kannada are its leading representatives, but also in
Central India where its traces are found in the dialects spoken by the Oraons,
Gonds, Mundas, Malers, Khonds and other tribes.
The Dravidians are presumed to be of two stocks on the basis of their language:
i) Kolarians: these groups of tribes speak a dialect called Mundari examples:
Mundas, Santhals, Oraons and other tribes inhabiting Chhota Nagpur Plateau
region
ii) Dravidian Propper: This group of tribes Speak dialects of Tamil, Telugu,
Malayalam and Kannada. Gonds, Kondhs, and other tribes found in Central
Vindhyachal and the Deccan Plateau regions.
Geographical Classification
The tribes live all over the country from the foot-hills of Himalayas to the land
tip, of Lakshadweep and from plains of Gujarat to the hills of North-East. There
are the tribals in Chamba and Mahasu; and in Dehradun and Darjeeling.
Tribal population of India is spread all over the country. However, in
Haryana, Punjab, Chandigarh, Delhi, Goa and Pondicherry there exists very little
tribal population. The rest of the states and union territories possess fairly good
number of tribal population Madhya Pradesh registers the largest number of tribes

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(73) followed by Orissa (62), Arunachal Pradesh (56) Maharashtra (52), Andhra
Pradesh (43).
In India there is almost a continuous belt of high tribal concentration
starting from the Western coast – from Thane district in Maharashtra passing
through Surat and Dang districts in Gujarat to Mayurbhanj in Orissa on the
Eastern coast and Bihar. The chief concentration is in Dhulia in Maharashtra;
West Nimar, Betul, Chhindwara, Seeni, Mandla, Shandol and Sarguja in Madhya
Pradesh; and Ranchi, Santhal Parganas_ and Singhbhum district in Bihar.
Another long range of tribal belt is found in the North-East spreading over
Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizo Hills, United Mikir and North
Cachar Hills of Assam and hilly regions of Manipur and Tripura. These belts are
also linked up by a chain of pockets of tribal concentration at Taluk or sub-
divisional levels. Tribal concentrations are also found in Bastar district of Madhya
Pradesh, Korapur, Bauch- Khandenals, and Agency tracts of Orissa and Andhra
Pradesh which are linked up with the Central belt by a chain of small pockets of
tribal concentration. The scheduled tribes live in exclusive pockets of the
territory, upon which they have traditional ownership rights.
1. Northern and North-Eastern Zone
In the mountain valleys and other areas of North-East, Indian tribes largely belong
to Mongolian social stock. The tribal people are distributed all over the sub-
Himalayan region and the mountain valleys in the North-East from Simla in the
West to the Lushai hills and the Mishmi track in the East which merge
imperceptibly with those of Burma in the South-East. It covers Assam, Arunachal
Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura, Manipur and Mizoram, Eastern Jammu
and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Tarai areas of Uttar Pradesh and the
mountainous West Bengal.
Assam: Paro-Barokachari is numerically the strongest tribe in Assam then comes
Miri and Mizo. The hill districts, i.e., Mikir Hills and North Cachar Hills are

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predominantly inhabited by scheduled tribes. In the plains Goalpara, Lakhimpur,
Darrang and Kamrup districts possess fairly large number of scheduled tribes.
Manipur: In Manipur, the highest distribution of scheduled tribes is found in
Manipur west districts followed by Manipur east districts. The third highest
position goes to Manipur south districts. North Manipur contains the lowest
number of scheduled tribe population.The major tribes inhabiting the region are
Anal, Kabui, Gangte, Zarao, Moyan-Mansang, etc.
Meghalaya: In Meghalaya the most important tribes are the Khasis, Garos and
Jaintias. Mizos, Pawis_and Lakhers are of importance in Mizoram.
Nagaland: Basically, this tribal state is inhabited by Nagas.
Himachal Pradesh: Following tribes are important Himanchal Pradesh: Gaddi:
reside exclusively on the snowy range which divides Chamba from Kangra;
Kinner: settled in the frontier district of Kinnaur in Himachal Pradesh; Pangwal:
the Pangi region of the Chamba district in Himachal Pradesh; Lahuli: Lahul-Spiti
region of Himachal Pradesh.
Uttar Pradesh: The declared scheduled areas Uttar Pradesh are hills, Tarai
Bhabar, and Southern U.P. The hill zone is represented by the Jaunsari, Bhotia,
and Raji tribes. Bhotias are a late introduction in the scheduled tribes following
the setback they suffered after Indo-China war. The eastern and northern parts of
Tarai Bhabar tract are inhabited by Tharu and Buxa tribes.
2. Central Zone
In the Chhota Nagpur Plateau, along the dividing line between peninsular India
and Indo-Gangetic basin, live many tribal communities like the Bhumij, Gond,
Ho, Oraon, Munda, Santhal, Bhil, etc. They belong to Proto-Australoid group.
This group occupies the mountain belt between Narbada and the Godavari – the
central barrier that divides the north from the Peninsular India has provided a
shelter for these tribes from very ancient times.
It includes West Bengal, Southern Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa
and Maharashtra. This region further extends to the Santhal Pargana (Bihar) in

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the east, Hyderabad in the South and Rajasthan and Gujarat with a strong Bhil
population in the West.
Bihar: Oraon, Munda, Chero, Parchaiya, Santhal_and Asuras are very dominant
in the state of Bihar.
Rajasthan: Banjaras, Moghias and Sathiyas are important tribes of Rajasthan.
They mostly inhabit the Thar desert.
Gujarat and Maharashtra: Bhil is the most important tribe in Gujarat. Anal,
Chiru_and Konkanas_are important tribes inhabiting in Maharashtra.
Madhya Pradesh
Muria: The word Muria is used in Bastar for a tribesman. Murias reside in the
Muria Hill and Abujhmar mountains. Dorla: a tribe of south Bastar in Madhya
Pradesh. The word Dorla, appears to have been derived from the Telugu word
Dora meaning Lord.
West Bengal
Mala and Savara tribes are the majorities of tribal groups in West Bengal.
Orissa
Out of the 62 Scheduled tribes, Bhuiya, Baiga, Dharua, Gaaro, Ho, Koli, Lodha,
etc. are more populous. The Baiga appears to be a branch of the great Bhuiya tribe
of Madhya Pradesh. Baiga means a sorcerer or medicine man. The name Baiga
also applies to anyone who serves as a village priest in the Central Provinces.
3. South-Western Zone
In the hills and converging line of the Western Ghats live the Chenchus, Irulas,
Kadars, Ketas, Kurumbas, Jedas, etc. having Negrito, Caucasoid, and proto-
Australoid features.
This group is chiefly concentrated in the southern-most parts of the
Western Ghats stretching from Vindhyas to Cape Comorin. From the fact that
they occupy the marginal areas and also from the records in the oldest Tamil
literature of the Sangam period, they appear to be one of the most ancient and
primitive inhabitants of present-day India.

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Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamilnadu fall within this zone.
Chenchus_and Lambadi in Andhra Pradesh, Koragas, Kuruba in Karnataka and
Koragas in Kerala are the most significant tribes found in this geographical zone
of India.
4. Scattered Zone : (Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar)
There are various scattered tribal groups like the Andamanese and such other
tribes of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, and other Union territories. The
aborigines of the Andaman Islands may be described as a race by themselves, and
can be divided into two groups, i.e.:
i) Negrito: (Andamanese, the Onges and the Sentinelese): This group is found in
the Andaman group of Islands and has an affinity with the Semangos and Sakais
of Malaya, the Vedas of Sri Lanka and other Negrito groups of South-East Asia
It is believed that these aborigines migrated from the lower regions of Burma. On
their arrival at these islands, they moved to different part of the islands and very
likely on account of the different types of physical environment they developed
different traits.
ii) Mongoloid: inhabitants of Nicobar group of islands, i.e., the Shorn Pens and
the Nicobarese. Besides, Jarawa group is confined to the western part of the
south, middle and north Andamans. The Andamanese, who are extremely limited
in number, live along the coastal areas; Onges inhabit the little Andaman and
Rutland island; Sentinelese: are found in the Sentinel island; Shorn Pens are
confined along the eastern and south-eastern coast of Great Nicobar island. They
are also reported from the banks of Dagmar, Alexandra and Galathoa rivers
respectively; Nicobarese (Holchu): inhabiting these small islands are highly
unevenly distributed and only in the two islands, the Car Nicobar and Chowra.
Economic Classification:
Agriculturists:
Scheduled Tribes of India claim themselves to be the real owners of forest and
land in India. Most around 80% of the ST people are involved in agriculture. They

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follow traditional and technology in agriculture which left them in poor
production and consequently, poor economic condition.
Hunters and gatherers:
Tribes are known as the aborigines or the primitive people. Hunting and gathering
is the most common feature of the primitive or tribal people. Most of the primitive
tribal groups belong to this category. They gather forest products like honey,
fruits, roots for their food; timber, bamboo, leaves, ropes for their thatched shelter
and other forest produces for their commercial purposes. Their life is very simple
and primitive far away from the modern way of living. Now days, most of the
people from this group have started to engage themselves in agricultural activities.
Labours
Most of the tribal people are educationally and economically backward. They
have no or very low representation in education, service and business. For their
survival, they mainly depended on agriculture or forest product. But in the current
days, due to ongoing land alienation, displacement and deforestation activities,
they are running out of those resources. Consequently, most of them migrate to
the industrial areas and work as industrial labours. Some tribals also continue to
work in agriculture sector as land labours. They are mostly influenced by the
modern culture and slowly forget their traditional culture of dance and music and
unique way of entertainment.
Shepherds-Cattle-bearers
Some tribes are also known for their engagement in cattle-breeding and rearing.
They move from place to place in search of pasture land with their family or
without it. They meet their basic needs from the sale of animals the rear. Animals
like cows, goats, sheep and buffalo are some of the important animals for animal
husbandry they practice.
Black magicians
There are a few people among the tribal groups who practice black magic and
make their living from it. These groups of the tribal people are the proximate to

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the brahmins in non-tribals in India. They basically are the priestly groups who
conduct traditional yajnas for good harvest of the community, for good health,
healing and killing. They also have some knowledge about some ayurvedic
treatment. There is a common belief among the tribes that these people possess
some supernatural power to kill or rescue the lives of common people in their
community. They receive gifts and token price for their disease detection and
treatment which support their living. They also engage themselves in agriculture
for economic support. They enjoy distinct status in the community because of
their power of black magic. In the current days there are stringent opposition
among common people and several cases of murder in suspicions have been found
among the tribal people.
Artisans:
Tribal people, especially of the North-Eastern areas of India are well known for
their artistic skills and works. They create excellent art and crafts with soil, animal
skin, bones, birds feather, bamboo plant and other forest products. They sell these
products in Indian traditional markets as well as modern market earn handsome
amount of money which supports their livelihood. They have popularized Art and
craft of India both in India as well as outside India and continue to contribute to
the economic growth of India.
Characteristics of Scheduled Tribes
Ethnic characteristics of a tribe:
• Common definite territory, common dialect, common name, common
religion and common culture.
• They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and
arrows.
• All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political
organization which has a chief who exercises authority over all the
members, even recommending marriage of young boys with girls whom
they have found suitable for marriage.

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 • Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism,
magic and fetishism i.e., believing in god being embedded in a special piece
of stone, a special tree or a peculiar strange animal.
• A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan which is
exogamous, have common name and is engaged in worshipping strange
objects, hunting of small animals, and resists entry of any outsiders inside
their territory.
• Kinship as an instrument of social bonds.
• Absence of hierarchy among men and groups.
• Absence of strong, complex, formal organization.
• A distinct psychological bent for enjoying life.
• They possess Segmentary character find difficult to mingle with the
outsiders
Economic Characteristics of Tribes
• Communitarian basis of land holding pervades in most of the tribal
communities
• The tribal people follow a very primitive methods of agriculture like
shifting cultivation leading to very low yield of crops
• Most of the tribals do not have access to an organized market system where
they could sell their primary and secondary forest produce.
• Due to lack of access to market system, most of the tribes from remote
areas practice barter system which means exchange goods for goods.
• They rely on substantial economy and have little value on surplus
accumulation on the use of capital and on market trading which prevents
them from receiving the best results out of agricultural activities.
• Tribal people consider forest as their basic right and greatly depend on
forest products which constitutes the mainstay of their economic life

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 • Tribal land is largely transferred to the non-tribals by improper means and
massive displacement takes place for development projects leading to land
alienation or loss of agricultural land and eventual tribal conflicts.
• There are complains of economic exploitation of tribals by the non-tribal
• Indebtedness and bonded labours are some of the most common features
among the tribals in India
Educational Characteristics
• Tribal people have very less representation in education as compared to
their non-tribal counterparts
• Poor economic condition and family environment hinders them from taking
education
• It is reported that the current formal education prescribed for them has little
relevance to their living style
• They lack interest and awareness of the present education system
• Medium of instruction or the language is a major setback in their education
• High rate of drop outs is found among the tribal people.
Disabilities suffered by the Scheduled Tribes in India
The tribals of India are the second worst vulnerable group of weaker sections in
India. They have been facing with a number of disabilities among which the
following may be noted here:
1. Disabilities of Geographical Separation
The tribals in India in some way or the other are geographically separated from
the rest of the population. Most of them live in the inaccessible areas such as deep
valleys, dense forests, hills and mountains. Even some concerted effort by the
government to connect them with the civilized world has badly failed. Often it is
difficult for them to establish relations with others and hence they are away from
the civilized world. The public services and welfare programmes cannot reach to
them. They also have very less contact with rest of the population. All these

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physical, material, social and cultural isolation has contributed to many problems
among the tribals.
2. Cultural Disabilities
Tribal culture is a unique one. It is totally different from that of the civilized
world. They are terrified and suspicious towards the civilized world, because the
members of the civilized world interfere in their cultural life by introducing or
imposing some new and strange culture to them. The Christian missionaries, The
Ramakrishna Mission, Viswa Hindu Parishad, Rastriya Soyamsevak Sangh etc.
try to spread their own culture among the tribals which has posed a threat to tribal
culture. The cultural confusion among the tribals comes on the way of
assimilation and integration of tribal people into the mainstream society in India.
3. Social Disabilities
The tribals also have their own social disabilities. Even today they are the victims
of superstitious beliefs, meaningless expensive traditional practices, harmful
habits like child-marriage, animal sacrifice, exchange of wives, black magic and
so on. They have keen desire to maintain all these evil tribal practices which
directly or indirectly impede their development. It is for this reason that a
statement is made that tribals are the tribesmen first, tribesmen last and the
tribesmen all the time.
4. Economic Disabilities
Tribal people are economically the poorest people in our country. Most them fall
prey to economic exploitation and other situations and live below the poverty line.
Some of the main economic problems can be stated under following sub-points.
i) Taking the advantage of tribal people’s innocence, illiteracy and helplessness
the non-tribals exploit and impoverish them. During the British rule such
exploitation was at its apex level.
ii) More than 90% of the tribal people in India have landless and practice shifting
cultivation. They still follow the outdated traditional methods of agriculture
which causes very low yield of crops leading to their poor condition of living.

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iii) A good portion of land has been illegally transferred to non-tribals and has
been used for different projects by the government. Further, they believe that
forest is their asset and their spirit remains in the forest. So, live in dense forests
which lack cultivable land
iv) A large number of tribal youths are either unemployed or under-employed. At
times unhappy for they are unable to get works that can keep them occupied all
through the year.
v) Banking facilities in tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals have to
depend on the exploitative money-lenders
6. Educational Disabilities
Illiteracy is a major problem of tribals in India. More than 70% of the tribal people
are functionally illiterate. Many of them are ignorant of education, schools,
colleges and universities. Since they are in abject poverty, they cannot afford
education and from minor age engage in agriculture and other livelihood
activities. Problem of language also is another setback in their education. The
current formal education doesn’t seem to be relevant to their way of living. They
are found to be turning off from education from education at very early level of
their education.
7. Disabilities of Health
Due to lack of education and awareness the tribals do not appreciate the modern
concept of health and sanitation. They believe that diseases are caused by evil
spirits or ghosts. So, they follow their traditional ways of diagnosis through the
help of black magic by the tribal priests and tribal black magicians. Their contact
with the outsiders created new diseases like blood pressure, AIDS, STDs etc. On
the other hand, they don’t believe in modern doctors and medicines which make
them suffer worse health hazards even in the modern time. Besides, Lack of
communication to their remote habitats keep them away from the reach of modern
facilities for treatment of their diseases.

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3. Other Backward Classes
The Other Backward Classes are the third worst vulnerable group of people in
Indian population. They as a category constitute roughly the largest i.e., more than
one third of the country’s population. The term “other backward class” has not
been defined properly either by sociologists or by the constitution makers. The
backward classes are a large mixed group of persons with more unclear and elastic
boundaries. The other backward class consists of a large number of educationally
and economically backward people.
The term “other backward classes” is often considered as vague in the sense
that it includes a wide variety of lower castes and classes consisting of millions
of people. But it is no denying fact that those who are said to be falling in the
ambit of this group suffer from many deprivations and disabilities due to their
backwardness for whatever reasons.
Other backward classes may refer to a social category which consists of all
the socially, educationally, economically and politically backward groups in our
society. The term “backward class” is immensely difficult to define and make the
readers understand. Backwardness is expressed in lack of adequate opportunity
for group and individual self-development, especially in economic life and in
matters of health, housing and education. It is measured in terms of low levels of
income, the extent of illiteracy, and the low standard of life demonstrated by
living conditions.
While the term “backward classes” has not been defined by the Indian
Constitution, the characteristics of backwardness are described here and there and
also sometimes the categories are mentioned. Article 15(4) speaks of the socially
and educationally backward class.
Article 16 (4) uses the term „backward class‟ and speaks of inadequate
representation in services. Article 46 mentions the weaker sections of the people
and includes in that expression, the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

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Article 340 empowers the State to investigate the conditions of the backward class
and to help them by grants.
The Backward Class Commission was appointed in 1953 with Kaka
Kalelkar as the Chairman according to the Article 340 of the Constitution. The
Commission was asked to determine the criteria to be adopted to provide
concessions to “socially and educationally backward classes” besides The
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
The Commission was also asked to prepare a list of such classes. The
Commission prepared a list of about 2400 castes. The words specifically used are
classes and sections and not castes and yet, as explained in the body of the report
the words “sections and classes” mean nothing but castes and no other
interpretation is feasible. List prepared for backward classes deemed to have been
made in terms of castes and the term „backward classes‟ has been used to describe
and include “backward castes”. But the Constitution does not recognize caste,
except the scheduled castes.
Backward status is ascribed on the basis of birth to certain castes. Hence,
for all practical purposes the term backward class is used for backward castes,
while the Constitution recognizes special provisions for advancement of any
socially and economically backward class.
The Second All India Backward Classes Commission – the Mandal
Commission submitted its report in 1980. The Commission evolved 11 indicators
– a mix of caste and class features – for assessing social and educational
backwardness. It arrived at an exhaustive list of 3473 castes that were declared as
backward. The tangible indicators to ascertain a caste or any social group as
backward included their lower position in the class hierarchy, lower age at
marriage within the group, higher female work participation, higher school
dropout rate, inaccessibility to drinking water, lower average value of family
assets, higher existence of Kutcha houses and so on. The report of the Mandal
Commission was partially implemented in 1991.

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According to the Mandal Commission appointed to determine the other backward
classes the following criteria have been recommended by the commission to
identify the other backward classes in the country:
A. Social Criteria
• Castes or classes considered as socially backward by others.
• Castes or classes which mainly depend on manual labour for their
livelihood
• Castes or classes where at least 25% of families and 10% of males above
the state average get married at an age below 17 years in the rural areas and
at least 10% females and 5% males do so in urban areas
• Castes or classes where participation of females in work is at least 25%
above the state average.
B. Educational Criteria
• Castes or classes where the number of children in the age group of 5-15
years who have attended school is at least 25% below the state average
• Castes or classes where the rate of school drop out in the age group of 5-15
years is at least 25% above the state average.
• Castes or classes among whom the number of matriculates is at least 25%
below the state average.
C. Economic Criteria
• Castes or classes where the average family assets is at least 25% below the
state average
• Castes or classes where the number of family living in kacha houses is at
least 25% above the state average.
• Castes or classes where the source of drinking water is beyond half a K.M.
away from more than 50% of the house holds
• Castes or classes where the number of households having taken
consumption loans is at least 25% above the state average.

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Classification of OBCs
Classification of the other backward classes on any ground is almost impossible,
because of its complex structure. People from many different religion, different
castes and different culture constitute the other backward population and no
separation is possible between them on any ground to stratify them. Even in the
economic aspect a specific level of achievement in income and defined
occupation is prescribed as a criterion for identifying another backward class.
The other important criterion for this is educational achievement of a social
group. There was an unsuccessful effort by the Kalelkar Commission to classify
the other backward classes on the basis of their economic position. The First
Backward Commission which was appointed under Article 340(1) submitted its
Report in 1955. The Report presented a list of 2399 castes and communities
considered as backward. Of these, 237 were considered as most backward,
requiring special attention.
Thus, the category “backward classes” was split into two categories – the
Backwards and most Backwards. The Report was rejected by the Union
Government for having used “caste” and not an economic criterion for identifying
Backward Classes. Consequently, the attempt for classifying the category also
went in vain. Hence, so far as my knowledge is concern there is hardly any line
has been drawn in the same.
Characteristics of OBCs
Socio-demographic characteristics
• These people constitute the largest population among the defined
categories
• People of this category cover wide range of social groups and communities
across all the minority religions and Hindu groups owing to their lower
economic status.
• They have very low social status next to the SCs and STs in the Indian
social hierarchy.

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 • They have abysmal level of performance in economy and education
• In terms of health indicators, these people have very low health status next
to the SCs and STs
Economic Characteristics
• These people belong to lower income groups.
• They have very low representation higher posts in job sector and they are
mainly very low-profile occupation petty business, basket making,
performing magic, agriculture, industrial labour etc.
• The incidence Unemployment, including underemployment is the highest
among all social groups OBCs in rural areas and not significantly less than
the STs
• Asset ownership (including land) per household of OBCs is double that of
SCs and STs, but only about two-thirds of „Others‟ in both rural and urban
areas.
• The incidence of indebtedness, and consequently the debt to asset ratio, is
highest among OBCs of all social groups. It also appears that OBCs borrow
a lower proportion of their debt from institutional sources and have higher
dependence on informal sources as compared to all the other social groups.
• The incidence if Bonded labour and Child labour is higher among these
people
Disabilities of Other Backward Classes
The disabilities or injustices suffered by them are not significantly visible like
those of the SCs and SCs, nevertheless, somewhere down the line there are some
hints why they lagged behind in the race towards development. Those can be
mentioned as us under:
i) Inheritance of poor education after the independence made them almost
handicapped.

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ii) Failure on the part of the successive governments to correctly identify them
and make them get into the mainstream of the society.
iii) Lacks of a comprehensive package for them like that of the SCs and STs, so
that they could come forward for a better life.
iv) They were close to the higher economic class who exploited them for own
interest.
v) Administrative negligence has kept them away from the process of
development.

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