Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Construction and Building Materials

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/conbuildmat

Review

Utilisation of recycled concrete aggregates for sustainable highway

pavement applications; a review
Chidozie Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire, Soon Poh Yap ⇑, Chiu Chuen Onn, Choon Wah Yuen,
Hussein Adebayo Ibrahim
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

h i g h l i g h t s

RCA can be fully used in pavement lower layers and concrete pavement surfacing.

There is disparity in reported replacement levels of RCA for asphalt mixtures.

RCA mixes can be improved by chemical, thermal, and biological treatments.

RCA is a sustainable alternative to natural aggregates for highway pavements.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Highway pavements are very expensive infrastructures that consume very high amounts of natural
Received 28 June 2019 resources. Utilisation of recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) for highway pavement construction can bring
Received in revised form 8 October 2019 a number of benefits towards environmental, economic and societal sustainability. This would reduce the
Accepted 2 November 2019
carbon footprint of the construction industry, result in natural resource conservation, reduction in harm-
Available online 12 November 2019
ful emissions, and minimisation of cost of pavement construction. This paper reviews available literatures
on the use of RCA for highway pavements. Both flexible and rigid pavements were covered. The studies
Keywords:
revealed that RCA can be applied in all pavement layers; subgrade, capping, subbase, roadbase, and sur-
Asphalt
Concrete
facing. The physical and mechanical properties of the RCA and how they affect its performance were stud-
Life cycle assessment ied and compared with those of natural aggregates (NA). Available techniques for improving the
Waste disposal performance of RCA in concrete and asphalt mixes were also discussed. The benefits and sustainability
Sustainability gains of RCA utilisation were summarised from available life cycle assessments conducted in the litera-
Recycled aggregates tures. RCA has been considered as a feasible sustainable alternative to NA in highway pavement applica-
tions, but there still exists a large disparity in the recommendations of the replacement levels for asphalt
mixes. To ensure that the pavements are sustainable without compromising their quality and function-
ality, the utilisation of RCA should be encouraged after further indebt studies that would lead to a more
consensus standard specifications and guidelines.
Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Background of the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.0.1. Characterisation properties of RCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.1. Chemical compositions of RCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.2. Physical properties of RCA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. General overview of highway pavements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4. Sustainable pavement construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Poh Yap).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2019.117444
0950-0618/Ó 2019 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
2 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

5. Utilization of RCA for lower pavement layers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

6. Utilization of RCA for rigid pavement surfacing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
7. Utilization of RCA in asphalt mixtures used for flexible pavement surfacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
8. Improving the performance of RCA. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
9. Life cycle benefits for utilisation of RCA in highway pavement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
10. Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
11. Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Declaration of Competing Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

1. Introduction recommendations from recent studies to enable a quick appraisal

of the extent of such disparities. This eventually helped to glean
One major consequence of global economic growth and popula- much information on the way forward and also reveals areas of
tion rise is an increase in solid waste generation. Solid wastes are necessary studies towards harmonizing the practice of utilization
produced from commercial, industrial, and all forms of anthro- of RCA for sustainable highway pavement applications.
pogenic activities [1]. Some of these wastes are usually dumped
in landfills whereas others are indiscriminately disposed in water- 2. Background of the study
bodies, drainage ditches, and fallow grounds surrounding human
habitations. The later has been the practice in most urban and rural As traffic volumes and vehicular axle weights continue to
parts of many developing countries. Such unhealthy waste disposal increase with increasing world population and advancing tech-
is very dangerous to humans, animals, and plants due to the high nologies, highway construction and maintenance has become very
level of toxic solid wastes [2,3]. Besides, piling up of solid waste frequent in all parts of the world. As these road construction activ-
in landfills tend to occupy the available land which should have ities become more frequent, a resulting high demands for construc-
been used for other purposes. Hence the social, environmental, tion materials become inevitable. The implication of exhaustive
and economic costs of solid waste disposal are too high to be use of these natural materials is that their availability for future
ignored. This makes all forms of solid wastes disposal unsustain- use is not guaranteed [14]. Utilisation of some waste materials
able. Furthermore, the construction industry which plays a major for pavement construction has become a viable alternative towards
role in urbanization and civilization of global cities produces very reserving the natural materials as well as solving waste disposal
high amount of solid wastes both as part of the construction pro- problems [15].
cesses and also after the service life of the structures [4,5]. Increase Increase in waste generation, due to population increase and
in population results in higher demand for construction and recon- urbanisation, has brought much concern world over, though devel-
struction of existing structures and pavements. The old materials oped countries pay greater attention to this than developing coun-
used for the construction works are traditionally disposed of and tries. It was reported that the annual global generation of wastes
new materials are sourced for the purpose of new constructions was way above 3 billion tonnes before 2012 [1]. Within this period,
[6,7]. This increases the environmental threats from the construc- waste generation in China was estimated to be 1 billion tonnes,
tion industry making it one of the industries with the highest car- making China the leading country in waste generation [16]. By
bon footprints [8]. This has drawn the attention of many 2014, China remained the highest waste generating country with
stakeholders and researchers to find more efficient ways to address 1.13 billion tonnes of wastes generated [1]. This represents a 13%
this situation. Construction activities cannot just be put to stop due rise within two years. This high amount of waste generation can
to the need for shelter, transport, and other civil works. Thus, reuse be attributed to the rapid economic and industrial growth of the
and recycling of construction wastes has been the most feasible country as well as high population density. These are also the fac-
and promising attempt towards mitigation of the high carbon foot- tors in India and United States of America that places them next in
print of the construction industry [4,6,9]. Most construction and the list after China. It is estimated that greater than 50% of global
demolition wastes include the aggregates used for the construction waste generation is from these three countries and up to 67% of
adhered to by the old matrix used in binding them together. There such wastes are concrete wastes [1,17].
are also some other particles like wood, bricks, steel, humus and Concrete waste is a major part of construction and demolition
asbestos materials mixed up in the wastes, but the wastes are com- wastes [18,19]. Over 6 billion tons of concrete is produced annually
prised of up to 85% of aggregates [10]. Hence, recycling of aggre- around the world [20]. This contributes to the high carbon foot-
gates used for construction works has been the major concern print of the construction industry because of such heavy demand
over the years. By the crushing of the demolished concretes, the of natural resources and embodied energy [21]. This becomes more
aggregates can be recaptured or recovered and be reused for the unsustainable when the high volume of concrete wastes generated
same construction process or recycled into other construction during the construction and end of life of all forms of concrete
activities [11–13]. Such aggregates are referred to as recycled con- structures are being disposed of in landfills. As illustrated in
crete aggregates (RCA). The use of RCA in different aspects of struc- Fig. 1, Arabani and Azarhoosh [5] reported that up to 75% of con-
tural applications have been proven to be effective with some struction and demolition wastes are concrete wastes.
forms of modifications in their mix design and other improve- Disposal of these wastes have several problems on both the ter-
ments, but to date, there is yet a very high laxity in the utilization restrial and aquatic flora and fauna. Insufficient dumping sites have
of RCA for highway pavement applications due to several perfor- resulted to indiscriminate disposal of such wastes, resulting in the
mance uncertainties which has not been addressed. There are yet degradation of local environments. In addition, the cost of trans-
very wide disparities in the recommendations from several portation and disposal of wastes in landfills has become very high.
researchers as to the performance of RCA pavements with inconsis- Due to increasing awareness and adoption of greener strategies in
tent recommendations on the utilization levels. This paper, construction, some of these material wastes have become valuable
therefore, attempts to summarize these varied discoveries and resources and are increasingly being utilised in various engineering
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 3

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Construcon site (%) Demolion site (%) General civil work (%) Renovaon work (%)

Metal Wood Plasc Paper Concrete

Rock/Rubble Sand/Soil Glass/Tile Others

Fig. 1. A typical composition of construction wastes [5].

applications. This has brought about several studies on the utilisa- depends primarily on the properties of the binder and the aggre-
tion of different construction waste materials in different layers of gates. The aggregates, which play the major role in load transfer,
highway pavements and a good number of such wastes have been form the skeleton of the mix. Aggregates constitute the major pro-
found satisfactorily applicable in highway pavements. For instance, portion of the asphalt and concrete mixes, both by weight and by
waste glass, steel slag, old tyres, and used plastics were included volume. Tayabji et al. [42] reported up to 85% and 68% proportion
into asphalt mixtures [9,22]. They were found to improve the vol- of aggregates by the volume of asphalt and concrete respectively.
umetric properties and stability of the asphalt mixes. The plastic Hence, the performance of the pavement is greatly influenced by
wastes enhanced the properties of the bituminous binder [23]. the quality of the aggregate used. The use of recycled aggregates
Bianchini et al. [24] reported on the suitability of construction is more reliable when the properties are homogeneous and satis-
and demolition wastes, including crushed bricks and RCA for con- fies necessary standards [10,43]. An effective utilization of recycled
crete, mortar, and brick tiles productions. Rahman et al. [3] also aggregates instead of NA in highway pavements both as surfacing
reported that crushed bricks and RCA are suitable for pipe backfill- materials for rigid and flexible pavements and as roadbase and
ing and pavement subbase applications. RCA has attracted more subbase materials has a far reaching economic and environmental
attention than other construction wastes in recent studies, due to benefits. This ensures a reduced dependence on NA which is a
the high amount of concrete wastes frequently generated globally depleting natural resource, as well as effective and sustainable dis-
[25,26]. Moreover, with the depletion of natural aggregates (NA) posal of pavement and other concrete demolition activities. This in
across the globe, disposal of these concrete wastes has become effect helps to mitigate landfill problems due to reduced wastes,
inefficient and unreasonable since there is a potential for their local environmental pollution due to reduced quarrying, reduced
reuse or recycling [6,27–29]. urban heat island phenomenon, among other benefits [44]. This
Many researchers have studied the potential use of RCA and review paper also aims at summarising previous research works
found it to be satisfactorily applied to highway roadbase and sub- that have been conducted on utilisation of RCA for highway pave-
base [16,30], concrete [26,31,32], and asphalt [33–39]. However, it ment applications. The physical, chemical, and mechanical proper-
has been submitted that the use of RCA in pavement must be done ties of RCA and how they affect its performance in concrete and
after duly confirming the functional and durability performance of asphalt mixes have been summarised. The view of different
the mix based on established laboratory experiments as well as researchers on the sustainability benefits and implementation
field performance [40,41]. The performance of highway pavements challenges of RCA utilisation is also reported in this review.

2.0.1. Characterisation properties of RCA

The preparation of RCA for use involved braking of demolished

concrete into materials with specified sizes and quality which can
be combined to produce aggregates of required grading. Fig. 2
shows a typical demolition waste comprising of uncrushed con-
crete waste, with the paints on the surface, stockpiled together
with other materials like steel, sandcrete, and wood particles.
When these other materials are separated, the concrete can be
crushed using a crusher machine and sieved to get the RCA.
Fig. 3 shows images of RCA in comparison with NA. It is expected
that the properties of RCA will be influenced by the properties of
the parent concrete materials, the presence of impurities, and the
process of aggregate extraction. The chemical composition of RCA
Fig. 2. A hip or raw demolition wastes [45]. as well as its physical properties are summarised in this section.
4 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

Fig. 3. Photos of RCA and NA including; (a) Coarse RCA, (b) Coarse NA, (c) microscopic image of RCA surface, and (d) microscopic image of NA surface [46].

Table 1
Chemical composition of the aggregates and Portland cement.

Chemical Components % Composition

NA [47] RCA [47] RCA [24] RCA [49] RCA [50] OPC [48]
SiO2 68.59 54.67 54.42 65.1 65.37 19.91
Al2O3 12.96 8.58 9.59 9.2 5.33 5.11
Fe2O3 5.40 3.21 3.31 3.1 2.16 2.15
MgO 2.18 2.10 3.28 1.4 1.91 3.87
CaO 2.37 17.38 14.1 9.1 13.93 62.27
SO3 – – – 0.1 – 3.49
Na2O 1.97 1.32 1.38 1.5 1.19 0.16
K2O 3.17 2.08 1.92 2.6 0.61 0.08
MnO 0.07 0.07 0.1 – 0.05 –
TiO2 0.56 0.33 0.38 – 0.22 –
SrO 0.03 0.54 – – – –
P2O5 0.26 0.16 0.27 – 0.11 –
ZrO2 0.07 0.06 – – – –

2.1. Chemical compositions of RCA 2.2. Physical properties of RCA

The chemical composition of NA and Ordinary Portland RCA is composed of aggregates (both coarse and fine) ranging
Cement (OPC) as reported by Yang and Lim [47] and Moradian from 65% to 70% and the adhered cement mortar ranging from
et al. [48] respectively, are presented in Table 1. These are pre- 30% to 35% produced from the crushing of concrete wastes. The
sented together with the chemical composition of RCA from dif- amount and strength of cement mortar depends on the properties
ferent authors. This enables a close comparison of the chemical of the original concrete which in turn affects the performance of
composition of RCA as reported by the authors. It also helped to the RCA [51,52]. RCA is produced in different shapes depending
make comparison between the chemical properties of NA, RCA, on the method and extent of crushing [28]. Considering the impor-
and OPC. tant role the aggregates play in asphalt and concrete mixes, evalu-
The CaO composition of cement is as high as 62.27% whereas ation of the properties of the aggregates to be utilised cannot be
that of NA is as low as 2.37%. The NA is very rich in silica and alu- overemphasised.
minium oxide. All the reported values of the chemical compounds Before RCA can be used for any construction project, it should
for RCA fall between the values for NA and cement. Most of the val- be subjected to some standard tests acceptable in the country
ues for RCA are almost the average of the values for NA and where the construction is to be carried out. The same set of prop-
cement. The RCA has a range of 5%–21% reduction in silica content, erty tests for the conventional materials will also be conducted on
but contains four to seven times the CaO composition of NA. These any proposed non-conventional materials. The relevant physical
show a very significant variation in SiO2 and CaO compositions of and mechanical characteristics of aggregates include size and gra-
RCA from NA. This is as a result of the presence of adhered mortar dation, shape and angularity, surface texture, specific gravity and
and absorbed cement binder in the RCA. water absorption, density, durability, toughness and hardness,
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 5

resistance to polishing, soundness, cleanness and the deleterious

LA abrasion (%)

<35ASTMC131
materials contained. Hence, there is a need to ascertain the proper-
ties of RCA for use in pavements. Different countries have different,
but similar, specifications and standards for a material to be uti-

34.68
25.35

36.88
27.21
24.2

31.5
26.1
40.7 lised for pavement construction. This is to ensure that the final pro-

31
25
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–

–
duct obtained using the non-conventional materials complies with
the minimum standard requirements of strength, stability, durabil-
>40BS812-114
aggregates (%)

ity, among other requirements, whether for partial or for full

replacement.
Polished

The physical properties of RCA varies with different sources

44.9

52.5
50.1

50.5
[53,54]. The nature of the source of RCA would affect the properties
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–

–
–
–

–
–
in a very different manner. Yang & Lim [47] assessed the mechan-
ical strength and shrinkage properties of concretes produced with
<10ASTM D4791

RCA recovered from old railway pre-stressed concrete sleepers. The

elongation (%)
Flakiness and

values of the elastic modulus and drying shrinkage properties of

RCA concrete achieved from the test results was comparable to
those of NA. The concrete quality with RCA obtained from highway
19.1

5.98
4.66
6.9

3.1
2.2
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–

–
–
or airbase reconstruction is superior to that from building demoli-
tion waste recycling plants [53]. RCA manufactured from wastes of
precast structural concrete has been found to be of high quality
Aggregate crushing

<35 BS812-110)

[55]. Nevertheless, the physical properties of RCA have been gener-

ally found to be worse than those of NA [56]. The reason for the low
value (%)

quality of RCA from demolition wastes could be the presence of

29.21
16.91
32.4
23.9

31.2
23.7
24.4
19.1

28.3
23.2

31.5
26.4

deleterious materials and other material particles like bricks, clay,

–
–

–
–
–
–

–
–
–

wood, etc. The properties of the original concrete also have influ-
Properties

ence on the properties of the RCA produced. Table 2 shows the

Absorption (%)

<3 ASTMC127

physical properties of NA in comparison with RCA as reported by

different authors.
Water

11.63

These values confirm that RCA particles have higher water

1.64

9.68
1.58

4.57
0.46

2.06
6.30

1.09
5.6

4.9

3.2

3.4

5.8
1.7
1.9
0.4
7.0
0.6

0.2

0.4

absorption, as well as lower density, lower impact resistance, and

lower abrasion resistance than NA [61–63]. Reported values of
water absorption of RCA are above the 3% specified. The water
Density at SSD

absorption of fine RCA are higher than the water absorption of

AS1141.6.1

coarse RCA for all the cases reported. This suggests that the water
(g/cm3)

2.355
2.674
2.414
2.657

2.532
2.731
2.512
2.650

absorption of RCA would vary with different gradations. The great-

–
–
–
–
–
–

–
–
–
–
–

–
–

est variation in water absorption was observed by Ma et al. [58]

who reported a water absorption as high as 11.63% for fine RCA
Dry density

AS1141.6.1

but 4.9% for coarse RCA taken from the same concrete. This shows
(g/cm3)

a 137% increase in water absorption of fine RCA over coarse RCA.

2.663
2.256
2.633
2.257
2.673
1.957
2.441

2.724

2.187
2.452
2.230

2.450

2.430
2.580

There is no much difference in reported water absorption for NA

–
–

–
–
–
–
–

of different gradations. RCA also has a lower specific gravity than

NA. The report from Qasarawi and Asi [60] shows that the specific
Apparent density

gravity of RCA can also be less that the standard specifications. In

AS1141.6.1

terms of the abrasion resistance and crushing values of the aggre-

(g/cm3)

gates, NA has better properties, but the values for RCA are also
2.549
2.292
2.679
2.697
2.539

2.639
2.573

2.667
2.743
2.645
2.717
2.706

within the standard specifications. Internal cracks, heterogeneity,

–
–

–
–
–
–
–

–
–

and presence of residual mortar are the three main factors gleaned
from the literatures as the major causes of these weaker properties
Specific Gravity

>2.5ASTMC127

in RCA.
The presence of tiny cracks from the crushing impart can have
(g/cm3)

some effects on the properties of RCA [37,64]. RCA can be readily

2.28
2.57
2.59
2.32
2.66

2.23
2.67

crushed, and there is a high possibility that the aggregate particles

–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–

may be crushed during the loading process. Particle crushing,

which occurs in a soil element under stress, depends on the follow-
Coarse limestone

Fine limestone

Crushed Stone

Crushed Stone
Coarse granite

Coarse bassalt

ing parameters; particle size distribution, particle shape, state of

Fine granite
Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA

Coarse RCA
Coarse NA

Coarse NA

effective stress, and effective stress path [65]. Under a high effec-
aggregate

aggregate
Fine RCA

Fine RCA

Fine RCA
Physical properties of RCA and NA.

Material

Fine NA

Fine NA

tive confining pressure, a significant amount of RCA particles break

due to the cyclic shearing. The particle breakages occurred by split-
ting and not by abrasion. Hence, some particles may crack partially
without disintegrating, making them effectively of lesser particle
Qasarawi & Asi, [60]
Radevic et al. [59]

gradation than they are presumed to be based on the sieve analy-

Requirements
Karem et al. [57]

Tahmoorian and
Samali, [25]

Lee et al., [37]

Rafi et al. [61]

Ma et al., [58]

sis. Besides, the loosening of the dry mortar under the crushing
load also induces some internal stresses within the RCA [66].
Reference

Standard

Due to the different sources and possible presence of impurities,

Table 2

the properties of RCAs are inconsistent and incorporating them in

asphalt and concrete mixes have also displayed some obvious
6 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

variations in properties [38,66–70]. Any other material found in intensive, hence it is expedient that highway pavements should be
RCA that was not part of the original concrete is considered as an durable and resilient to withstand the traffic load throughout its
impurity [5]. This made RCA highly heterogeneous in nature espe- design life [74]. Pavement structures typically consist of superim-
cially when they are recovered from demolition sites. posed layers of different materials that increase in durability and
The presence of residual mortar on the RCA particles results in stability towards the surface (weakest layer on the bottom, stron-
the formation of a more porous surface texture of RCA, when com- gest layer at the surface) [75]. It is a kind of multi-layer system
pared with NA. This porous surface can be rougher with higher arranged with materials of various geo-mechanical properties
specific surface area as can be observed from a scanning electron expected to directly support vehicular traffic and also transmit
microscope (SEM) analysis [46,66]. This explains the reason for vehicular axle loads to the subgrade or foundation soil [10]. Pave-
the higher water absorption of RCA [37,71]. ments are broadly classified into two types; flexible pavements
These factors combined to make RCA relatively rough, porous, and rigid pavements. The classification is based on the structural
light, and with higher water absorption, but the presence of adhered performance achieved from the combination of materials used
mortar was judged to be the major factor [37,72]. Since the water [76]. Flexible pavements are bituminous roads with less flexural
absorption for the NA are not that wide apart, it can be said that strength while rigid pavements are concrete roads characterised
the presence of adhered mortar on the RCA is the major reason for by high flexural strength. Other innovative developments have been
the higher water absorption than the presence of internal cracks made towards modifying the properties of these types of pavements
and impurities. This is because the fine RCA contains much propor- leading to categories like, pervious pavements, reflective pave-
tion of the mortar, and hence the effect is more pronounced there. ments, interlocking pavements, composite pavements among
These poor physical properties of RCA, especially the water absorp- others. Any of these can be classified within the two broad categories
tion and strength properties, make it less preferable to NA [37,62]. It of flexible and rigid pavements depending on the binding material.
calls for a more adaptive mix design for utilisation of RCA in pave- Fig. 4 illustrates the layers of a typical pavement cross-section.
ments in order to ensure a better functional and stable surfacing. The quality of the pavement depends directly and chiefly on the
quality of the materials used for the pavement. Ensuring that the
3. General overview of highway pavements pavement remains functional throughout its service life is the
major goal of pavement structural design, and material selection
Highways are very important transportation infrastructures that is critical, both at the design and construction stages. This means
contribute significantly to the economy and urbanization of global that any undermining of the quality of pavement materials will
cities [73]. Provision of highway infrastructures is very cost result in compromised design integrity and undue failure of all

Fig. 4. Typical flexible and rigid pavement cross-sections.

Fig. 5. Materials composition by volume of rigid and flexible pavement surfaces [42].
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 7

or parts of the pavement. Aggregates are the major components of increasing the cost of transportation of aggregates to the required
the pavements. They are solely used in lower pavement layers. plants and sites. Besides, waste disposal problems for concrete
They also form up to 62% to 68% by volume of concrete pavement wastes in landfills have also been identified as a major issue of con-
surfacing as well as 80% to 85% by volume of asphalt pavement sur- cern [25]. This has led to studies aimed at discovering and evaluat-
facing as illustrated in Fig. 5 [42]. This high amount of aggregates ing some innovative alternatives to address the issues of waste
point to the fact that aggregates could be the most important disposal, depletion of natural resource base, and hike of construc-
aspect to be considered in pavement sustainability. More so, when tion cost associated with conventional construction materials [82].
they also form the lower pavement layers. Many of these materials, with varying perceived economic and
environmental benefits, have different degrees of applications
depending on their availability, ease of preparation, and observed
4. Sustainable pavement construction
laboratory performances.
It is noteworthy, that various factors affect the quality of recy-
Adopting the concepts of sustainable development has become
cled materials making them perform less than the conventional
more important in recent times as rapid growth in population and
materials, in some cases. Besides, ensuring that a recycled material
urbanisation has hindered conservation and protection of the nat-
achieves some minimum standard requirements is very expedient.
ural resources. The need for innovative and sustainable materials
Utilizing them will not be justified when they fail to meet those set
for virtually all forms of construction works have been high for
requirements, unless where some modifications can possibly
many decades now. These needs are even much higher in recent
improve their performances. In any case, a level of satisfactory per-
times due to various dimensions of environmental concerns
formance must be ascertained when replacing conventional mate-
which include ozone layer depletion and climate change due to
rials with any innovative sustainable alternative. Therefore, there
greenhouse gas emissions, depletion and near exhaustion of
are lots of trade-offs to be made in attempt to maximise the sus-
non-renewable materials, as well as high cost of procurement of
tainability gains from utilisation of recycled materials in highway
conventional construction materials.
pavements. The fact that the extent of this utilisation is not
The highways form a significant part of construction industry
expected to rub the pavement of its structural and functional char-
where the use of the natural resources has emerged as a severe
acteristics, raises more concerns in this regards. Achieving a good
threat to the environment [77]. The highways are transport infras-
strength and functionality makes it difficult to achieve 100% reuse
tructures and contribute heavily to the carbon footprint of the sec-
and/or recycling of all the materials for a particular project at the
tor due to processes involved in materials procurement, extraction,
same time. But by replacing some components of the pavement
and placement, which also generate a lot of wastes. The main
materials with non-conventional alternatives, a measurable level
objective of highway pavement sustainability is to adopt measures
of sustainability can be achieved. Recycling of aggregates meets
that can lead to improvement of environmentally friendly and
the need of NA substitution as well as effective reduction of solid
economically viable infrastructures that will be acceptable to the
wastes [12,38].
people both at present and in the future. This is consistent with
Sustainable development principles favours the use of RCA for
the sustainable development goals which defines sustainable
the following reasons; reduction of waste quantities, improving
development as the development that meets the need of the pre-
on environmental friendliness, preservation of natural resource
sent without compromising the ability of the future generation
base, steel recapture during recycling, and reduction of waste dis-
to meet their own needs [14]. The environment, economy, and
posal costs [41]. Rafi et al. [61] in their research on the use of RCA
society, as illustrated in Fig. 6, are the three major considerations
for highway pavements found that RCA promises to achieve most
for implementation of sustainable development principles [78,79].
of the identified desired benefits. It offers a holistic benefit with
Achieving this goal holistically is not a trivial issue. Highway
regards to the triple bottom line of sustainable development [15].
pavement construction and maintenance is consistently in high
However, in as much as the use of RCA for pavement construction,
demand of natural non-renewable resources and industrial prod-
promises such benefits, care needs to also be taken in order not to
ucts, especially mineral aggregates gotten from quarry extraction
compromise the pavement structural performance and serviceabil-
[80]. The demand of these materials rise with urban sprawl,
ity [66,83–85].
advancement in vehicular technologies, and increase in vehicular
volumes across the globe. These conventional materials are
extracted, processed, and produced in some unsustainable ways
5. Utilization of RCA for lower pavement layers
that pose traits to the environment. This high dependence on NA
has made it insufficient in some parts of the world [81]. Moreso,
The recycling of RCA and other wastes in pavement construc-
the inhibitive cost of new quarries results in very high cost of
tion is not a new practice among European countries where there
aggregates. Existing quarries are also located in secluded areas
are stricter rules on waste management and waste disposal restric-
tions [86–88]. Some Asian countries like Japan and India has also
advanced to extensive recycling of concrete wastes, but more in
lower pavement layers. Studies have shown that RCA can effec-
tively be utilised for lower pavement layers like subgrades, sub-
base and roadbase, with improved properties than NA [89–95].
Different types of recycled aggregates were assessed by Dhir
et al. [96] in attempt to establishing their suitability for different
applications in highway pavements. In their research, they mainly
focused on RCA for road pavement applications in unbound,
hydraulically bound and bituminous bound forms. The California
Bearing Ratio (CBR) was found to be lower than the NA but the
results revealed that the material could be sufficiently strong for
use in subgrade and subbase layers, in unbound applications. Poon
and Chan [97] evaluated the use of RCA combined with crushed
Fig. 6. Fundamental sustainable development considerations. clay bricks in unbound layer of flexible pavement. Two mixes,
8 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

one containing 75% RCA and 25% clay bricks and the other contain- NA. Their methodology involved the use of a high-performance
ing 50% RCA and 50% clay bricks. The results of the compaction dynamic monitoring equipment and impact deflectometer to eval-
tests, and CBR of the mixes were compared with those of NA used uate the load bearing capacity and strength of the sections. The
as control. The crushed clay brick brought about increase in water RCA road section achieved a 7 day compactive strength of
absorption expressed as higher optimum moisture contents and a 10.15 MPa and the NA section achieved 10.95 MPa. The observed
consequent decrease in maximum dry densities of the mixes. Nev- deflection on both sections were quite comparable. Neves et al.
ertheless, the CBR of both mixes were found to be within accept- [103] and Jimenez et al. [104] used a falling weight deflectometer
able limits. A very similar test was conducted by Leite et al. [30] to test sections of a road constructed with RCA in Lisbon and Por-
on construction and demolition wastes recycled for the same pur- tugal respectively. They both concluded that 100% RCA can be used
pose, and similar conclusions were made. Another study by Arulra- for roadbase without risk of any negative environmental impact.
jah et al. [98] indicated that RCA has better geomechanical and The deflection observed at the section made with RCA as well as
geoenvironmental properties than crushed bricks, reclaimed NA were comparable and satisfactory. Therefore, based on the val-
asphalt aggregates and recycled glass for use as pavement base ues of CBR, UCS, resilient modulus, and field deflections reported in
and subbase materials. Based on the compaction, CBR, and shear the literatures, it can be concluded that 100% of RCA can be used
strength properties of the various waste materials tested, RCA for lower pavement layers, without compromising their ability to
was found to be of superior quality than conventional granular carry heavy traffic loads.
subbase materials. Behiry [99] also assessed the potential use of
RCA in unbound pavement layers. In his study, conventional lime-
stone aggregates were replaced by RCA at 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% 6. Utilization of RCA for rigid pavement surfacing
by weight of the mix. CBR, bearing capacity, tensile strength, plate
load, and resilient modulus tests were conducted. Higher uncon- RCA has been found as a good replacement for conventional NA
fined compressive strength (UCS) values were recorded with for concrete mixtures displaying similar properties and perfor-
higher RCA content. There was no significant difference in moisture mances in comparison with NA [7,12,60,105,106]. The research
susceptibility of hydraulically bound materials made with RCA results by Yang and Lim [47] favoured the use of RCA as coarse
when compared to NA. Also, an increase in strength ratio up to aggregate replacement rather than fine aggregate replacement.
20% compared to control mix was observed. Haidder et al. [100] Both studies adopted 100% replacement level for their studies
reported that the resilient modulus of RCA, observed in their but focused more on modification of the mix design methodologies
experiment, was twice that of NA. The results from a series of in order to achieve better concrete quality.
repeated load triaxial tests on RCA from building demolition pro- Some negative effects of utilisation of RCA in concrete pave-
duced comparatively smaller permanent strain and greater resili- ments have been identified by some researchers [107–110]. Though
ent modulus than those of the commonly used subbase natural not much literatures have been published in recent times on the
materials [2]. Besides, Nataatmadja and Tan [101] reported that effect of RCA inclusion on the performance of rigid pavements, a
the resilient modulus of RCA depends on the compressive strength lot of publications exist on the effect of RCA on general concrete
of the original concrete. But both the RCA from 15 MPa concrete applications. Since rigid pavements are concrete pavements, its
and those from 75 MPa concrete were found to be satisfactory as behaviour and performances can basically be assessed or predicted
base and subbase materials. The presence of crushed bricks in in terms of behavioural characteristics of concrete. The use of RCA
RCA would reduce its resilient modulus, but Arulraja et al. [102] could lead to reduction in compressive strength, tensile strength,
pointed out that the performance of RCA containing up to 25% of flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of concretes used for
crushed bricks is still satisfactory as a roadbase material. rigid pavements. These are the fundamental properties adopted
The field study performed by Perez et al. [13] on the perfor- as indicators to the behaviour of concrete used for different struc-
mance of RCA treated with cement for base and sub-base layers tural applications like the highway pavements. Figs. 7–10 show
shows the suitability of RCA as an alternative aggregate material the effect of RCA inclusion on these properties of concrete.
for roadbase. The test road was divided into two sections, one sec- The compressive strength results reported in Fig. 7 were taken
tion made of RCA base and subbase and another section made of from the 28 day strength of concrete designed for a target

44
Compressive Strength (MPa)

42

40
Ali and Qureshi [111]
38 Arora et al. [107]
Thomas et al. [108]
36
Majhi et al. [112]
34
Cakir [113]

32

30
0 20 40 60 80 100
RCA inclusion (%)
Fig. 7. Effect of RCA inclusion on the compressive strength of concrete [107,108,111–113].
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 9

Split Tensile Strength (MPa)

4.5

4
Ali and Qureshi [111]
Majhi et al. [112]
3.5
Pedro et al. [109]
Thomas et al. [108]
3
Cakir [113]

2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
Inclusion of RCA (%)
Fig. 8. Effect of RCA inclusion on the split tensile strength of concrete [108,109,111–113]

6
Flexural Strength (MPa)

5.5

5
Arora et al. [107]
4.5 Limbachiya et al. [114]
Ismail et al. [110]
4
Majhi et al. [112]
Thomas et al. [108]
3.5
0 20 40 60 80 100
RCA Inclusion (%)
Fig. 9. Effect of RCA inclusion on the Flexural strength of concrete [107,108,110,112,114]

50
Modulus of Elasticity (Gpa)

45

40

Yang and Lim [47]

35 Limbachiya et al. [114]
Silva et al. [115]
30
Pedro et al. [109]
Thomas et al. [108]
25

20
0 20 40 60 80 100
Inclusion of RCA (%)
Fig. 10. Effect of RCA inclusion on concrete modulus of elasticity [47,108,109,114,115]

compressive strength of 30Mpa. There is a sequential reduction in satisfactory as they both achieved above the design compressive
the compressive strength of the concrete with inclusion of RCA. strength of 30 MPa after 28 days of curing.
The highest strengths were reported for the concretes with 0% The split tensile strength reported in Fig. 8 shows that concrete
RCA and the least strengths reported for the concrete with 100% has much lower tensile strength than compressive strength. Vehi-
RCA. The reduction in strength at 25% RCA inclusion ranges from cle loads impose compressive forces on each tracking point, mak-
1% to 10%. This range increased to 13% to 24% at 100% RCA inclu- ing the pavement more prone to withstand moving compressive
sion. This shows that compressive strength of concrete decreases loads than tensile forces. These compressive loads can induce some
as the quantity of RCA increases [107]. The reason for this strength tensile forces on the pavement. For this reason, rigid pavements
loss is as a result of the lower density of RCA compared to NA. that experience heavy traffic from heavy goods vehicles are often
Weaker interfacial bonding due to the adhered mortar also con- prone to raveling. The use of reinforced concrete pavement for
tributed to the strength loss [108,110]. Besides, all the results were such roads have been an efficient practice [75]. The reinforcing
10 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

Table 3
Effect of RCA inclusion on the durability properties of concrete.

Concrete Properties Testing methods Inclusion Levels of RCA (%) Refs.

0 20 25 50 100
Water Absorption (%) 4.9 – 5.3 5.6 6.3 [108]
ASTM C642 3.64 – 3.94 4.53 – [118]
6.0 5.8 – 6.4 8.0 [119]
pffiffiffiffiffi
Sorptivity (mm/ hr ) 7.3 – 9.0 11.2 13.0 [108]
ASTM C1585 0.68 – 0.65 0.81 – [118]
14 – – 16 18.5 [120]
Chloride Permeability (Columbs) 2902 – 3024 3345 3558 [108]
ASTM C1202 3980 – – – 6900 [116]
3900 – – – 6800 [117]
Acid attack resistance (% weight loss) ASTM C267 13.4 – 13.7 14.1 15.2 [108]

Table 4
Negative effects of RCA inclusion to concrete pavements and some recommended precaution.

Effects Implications Precautions Refs.

Reduced Compressive Inability of the pavement to withstand the Increasing the cement content of the mix and proper curing. [121,122,123,124]
Strength traffic loads within its lifetime
Higher Shrinkage Undue structural cracks Placing the mix at a moderate temperature with commensurate [121,122,125,126]
curing, and inclusion of pozzolanic admixtures.
Higher Chloride Quick corrosion of the steel reinforcement Limiting the utilisation of RCA to plain concretes or adoption of [121,127,128,129]
Content bars for reinforced concrete pavements epoxy-coated or corrosion resistant steel reinforced concrete
pavements with RCA, and use of higher binder content.
High Coefficient of More distress and crack inducement to the Using shorter expansion and contraction joint spacing. [130,131,132,133]
thermal Expansion pavement
Lower Modulus of Higher distress to the lower pavement Ensuring that the subbase and base materials are sufficiently [134,135,136]
Elasticity layers, more brittle pavements leading to strong, use of RCA from high strength concrete, and inclusion of
reflective and alligator cracks superplasticisers in the mixes
High permeability/ Not suitable when water proofing Using RCA from high strength concretes, surface coating of the [106,127,128,137,138,123]
water penetration properties are necessary RCA, and inclusion of pozolanic materials
Poor workability of Inconsistent mixtures, rough finishes, Adoption of higher water/cement ratio, use of superplasticisers [138,123,72]
mixes reduced compressive strength and water repellent agents, and pre-soaking of the aggregates.
Reduced Tensile Premature permanent deformation Use of superplasticisers, use of glass fibre, and effective curing. [139,135,140,141],
Strength
High creep strains Multiplication of cracks and rutting even Inclusion of pozzolanic admixtures. [142,18]
at reduced axle loading
Reduced adhesion to Reduced bond strength for reinforced Adoption of more efficient aggregate grading with lesser [143,144,145,146]
steel reinforcements concrete pavements, scaling of the proportion of fine RCA and use of deformed bars instead of plain
concrete covers, and undue cracks steel as reinforcements.

steel, which has high tensile strength, helps to improve the tensile inferior durability quality but the variances are minimal, except
strength of the concrete. Comparing the effect of RCA inclusion on for chloride permeability where high values have been reported
the compressive strength and split tensile strength of the concrete, for 100% RCA inclusion by Hwang et al. [116] and Ann et al. [117].
it can be said from the figures that RCA inclusion has a lower effect Hence, the researchers concluded that RCA can be a replace-
on the tensile strength of concrete than its compressive strength. ment for NA in concrete but submitted that, with some forms of
The curves of compressive strength are much steeper than those improvements, concretes made with RCA can perform as good or
of split tensile strength results. A similar observation can be made better than conventional concretes of the same target compressive
for the flexural strength and the resilient modulus presented in strengths [116,119]. These show that pavement paved with con-
Fig. 9 and Fig. 10 respectively. crete containing higher percentages of RCA can live up to their
Generally, these results reveal the possibility of RCA in con- design lives, but would not be as durable as the ones with conven-
cretes used for rigid pavement surfacing. But the strength proper- tional concrete mixes. Premature cracks and undue pavement fail-
ties of the concrete may reduce with RCA inclusion. This would ures are undesirable occurrences that can manifest. These are
affect the durability of the concrete. Table 3 shows the durability basically as a result of the low strength dry mortar coatings on
properties of concrete with RCA inclusion. The water absorption the aggregates. But these effects does not appear to be without
shoes how porous the concrete is to imbibe water, whereas the solutions or mitigations. Table 4 presents a summary of some of
sorptivity indicates water absorption by capillary action. Higher these effects with some recommended precautions. For instance,
water absorption and sorptivity shows that the concrete is more Hwang et al. [116] and Ann et al. [117] reported that treatment
permeable with poorer interfacial zones. The weight loss of a con- of concrete with pozzolanic admixtures can improve its resistance
crete specimen under sulphuric acid attack is used as an indicator to chloride penetration. They both observed that inclusion of 30%
to the resistance of the concrete to acid attacks. Resistance to chlo- pulverized fly ash and 60% granulated blast furnace slag would
ride permeability also shows the resistance of the pavement to cor- not only bring the concrete within the moderate level of chloride
rosive substances that can accelerate deterioration of all or parts of penetration, but to safer levels than conventional concrete. Apart
the concrete structure. These are important factors to consider for from inclusion of pozzolanic admixtures in the concrete mix, adop-
highway pavement which absorbs both surface and ground water tion of mix designs with higher cement content, proper curing, and
with various ranges of acidity and proportions of contaminants. inclusion of superplasticisers can ensure a good performance of the
The results show that inclusion of RCA in concrete can result in RCA concrete pavements. Some other precautions specific to some
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 11

Table 5
Partial replacement levels of RCA in asphalt mixtures.

Refs. Type of Mix % RCA Recommendation Criteria

inclusion
Paranavithana and Mohajerami [70] Hot Mix Asphalt 100 Comparable stability and volumetric properties with NA mixtures
Lee et al. [37] Hot Mix Asphalt 100 Satisfactory performance tests including moisture and rutting resistance
Mills-Beales et al. [84] Asphalt Mixtures 75 Satisfactory performance tests including moisture and rutting resistance
Zulkati, et al. [153] Hot Mix Asphalt 60 Satisfactory resistance to permanent deformation with inclusion up to this level
Albayati et al. [11] Hot Mix Asphalt 60 Stability and Volumetric requirements were violated beyond this level
Rafi et al. [61] Hot Mix Asphalt 50 Beyond this level, the stability and flow values were unsatisfactory
Zhang et al. [12] Hot Mix Asphalt 50 There was a significant drop in stiffness modulus and flexural tensile strength
Wong et al. [39] Hot Mix Asphalt 45 This was the highest replacement done in the study and was found to be
satisfactory based on resilient modulus and creep resistance
Perez et al. [62] Hot Mix Asphalt 40 Satisfactory resistance to permanent deformation
Pasandin and Perez [36] Hot Mix Asphalt 30 This was the highest replacement done in the study and was found to be
satisfactory based on fatigue life and resistance to permanent deformation
Pasandin and Perez [35] Hot Mix Asphalt 30 This was the highest replacement done in the study and was found to be
satisfactory based on water sensitivity, fatigue life and resistance to permanent
deformation
Dhir et al. [96] Bituminous mixtures 30 Satisfactory stiffness modulus, rutting resistance, and fatigue life
Qasrawi and Asi [60] Hot Mix Asphalt 25 Violation of volumetric properties beyond this level
Ossa et al. [105] Asphalt wearing course 20 Higher replacement levels were susceptible to moisture damage
Kowalski et al. [155] Asphalt mixes 15 Higher replacement levels were susceptible to moisture damage

observed poor performances have also been summarised in formance evaluation, authors suggested using RCA as partial
Table 4. replacement of NA in HMA subjected to low traffic conditions. A
similar experiment was conducted by Zulkati et al. [153] and 60%
7. Utilization of RCA in asphalt mixtures used for flexible of RCA was recommended for partial replacement of conventional
pavement surfacing aggregates. Arabani et al. [154] as well as Perez et al. [62] recom-
mended only 40% replacement of natural coarse aggregates with
Flexible pavements are widely adopted for road developments coarse RCA. Replacement of both fine and coarse aggregates with
across the world [147]. These are pavements made with asphalt RCA, in quantities up to 40%, was found to improve the resistance
which is basically a mixture of aggregates, bituminous binder, of asphalt mixtures to permanent deformation [149]. But in terms
and air voids. Little amounts of some other additives and fibres of rutting resistance, Wu et al. [67] and Zhu et al. [38] observed that
can be added in order to improve the performance of the asphalt using 80% or 100% of coarse RCA can improve the resistance of the
mix [148]. The asphalt mixture usually composes of approximately pavement to permanent deformation.
95% aggregate and 5% bituminous binder by weight. The binders Qasrawi and Asi [60] evaluated the effect of using coarse RCA on
are also referred to as asphalt cement whereas the asphalt mix is the basic properties of hot mix asphalt made with two different
also referred to as asphalt concrete. A 1 km length of highway with grades of bitumen. Different percentages of RCA were used to par-
150 mm pavement thickness may require 3750 tons of hot mix tially and completely replace NA in asphalt mixes, using 60/70
asphalt which suggests that for such a road, an estimate of about and 80/100 bitumen grades. Up to 50% replacement level was found
3563 tons of aggregates can be made [149]. Another study also to be acceptable based on the tensile strength ratio, but the volu-
estimated 12,500 tons of aggregates per kilometre run of highway, metric properties of the mixes were violated. The study, therefore
though the width and thickness of the pavements was not properly recommended 25% replacement of NA with RCA for hot mix asphalt
reported [150]. of heavy traffic pavements. But for medium to low traffic roads, the
Several researchers have found that RCA was suitable for flexi- use of RCA in the pavement can be satisfactory beyond 25% replace-
ble pavements based on different forms of performance tests con- ment level. Radević et al. [59] studied the possibility of using RCA in
ducted [61,70,84,151–153]. The flexible pavement has a asphalt mixtures. The experimental research included 10 asphalt
bituminous surfacing. The bituminous or asphaltic surfacing dis- mixtures with partial substitution of NA by RCA, which ranged from
tributes the traffic loads to the lower pavement layers. A greater 15% to 45% of both fine and coarse aggregates. RCA had a satisfactory
intensity of the stress is borne by the surfacing and base materials. performance in the mixes. The stiffness modulus of asphalt mix-
The quality of materials used at these two layers are very impor- tures with RCA was lower compared with the control mixture, espe-
tant to the engineer, and the aggregates comprising up to 95% of cially at high frequencies. The addition of coarse RCA, in general,
the materials are of key concern. Paranavithana and Mohajerani improves the resistance to permanent deformation. The addition
[70] used RCA as 100% replacement of conventional coarse aggre- of up to 30% of fine RCA also improved resistance to permanent
gates in asphaltic concrete. Based on the comparable performance deformation. Albayati et al. [11] recommended the use of coarse
results of RCA mixtures with the control mixtures, they recom- RCA up to 60% in hot asphalt mixtures. This was found to be satisfac-
mended a 100% replacement of coarse NA with RCA, but suggested tory as it fulfils the standard requirements for volumetric properties
further extensive laboratory investigations. of the asphalt. Dhir et al. [96] also observed that RCA can be satisfac-
Further studies have shown that asphalt mixtures containing torily utilized for bituminous mixtures up to about 30%–50% with-
RCA may be more unstable than conventional asphalts. Partial out compromising the stability and flow properties of the
replacement of conventional aggregates by RCA for low volume bituminous mixtures. RCA bituminous mixtures were found to be
roads was studied by Mills-Beale and You [84], adopting 25%, acceptable with respect to their stiffness modulus, rutting resis-
35%, 50%, and 75% replacement levels. The test specimens displayed tance and fatigue resistance with up to 30% of RCA inclusion [96].
a reduction in resilient modulus and tensile strength with increase Hence, utilization of RCA for asphalt pavements can be very satisfac-
in RCA content. The results showed that RCA mixtures failed below tory and sustainable, but there is yet a very big variation in the rec-
satisfactory requirements with the content up to 75%. Based on per- ommended amounts of RCA to be utilized for asphalt pavements.
12 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

the other hand, in Fig. 12, all values obtained for the final rut depth
of mixes made with 20%, 40%, and 60% RCA were still below the typ-
ical 3.5 mm proposed by Austroads Pavement Research Group for
asphalt courses with superior rutting resistance.
The average stiffness moduli of all mixtures with RCA were
lower than the modulus of the control mixture. The impact of gra-
dation on the stiffness modulus is more pronounced than the
impact of the percentage of RCA used. The variations of stiffness
modulus in mixtures containing RCA were generally higher com-
pared with the conventional mixtures. These variations are primar-
ily as a result of the lack of homogeneity of the RCA. The increase of
RCA percentage decreased the resilient modulus and skid resis-
Fig. 11. The flow number test results [57]. tance of the asphalt mixes. The mixes containing RCA also show
lower water sensitivity (stripping resistance) than the control
mixes [60].
The performance of asphalt mixtures was affected by their vol-
umetric properties. Inclusion of RCA to asphalt mixtures can affect
their volumetric properties [11]. These are as a result of the high
water absorption of RCA. Pre-treatment of the RCA prior to mixing
can influence the performance of the mixes. Improving the physi-
cal properties of RCA can as well improve the volumetric properties
of the resulting asphalt mixtures.

8. Improving the performance of RCA

Many researchers have reported a significant decrease in qual-

Fig. 12. Wheel tracking test results for mixes with RCA inclusion [57]. ity of concretes and asphalts with RCA inclusion when compared
with the conventional mixes [35,38,63,156]. High water absorp-
tion, lower density, and lower strength have been frequently
This could be as a result of its heterogeneous nature as most of the reported [34,38,156]. Hence, a decrease in the quality of mixes
experiments follow very similar methodologies. Besides, most of with RCA would be expected, but different techniques of upgrading
the studies did not take note of the effect of gradation as most are the RCA mixes have also been recommended by some researchers.
interested with the coarse aggregates. However, it has been The various types of improvements attempted and their effects of
observed that the use of filler acquired from RCA would not have the properties of RCA and the performances of the resulting
any negative influence on the stiffness and permanent deformation cement and asphalt mixes are summarised in Table 6. Most of
of asphalt mixtures. Arabani et al. [154] found that the filler from the improvement methods are chemical in nature, involving sepa-
RCA may increase the resistance of asphalt mixtures to permanent ration of the weak adhered mortar from the surfaces of the RCA,
deformation. The use of 100% fine RCA would also increases the impregnation of the pore spaces of RCA, or coating the RCA sur-
resistance of asphalt mixtures to permanent deformation in com- faces with the chosen chemical. The choice of chemical depends
parison with conventional mixtures [39,154]. Hence there is a very on these three objectives. It also depends on the expected applica-
wide disparity in the available recommendations on the amount of tion of RCA. For instance, whereas pre-coating of the RCA with
RCA that can be efficiently utilised for asphalt mixtures. The recom- bituminous emulsion is apt for flexible pavement asphalt mixes,
mendations ranges from 15% utilisation of coarse RCA to as much as pre-coating with slag cement would be best for rigid pavement
100% utilisation. Some of the recommendations discussed with the concrete mixes. These applications of the treatment methods in
criteria upon which the researchers made their individual recom- research are included in the table. None of the improvement meth-
mendations are summarised in Table 5. Being that the studies were ods is completely mechanical in nature. This is because the produc-
conducted in different times, at different places, and under different tion of RCA is done by mechanical crushing. Re-crushing of the
conditions (some of which are not clearly stated in the literatures) it aggregates would result in lesser sizes of RCA but not necessarily
is not trivial to certainly ascertain the major reasons for such varia- with improved properties. A combination of thermal and chemical
tions in recommended replacement levels. treatments with mechanical crushing was observed to have some
Nevertheless, asphalt mixtures containing RCA would demand a significant improvement effects on RCA.
higher amount of binder than conventional mixes in order to Furthermore, the performance of RCA concrete can either be
achieve their optimum stability [96,151,154]. This increment in enhanced by increasing the pavement thickness or improving the
binder content resulted in decrease in the density of the asphalt mix quality. Any of these can make it achieve a similar perfor-
mixes. The optimum binder contents were obtained using the Mar- mance as the plain concrete pavements. The mix quality can be
shall method. Karem et al. [57] reported that the RCA mixes can improved by increasing the cement content with a consequent
require a higher optimum binder content ranging from 3% to 30% reduction in water/cement ratio [4]. Improvement of pavement
of that of the conventional mix. This increase in binder content quality yielded a better economic advantage than increasing the
does not result in a superior mix quality than the conventional thickness. Chan et al. [165] investigated the use of fibre as a rein-
mixes [11]. forcement for RCA in rigid pavements. Their research concluded
Karem et al. [57] found that the addition of RCA generally that to support the same design loads, fibre reinforced RCA pave-
reduced the resistance of the asphalt mixtures to rutting based on ment would require lesser pavement thickness than RCA pave-
the wheel track test results. As shown in Fig. 11, the mixtures with ments without reinforcements. But no significant difference was
60% RCA had the highest resistance to permanent deformation observed in the residual flexural strength results between mixes
among other mixes, based on the flow number test conducted. On of RCA with or without fibre reinforcements [166,167]. Besides,
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 13

Table 6
Methods of improving RCA performance and their effects.

Nature of Treatment Method of Treatment Observed Results Refs.

Chemical Carbonation of adhered This resulted in lesser pores in the dry mortar, leading to higher dry density, [157]
mortar decrease in water absorption and drying shrinkage, and increased workability
of the fresh mix concrete mix
Pre-coating with slag cement This resulted in a better matrix interface strength and higher bonding [37]
paste (0.25 mm thickness of strength, leading to a higher tensile strength, improved water sensitivity, and
coating) tensile strength ratio of resulting asphalt (above 70%)
Pre-coating of RCA with This resulted in a more homogenous mixture, improving the fatigue life, [158,159,35]
bitumen emulsion prior to rutting, resilient modulus, and water susceptibility performances of resulting
mixing asphalt
Inclusion of pozzolanic This resulted in better interfacial transition zone, improved workability, [65]
powder flexural strength, and compressive strength of resulting concrete
Soaking in HCl (0.1 M or 0.5 M Improved density, water absorption and mechanical properties of RCA, [29]
for 3 days) resulting in concrete compressive strength up to 50 MPa
Washing with liquid silicon This resulted in a lesser optimum binder content requirement, improved [38,34]
resin moisture susceptibility and temperature sensitivity of asphalt mixes
Impregnation with polyvinyl This resulted in decrease in shrinkage and also improved the mechanical [160]
alcohol (PVA) properties of the concrete
Impregnation of silica fume This resulted in good concrete bonding strength, leading to 30% increase in [161]
solution 7 day compressive strength of concrete and 15% increase in 28 day
compressive strength of resulting concrete
Double coating with cement This resulted in decrease in water absorption of RCA by 12.3%. Higher stiffness [57,162]
slag paste and Sika Tite-BE and dynamic modulus of resulting asphalt was recorded
Thermal Microwave heating This enhanced the compressive strength, flexural strength, elastic modulus of [52]
resulting concrete
Biological Biodeposition of Calcium This resulted in a decrease in water absorption, and improved mechanical [32]
carbonate properties of RCA.
Combination of treatment methods Soaking in HCl and This resulted in removal of adhered mortar, reduced water absorption, [163]
H2SO4 + heating + rubbing improved density, and higher compressive strength of resulting concrete
comparable to NA concrete
Mechanical rubbing at 350 °C This resulted in 22% reduction in water absorption of RCA, and lesser value of [11]
and soaking in acetic acid optimum binder content of resulting asphalt
solution
Mechanical crushing at 250 °C This resulted in the removal of the adhered mortar and made the mechanical [164]
to 800 °C properties of the RCA comparable to NA

Fig. 13. Life cycle phases for highway pavements and the factors considered [4,8].

due to the weaker interfacial transition zone between the RCA and with RCA. The phases of pavement life were succinctly discussed
cement paste during mixing, pre-treatment of RCA before mixing by Santero et al. [8]. Fig. 13 is a schematic illustration of the
remains a very viable solution for RCA from weaker concretes phases and what are involved in them.
[168,169]. However, it was noted that the pre-treating process The energy consumption for RCA production has been esti-
would lead to an undesirable higher cost of RCA processing [56]. mated to produce 4.0 kg CO2 per ton, which represents of reduc-
The life cycle assessment discussed in the next section presents tion of 22% to 65% in the emissions from natural aggregate
more details of cost comparison of RCA pavement with NA production as reported by various researchers [21,27,170]. Hos-
pavements. sain et al. [27] reported up to 65% reduction in emissions of
greenhouse gasses and 58% savings in non-renewable energy con-
9. Life cycle benefits for utilisation of RCA in highway pavement sumption for utilisation of RCA instead of natural aggregates for
highway pavement construction. Serres et al. [170] also reported
Life cycle assessment is important in order to estimate the 35% and 24% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and energy
extent of sustainability benefits derived from substituting NA savings respectively.
14 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444

1200

Energy Consumpon (GJ/km)

1000

800

600
Roadbase
400
Natural Aggregate Roadbase
200

0
Embodied Operaonal Total Energy
Energy Energy Impact
Energy Categories

Fig. 14. Non-renewable energy consumption for NA and RCA in highway roadbase [8].

Material production is the major contributor of CO2 emissions transportation of NA, as well as less concrete debris transportation
for highway pavement construction. It contributes up to 63% of and disposal to limited landfill sites. Greater than 20% reduction in
CO2 emissions whereas material transportation and site machinery ecotoxicity and human health risk was reported for the use of RCA
contributes 25% and 12% respectively [10]. This shows that up to in concrete pavements.
88% of CO2 emissions for pavement construction has to do with
the materials of which the aggregates is the chief contributor 10. Conclusions
[171,172]. Fig. 14 shows a comparison between the energy con-
sumption from for utilisation of RCA for highway pavements in In this paper, past studies on the use of RCA for highway pave-
comparison to natural aggregates. The figure presents a 63% sav- ments have been reviewed. Both flexible and rigid pavements were
ings in total energy demand of natural aggregates pavement by covered. The review gathered available information from the litera-
RCA pavement. Hence, the sustainability gains for RCA utilisation tures on the use of RCA as a pavement subgrade, subbase, base, and
in highway pavements is obviously significant. surfacing material. The physical and mechanical properties of the
Mroueh et al. [173] studied the use of some industrial by- RCA and how they affect its performance were studied and com-
products in pavement construction. RCA was one of the materials pared with those of NA. Available techniques for improving the per-
studied. Life cycle assessment was conducted considering the util- formance of RCA in concrete and asphalt mixes are also discussed.
isation of the materials. It was found that the pavements built with The benefits and sustainability gains of RCA utilisation was gleaned
RCA roadbase could have less detrimental effects on the environ- from available life cycle assessments conducted in the literatures.
ment compared to the pavement built with natural materials. Of Based on the review done, the following conclusions are pertinent;
all the materials compared, pavement construction using RCA base
achieved the greatest overall environmental benefits because it 1. Sustainable pavement construction requires the provision of
consumed the lowest energy and emitted lowest amounts of pavement infrastructures that will be socially, economically,
greenhouse gasses. Reza and Wilde [121] conducted a life cycle and environmentally efficient. Utilisation of RCA in pavement
cost analysis on use of RCA in rigid pavement. Their assessment construction promises to be a very suitable sustainable alterna-
covered eight different scenarios of hypothetical rigid pavements. tive to NA. The application should be in such a way as not to
The variables in their assessment included RCA replacement levels, compromise the functional qualities of the pavement.
water/cement ratio, pavement thicknesses, and pavement service 2. The physical and mechanical properties of RCA are inferior to
life. The analyses indicate that incorporating RCA in new concrete those of NA. Besides, most of the properties of RCA are report-
pavement construction can be very economical because it elimi- edly satisfactory based on standard specifications, apart from
nates the high cost of purchasing and hauling of NA. Utilisation the water absorption for which very undesirably high values
of RCA in concrete slabs offered a better savings in cost than using are generally reported.
them as roadbase materials. Shi et al. [4] attempted to assess the 3. Based on the reported CBR, UCS, and resilient modulus values of
potential sustainability benefits of utilising RCA by conducting a RCA, 100% of RCA replacement can be satisfactorily utilised for
life cycle assessment to compare an RCA based concrete pavement both unbound and hydraulically bound lower pavement layers.
and a conventional concrete pavement. The three aspects of sus- 4. Complete utilisation of RCA can be achieved for rigid pavement
tainability were considered, namely; economic, social, and envi- surfaces, though some precautionary measures should be taken
ronmental impacts, using an economic input–output life cycle to mitigate some negative effects of RCA inclusion in concrete.
assessment approach. Based on the results, the benefits of using A checklist of these negative effects and the precautionary mea-
RCA during the materials production and construction phase were sures identified from the literatures have been made in this
achieved for all the sustainability categories, but there is a possibil- paper.
ity that the RCA pavement would pose higher negative impacts 5. There is much possibility of utilising RCA for flexible pavement
during the use and maintenance phases of the pavement life. The applications. The replacement levels reported in the literatures
sustainability benefits of the RCA pavement in this initial phase ranges from 15% to 100% utilisation. Stability, volumetric
of life cycle assessment were attributed to less demand and less properties, resilient modulus, indirect tensile strength, water
 C. Maduabuchukwu Nwakaire et al. / Construction and Building Materials 235 (2020) 117444 15

susceptibility, and wheel track tests are the most common per- 6. There is a need to develop an innovative bituminous binder
formance tests adopted in the studies. Asphalt mixtures with with improved properties that can lead to comparable per-
RCA can require higher binder content, but generally RCA inclu- formance of RCA mixes with conventional mixes at the same
sion does not result in more stable asphalt mixes. optimum binder content.
6. The properties of RCA used for pavement surfacing can be 7. Most studies adopt the gradation requirements of the con-
improved through pre-treatment of the RCA before mixing. ventional mixes for RCA mixes. But the RCA contains some
The pre-treatment measure can be thermal, mechanical, chem- adhered dry mortar, which upon serious mechanical agita-
ical or a combination of the measures. Inclusion of superplasti- tion can disintegrate into finer particles, there could be a
cisers and other admixtures as well as increasing the pavement need to revise the gradation requirements of RCA for differ-
thickness were also reported as effective improvement strate- ent types of mixes.
gies. The high cost of pavement thickness increase discourages 8. It is necessary that future studies should give a very detailed
that option in favour of the other strategies. report on the sources and nature of RCA used.
7. The life cycle assessment reports showed that RCA can yield sig- 9. Development of suitable impact test methodology for asphalt
nificant benefits for the triple bottom line aspects of sustain- mixes or modifying the concrete impact test to suit asphalt
ability, but the significance of these benefits would reduce as test specimens is yet a very important area for future studies.
the pavement proceeds to its use and maintenance phases. 10. A life-cycle options assessment is required in future studies
to identify all feasible utilisation potentials for RCA and
In short, utilisation of RCA for highway pavement construction assess the most beneficial utilisation options based on differ-
can bring a number of benefits. First, reduced dependence on NA, ent circumstances and scenarios.
conserving natural resource base for future use. Secondly, reduced
quarrying activities, reducing quarry emissions and the cost of
quarry operations. Thirdly, reduced greenhouse gas emissions from
Declaration of Competing Interest
transportation of NA, especially when the RCA processing site is
close to the construction site.
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
11. Recommendations to influence the work reported in this paper.

RCA has been considered as a feasible sustainable alternative to

NA in pavement applications. Extensive research and studies have Acknowledgments
been conducted on the suitability of RCA as a replacement for
conventional aggregates, a good number of which has been This research work was funded by the University of Malaya
reviewed in this paper. Nevertheless, there is yet a very low level grant RU Geran-Fakulti Program under the project Recycling Con-
of utilization of RCA for highway projects, especially in developing struction Wastes into Energy-efficient Green Concrete Walls
countries. The reasons could be as a result of large disparity in the (RF027A-2018). The first author also acknowledges the scholarship
recommendations of the different studies available. Contractors received from Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFund) Nigeria, for
tend to be sceptical about the replacement levels to adopt as there his Ph.D studies.
is no standard ratio established for this in research. In addition, with
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