Introduction

Fundamental • Fluid mechanics deals with the study of behavior of fluids at rest (fluid

concepts
statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), and the interaction of fluids with
solids or other fluids at the boundaries.

• Fluid is a substance in the liquid or gas phase

CE2201 Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics

Dr. B. M. L. A. Basnayake • Distinction between a solid and a fluid

Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

University of Ruhuna

E2021 Batch-2022

Distinction between a solid and a fluid Distinction between a solid and a fluid
Solid Liquid Gas The strength of intermolecular cohesive forces determines the status of a
particular type of material

Solids : tend to retain Fluids : flow under

their shapes slightest stress

• Molecules are at relatively • Groups of molecules move • Molecules move about at

fixed positions about each other random
• Volume remains relatively • Cannot form a free surface. Fills Elastic Plastic
constant due to strong cohesive the entire available space Liquid Gas
Molecular attraction solid solid
forces
𝐺𝑚1 𝑚2 • Gas molecules are widely
𝐹=
𝑟2 • A liquid takes the shape of the spaced, and the cohesive forces
container it is in, and it forms a between them are very small Stronger attractive forces Weaker attractive forces
Small r -> large F
Stronger attractive forces free surface Weaker attractive forces
1
between molecules between molecules
between molecules between molecules
Normal stress and shear stress Distinction between a solid and a fluid
Stress= Force/Area • Molecules are easily separated in a fluid. No tension

Solid Fluid
Normal stress - resist an applied shear stress by deforming - deforms continuously under the influence of
𝑭 - stress is proportional to strain shear stress
(σ) = 𝒏
𝒅𝑨 - stress is proportional to strain rate
Normal compressive stress- fluid
pressure
p= p(x,y,z,t) varies from point to
point 𝑭𝒕
Tangential stress (𝝉) =
𝒅𝑨
the fluid layer in contact with the upper plate would
Shear stress: Friction due to Deformation of a rubber eraser placed move with the plate continuously at the velocity of the
fluid viscosity is the primary between two parallel plates plate
source of shear stresses in a
fluid.

For fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero and pressure is the only normal stress

Fluid properties Fluid properties

• The state of a system is described by its properties. • Continuum: view it as a continuous, homogeneous matter with no holes, that
• Intensive properties: is, a continuum. The continuum idealization allows us to treat properties as
point functions and to assume that the properties vary continually in space with
Independent of the mass of the system (Temperature, pressure, density) no jump discontinuities.
Enlarged view
• Extensive properties: z Molecular structure of matter
Depends on the size or extent of the system ( mass, volume, momentum)
x
y Molecular diameter 10-6 mm
Separated by 10-6 mm~10-7 mm
In a small volume of 1 mm3 approximately 1020 molecules

In practical applications we consider CV much higher with

very large no of molecules. Ignore voids
2
Fluid density Fluid viscosity
• When a fluid moves relative to a solid or when two fluids move relative to each other
• Mass per unit volume a friction force develops at the contact surface in the direction opposite to motion.
𝑚
𝜌= Unit:𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 • Property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to motion or the “fluidity,”
v
and that property is the viscosity.
• Newtonian fluids:
• The density, in general, depends on temperature and pressure. The density of 𝒅𝒖 Bingham
liquids and solids depends more strongly on temperature than it does on 𝝉=𝝁
𝒅𝒚
plastic
pressure Pseudoplastic

Shear stress, 𝝉
• Kinemetic viscosity:
𝜇 Newtonian
𝜈= Unit m2/s
• Specific weight (γ)- Weight of unit volume 𝜌

𝛾 = 𝜌𝑔
Dilatant

𝒅𝒖
Rate of deformation ,
𝒅𝒚

Fluid compressibility
Q1) Two parallel walls spaced at 25 mm is filled with a liquid of dynamic • Volume (or density) of a fluid changes with a change in its temperature or pressure.
viscosity 0.7 Pa s. A thin flat plate of 250 mm x 250 mm is towed into this
space at a velocity of 150 mm/s at a distance of 6 mm from one wall keeping • Fluids usually expand as they are heated or depressurized and contract as they are
the movement parallel to the walls. Assuming linear velocity variations cooled or pressurized.
between the plate and the walls, determine the shear force exerted by the
liquid on the plate. • Coefficient of compressibility: Bulk modulus (K)
Δ𝑃
𝐾 = − Δ𝑉/𝑉 In liquids spacing is smaller than gas
𝐾𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 ~2.25 × 109 𝑃𝑎 ; 𝐾𝑎𝑖𝑟 ~1.4 × 105 𝑃𝑎

• K is very large for liquids and small for gasses. For a given pressure change,
Liquids: volume change and density change is negligible for liquids.
constant density fluids or incompressible fluids
3
Gases: Density change is considerable for gasses
variable density or compressible fluids.
Properties of water and air Classification of fluid flows
• In practice, there is a wide variety of fluid flows

• It is usually convenient to classify them on the basis of some common characteristics

Based on fluid properties

- Viscous versus Inviscid
- Compressible versus incompressible flow

Based on flow properties

-Laminar versus turbulent flow
- Steady versus unsteady flow
- Uniform and non-uniform flow
- One-, Two-, or Three- dimensional flows
- Natural versus forced flow
- Internal versus external flow

Viscous versus inviscid regions of flow Compressible versus incompressible

Inviscid flow region
Incompressible: density of fluid is constant
• When fluid layers move relative to each
other, a friction force develops between Compressible: density varies
them. The slower layer tries to slow down
the faster layer.
Viscous flow region • This internal resistance to flow is quantified
Flow across an airfoil by the fluid property viscosity

• Viscosity is caused by cohesive forces

between the molecules in liquids and by
molecular collisions in gases
Inviscid flow region
• All fluid flows are viscous
Viscous flow region Incompressible Compressible
4
Flow over a solid wall
 Laminar and turbulent flow
Q2) A fluid is compressed in a cylinder from a volume of 0.005 𝑚3 • The flow in laminations (layers) is termed as
at 70 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2 pressure to a volume of 0.055 𝑚3 at 270 𝑁/𝑐𝑚2 laminar flow
pressure. Decide whether the fluid is compressible or • Fluid particles mix each other in turbulent flow
incompressible. • Reynolds number is used to differentiate laminar
and turbulent flow
𝜌𝑉𝑑
𝑅𝑒 =
𝜇

Transition from laminar to turbulent flow

Steady and Unsteady flow

3
𝑚
Q3)A fluid having a density of 900 𝑘𝑔/ and a kinemetic Steady flow:
viscosity of 4.2 × 10−4 𝑚2 /𝑠 flows in a 50 mm diameter pipe at a Flow properties (velocity, density, pressure etc.,) do not vary with time at a
rate of 2.5 𝑙/𝑠. particular point

(i)Calculate the Reynolds number for the flow. Unsteady flow:

Flow properties (velocity, density, pressure etc.,) do vary with time at a
(i)What is the type of flow? particular point

5
Uniform and Non-uniform flow One, Two, and Three dimensional( 1D, 2D, and 3D) flows

Uniform flow: • Generally, all fluid flows are 3D, fluid properties vary in all directions
Flow conditions remains constant irrespective of the position • In many cases, significant changes in two directions or in one directions.
Thereby, 3D fluid flow can be simplified to 1D or 2D
Non-uniform flow:
Flow conditions vary from one point to another 1D: Flow parameters vary significantly only in one direction
2D: Flow parameters vary along the direction of flow and in one direction right
angle to it
3D: Flow parameters vary significantly in all directions

Natural versus forced flow Internal versus external

• Based on how the fluid motion is initiated • Depending on whether the fluid is forced to flow in a confined channel or over a surface.

Internal flow
• Forced flow, a fluid is forced to flow over a surface or in a pipe by external Fluid is completely bounded by
solid surfaces
means such as a pump or a fan
- Flow in a pipe
• Natural flows, any fluid motion is due to natural means

External flow
Flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface
- Flow over cylinder
- Open channel flow

6
Dimensions and Units Dimensional homogeneity
• Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions. The magnitudes assigned to the
dimensions are called units. • Equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.
• Two commonly use unit systems; English systems, metric International System (SI) Every term in an equation must have the same unit
Primary dimensions and their units in SI Some derived units • The notation for the four primary dimensions is as follows: mass [M], length
Dimension Unit Quantity Unit [L], time [T] and temperature [Θ].
Length meter (m) Force Newton (N or kgms-2)
Mass kilogram (kg) Pressure and stress Pascal (Pa or Nm-2)
Volumetric flow rate Q through a hole, distance h from the liquid surface and of
Time second (s) Work, energy Joule (J or Nm) diameter D on a side of a tank is given by
Temperature kelvin (K) • To avoid inconveniently large or small numbers, prefixes
Electric current ampere (A) may be put in front of the unit names
Amount of light candela( cd) Multiple Prefix Multiple Prefix Multiple Prefix
Amount of matter mole( mol) 1012 Tera (T) 102 Hecto (h) 10-3 milli (m)
109 Giga (G) 101 Deka (d) 10-6 micro (μ)
106 Mega (M) 10-1 deci (d) 10-9 nano (n)
103 Kilo (k) 10-2 centi (c) 10-12 pico (p)

Accuracy, Precision, and Significant digits

Engineers must be aware of three principals that govern the proper use of numbers.

Accuracy error : Value of one reading minus the true value. Closeness of the average reading
to the true value. Generally associated with repeatable, fixed errors.

Precision error : Value of one reading minus the average of readings. Is a measure of the
fineness of resolution and repeatability of the instrument. Generally associated with random
errors.

Significant digits : Digits that are relevant and meaningful. When performing calculations,
the final result is only as precise as the least precise parameter in the problem. When the
number of significant digits is unknown, the accepted standard is 3. Use 3 in all homework
and exams.