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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

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Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter

Quantum Theory : Acc to Plank's quantum Theory of

Radiation ,
an
electromagnetic waves travels in

the form of discrete packets of energy called

radiation is called
Quanta .
One quantum of
light
a photon .

Characteristics of Photon
1311108m 1st
II. A photon travels with speed of
light
.

2) The frequency of a photon does not

change as

it travels from one medium to another .

3) The speed of photons changes as

.
it travels
through
its
different media due to change in wavelength
.

41 The Rest Mass of

.
a
photon is zero .
i. e a photon
cannot exist at rest .

No h= Plank's constant
5) of a photon E=
=
hc_
.

Energy ✗ D= wavelength .

G) Momentum of photon
p=mc=h%=hy= %
.
a

71 From .

Einstein Mass -

Energy relationship ,
the

equivalent mass m of a photon is given by

ME
E- 1h0
m=h¥ Egg
=
=
0R=
Photoelectric Effect
metal
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a
surface , when electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently
are incident on it , is called
photoelectric
'

high frequency electrons

effect photo ( light generated
.
The )
are called photoelectrons ◦
 Note:Alkali metals like Li , Na , k , Cs shows photo
electric effect with visible
light Metals like 2ns .

Cd ,
Mg respond to UV light
Experimental study of photoelectric effect .

To study photoelectric effect, an emitting ¥÷s

electrode C of a photo
sensitive material is
plate

kept at
Photosensitive * artz
Evacuated
Glass tube

¥
window
↓

Negative potential and

a)
Electrons
a >
• > • >
,

collecting electrode
• >
A is kept
at positive potential evacuated
in Tube
Commutator

light of sufficiently high

• •
←
lit hen a • •

•
µA
•

frequency falls on emitting electrode , v

photoelectron are emitted Hh ich travels mum

electrode
directly to collecting and '
+ -

hencean electric Current called

"
photoelectric current starts
"
:

flowing in the circuit , Hh ich is directly proportional to the

Number of photoelectrons emitted by emitting electrode E.
,

" "

When collecting electrode A is made negative Wirt emitting

electrode C an electric Field is set up in the direction of
,
Motion of photoelectrons , which apply retarding force on

electrons . So now lesser electrons reach the Collecting electrode

and photoelectric current in the Circuit decrease± .

Potential is that potential which

Retarding at no
:
photoelectron reaches the collecting electrode A &
is
the photocurrent in the Circuit becomes Zao

called ee
stopping Potential %
 Experiment on Photoelectric effect
Photocurrent
11 Effect of
.

intensity of on
light
Intensity
Photon
of
× Photocurrent jÉᵈ
Ep ⇐

Photoelectric effect is
process .
one to one
jÉ
i. e one photon = One photo é ¥-0 •
↑
sing intensity of photon
•
Intensity of light
.

↑es number of emitted electron C photoelectrons .

2) Effect of Potential
. on photoelectric current
i. potential the emitted electron
gz§
At zero •

are in random Motion Due to random

,
motion of photoelectron
a small
ÉÉ
current constitute . i. e. At zero potential
" "
"noncurrent

÷;÷
I
,

ii. 1.then Potential applied to

Collector plate is + ve .
e >
, ..
,
then most of the photoelectrons moves towards it
and constitute photocurrent in the circuit ie photoelectric .

current increases with increase in accelerating voltage .

At some positive potential of plate A

stage , for a certain
all the emitted electrons are collected by the
,
plate A- and the photoelectric Current becomes maximum
or saturates If He increase the
.
accelerating potential of
plate A further, the photo current does not increase - .

This maximum value of photocurrent .is Called saturation

current .
saturation Current means when all the photoelectron
reach the Collector plate A.
iii. when Potential applied to Collector
.
plate is
Negative .

the electrons are repelled and only the most

energetic electrons are able to reach the plate A
•
At a certain value of Negative voltage Vo on the

plate A) photocurrent becomes zero

, This minimum
Vi is called the
negative potential
"

cut-off
"

or
Itching potentials
of incident radiation
31 Effect of
.

frequency on

stopping potential .

Photoelectric
current

ÉÉ%n
↑
current
% % 2,
I
% -902
- -

% 0 Collector
plate potential →
e- Retarding potential
→
if radiation of same Intensity I but different
frequencies 8 I ,
& Dz are incident on

metallic surface ,
then it is Found that
photo electric current produced is same but

the stopping potentials are different at

different Frequencies .
4) Variation of stopping Potential % with Frequency
.

V of incident radiation for a

given photo
-

-
sensitive Material . •

÷;:÷:::÷÷¥
- - -
Metal
a meta .
The minimum
% '
' v >%
which no emission §
take place is •
called as cut off
-
% v8 Frequency of
incident Radiation
frequency or Threshold
.

Frequency .

Failure d- Have of light to explain photo

theory
electric effect .

D. Acc to .
wave theory greater the intensity
,
of radiation ,

greater are amplitudes of electric and magnetic

the

Fields and Hence greater is the energy density of

energy of photo
wave so the maximum kinetic
.

electron emitted must depend on

intensity of
light, howeHer practically it does
incident not

happens so Independence of Maximum kinetic

.

energy of photoelectron emitted intensity of on

incident
light cannot be explained using
wave
theory of light .
2) Also whatever the Frequency of incident radiation
.

,
be, incident
may light of Large over a
intensity
sufficient time must be able to impart
enough energy to the electrons
,
so that they
can
get out of the Matei surface , so a

threshold frequency must not exist -

3) Further, number of electrons

_ absorb
energy continuously
over the entire wavefront of the radiation so .

energy absorbed unit time

per an by
electron becomes small So , in that case
very
.

take quite
electrons may
Out of metallic surface on
long continuous
time to come

exposure of light on the surface However , .

practically we found that there istime

no

hag between incident of light and emission

of photoelectron .
so , we conclude that
wave nature of cannot be used to
light
explain photoelectric Effect
.

Einstein's Explanation to Photoelectric effect

Acc to Einstein
.

,
when light is incident on metal
surface incident photons are absorbed completely
,
by valence electron of atoms of metal on its
surface hi of each photon is partially
.

Energy
utilised by an electron to become free or to
" "
overcome its WORK FUNCTION t Ho) and
rest of the absorbed energy provides
the maximum kinetic energy of photo
electron
during the emission .

'
hi Energy of photon
=

h D= Mima Ho
{ ✗
+
Ho =
Work function .

" K E to the
{ my -

photoelectron .

Work function :-X Hot The minimum

energy required
by the valence electron of an atom on the
surface of metal to become free or to become a
photoelectron .

At threshold frequency . % ,
the energy of photon
h% of incident radiation is just sufficient enough
to Liberate the electron •
ie just equal to work .

Function Ho •

hyo = =
h ✗ =
"
Threshold frequency
"

so
h.D-t.MY?x.-hDol-zmv2max--hlD- "
Do)

This Called Einstein's Photoelectric Equation so at

"
is
threshold frequency % ,
kinetic
Energy of photoelectron
emitted is zero .

Explanation to Of Photoelectric Effect ( PXQ?

Laws .

i. As soon as an electron absorbs energy of photon , it

sets itself free So emission of photoelectron starts
.

as
light falls on metal surface .

III. Below threshold Frequency of photon is Less

Do ,
energy
than work Function of metal surface i. e less than .

minimum amount of
energy required to librate an
electron .
emission of photoelectron take
so

place only when the frequency of incident

radiation is above on to the threshold
equal
Do Further the
frequency slope of graph between
'

stopping potential
Ho and frequency
^
-0 of
incident radiation is %

ÉF
tana
¥, ¥:o) _¥%: ;
-
- - -

•
- - - -

>
01 Do →
Frequency
=ʰ¥%=ʰe ¥
=

However the intercept of this curve on the potential axis

is at -0A hI◦
OB-tano-D.bg or 0A =
=
-

e
 But if the
graph is plotted between maximum kinetic
energy
gmxha.ie/o of photoelectron
and frequency 0 of incident radiation then the
, slope
d- graph is equal
'
to h , and intercept on the

potential axis is at -

hiii
☒1 As energy of photon depends on the frequency
of light, so the Maximum HE with which

photoelectron is emitted depends only on the

of
energy photon or
of on the
frequency
incident radiation
-
.

As the Number of photons in light depend on its

intensity ,
and one photon Liberates one photo
electron ,
so number of photoelectrons emitted

depend only on the

intensity of incident tight
.

Have Nature of Matter :

D-e-I~roghi.IS Hypothesis :→( De Broy ) In 1924 , French

-

de Broglie suggested Like

physicist Lewis -

radiation matter too should have dual Nature

,
i. e the particle
-

like electrons, protons , neutron

etc have well wave
, can particle as as

nature .
 He reasoned that Nature was symmetrical and

that two basic physical entities -

Matter and
energy , must have symmetrical character .

He proposed that the wavelength ✗ associated

particle of momentum p is
' '
with a
where m = Mass particle
of
h_
¥
✗ = =
✗ =
speed of particle .

MY ✗ =
wavelength of Matter wave .

For have
a
photon ,
as we seen
p=h¥ Therefore =

§
=
X

→
✗ is smaller for a heavier particle ( large m) or more
energetic particle .

Broglie Hypothesis of a 0.12kg moving

For example the de -
ball of mass
,
with a speed of 20m51 is easily calculated .

P =
MY =
012
kg . ✗ 20m51 2.40 kg MS I
=
-

✗ =
h_ =
6.63×10-34 Js =
2.76×10-3 4m , This wavelength is so small
'
P £40 kg Ms that is beyond any measurement .

→
This is the why macroscopic objects life do show
reason in our
daily not
wave -
like properties .

De Broglie wavelength
-

✗ of the electron .

Consider an electron ( mass m

, charge e) accelerated from rest through
a
potential V. The kinetic
energy K OF the electron equals the
work done ( ex) on it the electric Field
by
•

K = ex
Now K=
21m42 we

SO
know p=mV
✗ I
=

m
that F- tank
MIMI
so
and
1<=1-2 ,k=m F- tame
The de -

Broglie wavelength ✗ OF the electron is then

✗
h_p=¥
=

substituting the numerical value of

in , me
we
get
✗ of accelerating
12¥37 nm 11 Magnitude
= =

potential in volts .
 Characteristics of matter waves
④ Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves in nature .

④ mechanical i. e
Matter waves are non waves
they can
- .
.

travel in vacuum .

Liii) Matter
.
waves are independent of charge . i. e
they
are associated with
every moving particle (whether
charged or
uncharged ) .

till Observation of matter wave's is possible

•

only
when the de Broglie wavelength is of the
-

order OF size of particle l i. e the waves are

diffracted)
④ The phase .

velocity of the matter waves can be

greater than the speed of the light

.

Hit of de waves associated

The -
Number -

Broglie .

with nth orbital electron is

•

n .

# Laws Of Photoelectric Effect .

d) For
. a given material and a given frequency of incident
radiation , the photoelectric current or number of
photoelectrons ejected per second is directly
proportional to the intensity of the incident
light
-

(2) For
-
a
given material and frequency of incident
radiation , saturation current is found to be

proportional to the
intensity of incident radiation ,
whereas the
stopping potential is independent
 of its intensity .

⑦ For a given material , there exists a certain minimum

.

frequency of the incident radiation below which no

emission OF photoelectron takes place .
This

Frequency is called threshold frequency .

Above the threshold frequency , the maximum

kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectrons or
equivalent stopping potential is independent
of the intensity of the incident light but depends

upon only the frequency (or wavelength) of the

incident light -

(4) The photoelectric emission is

.
an instantaneous
between the incidence of
process
.
The time lag
radiation and emission of photoelectron is very
small > Less than even 109s .
 ATOMS
class 12th
-

NCERT CH =
12th Acc to New syllabus .

Structure of ATOM +
Thomson 's model of an Atom :-. 1- +
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ + ⊖ ②
The First Model of atom was proposed by ⊖ + +
TJ Thomson in 1898 According to this model, +
.
+ +
⊖
the positive charge of the atom is uniformly ⊖ + +
⊖ -1
distributed throughout the volume OF atom and ⊖
+ ⊖
negatively charged electrons are embedded in it +
+
+
Like seeds in a watermelon . This model was called ⊖
plum pudding model of the atom .

The mutual repulsion between the electron are balanced by their attraction with
the positively charged matter .

Thus the atom as a whole is stable and Neutral .

Failure of Thomson's Model

Thomson 's model was failed in explaining the ✗ -

particle scattering
experiment proposed by Rutherford and hater performed by Hans Geiger
and Ernest Marsden .

Alpha Particle Scattering Experiment CMON

-

NVM
.

At the suggestion of Rutherford in 1911 Geiger and Marsden performed a- -

particle scattering experiment .

214

They directed a beam of 5.5 MeV ✗ -

particle emitted from a Bi

03
radioactive source at a thin metal Foil made of Gold .

The beam was thin Foil OF gold OF thickness 2. I ✗ 107m

allowed to fall on a .

Alpha particles emitted by radioactive source were collimated into a

narrow beam
by passing through lead bricks .

The scattered alpha particle were received by a notable detector with zinc sulphide
screen and a microscope .

Distribution of the Number of scattered by flashes or scintillations produced by

striking a- particles on the zinc sulphide screen .

Alpha Particle :→ Alpha particle also called alpha rays or alpha radiation
-

,
,
consist of two protons and two neutron bound together into a particle
identical to a helium -4 nucleus .

They are generally produced in the process of

alpha decay , but may also be produced in other ways .

Rutherford's Observations and Results :

D. Most of the ✗ particle pass

through the gold
-

Foil without
any deflection This shows that
.

most of the space in an atom is

empty :
2) Few a- particles got scattered
deflecting at
,
.

various angles from 0 to it .

This shows that

atom has a small called
positively charged core

nucleus at centre of atom which deflects the

positively changed ✗ particles
• ' -

,
their distance from
at different
angles depending on centre of nucleus .

5) very few
.
in 8000) suffers deflection of 180° This shows
A- particles ( 1 .

that size of Nucleus is very small , nearly µ oooo times the size of
atom .

N
-

# Rutherford 's ✗ -

scattering formulae .

Number alpha particle scattered per

of
unit area NCOs at scattering angle 0
,
varies inversely as

NCO] ✗ I
"
sin (0/2)

# Impact Parameter (b) : CPYQ)

Gt is defined as the perpendicular distance of initial velocity vector
the
of the alpha particle
from the centre of the nucleus when the particle is
,
Far
away from the nucleus of the atom
.

D= zekotc.cl/27-K-- kinetic energy

4 it Eok OF the ✗ -

particle
F- atomic no of nucleus
. D= scattering
angle .

# Distance of closest approach ✗ QS

At a certain distance ro from the Nucleus
,
the ✗ particle stops for a moment and then
-

begin to retrace its path The distance ro is called .

the distance of closest
approach .

No = 22£
41T Eok

At the distance of closest approach whole kinetic energy of the alpha particle
is converted into potential energy .
 let, initial kinetic energy of particle
→ a- =

k=Imv2
→ electrostatic pot of ✗ -

particle and
Nucleus at distance no
4=9,92 2eIe
Fero Troeñeo
At distance ro
,
k=U k= 22=2
41TEoro
2
no =
⇐
UITEOK
* Electron Orbit / Using Rutherford 's model of the atom find total
,
of electron in atom CPYQI
energy Hydrogen
H atom has both kinetic
. .

An electron revolving in an orbit of energy and

-

,
electrostatic potential energy .

The electrostatic force of attraction Fe between the revolving electrons and

,

the Nucleus provides the requisite centripetal Force Fc to keep them in orbit .

i.e. Fe =
Fc
Lei = my
-
f- I -
C) .

4ñEor2 F 41T£ my
2

Relation between
the orbit radius and the
electron velocity .

The kinetic Energy (K) and the electrostatic potential energy ( o) of

'
the electron in hydrogen atom are .

k=
12m¥=L ✗
y¥%or
and ↳
-¢¥qg negative sign indicates
=

k=•÷%r that the electrostatic force

is in the -
r direction .

Thus total energy E of the .

electron in a
hydrogen atom
is
E =
Ktu ed -
E
8)teor tstejr
50
E= ¥ The total energy of the electron is negative .

8ñE☐r This implies the Fact that the electron is

bound to the Nucleus If E were positive, .

an electron will not follow a closed orbit

around the Nucleus .

✓
Limitations of Rutherford 's Atomic Model
II. About the stability of atom : Acc .
to Maxwell 's electromagnetic wave theory ,
eTec-trtn-shoiid-emTT-ener.gg in the form of electromagnetic wave during
its orbital motion .

Therefore , radius of orbit of electron will decrease gradually and ul ti -

matey it will fall in the Nucleus

-
.

ii. About the line spectrum :-) Rutherford atomic Model cannot
~-~-~→~
explain atomic
line spectrum

BOHR MODEL OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM

Postulates : This model ,
also called Planetary model of the atom , is
based on the following postulates .

iv. Nuclear concept :→ An atom consists OF a small and massive central core
,
cat-ed-NUT-e.us around which planetary electron revolve The centripetal
.

force required for their rotation is provided by the electrostatics attraction

between the electron and the nucleus .

④ Quantum condition :→
. OF all possible circular orbit are allowed by the
classical theory the electrons are permitted to circulate only in those
,
orbit , in which the angular momentum at an electron is an integral multiple
OF II •

i.e
2 't [ =
emir =
nh_ n =
112,3 , _ _ _ .
n =
principal Quantum
21T numbers .

↳ Called Bohr 's

quantSalton condition .

h= plank 's constant

Liii .
Stationary orbit :-) While resolving in the permissible orbits, an electron
does not radiate energy •
These non -

radiating orbit are called

stationary orbit .

④ .

Frequency condition :→ An atom can emit or absorb radiation in the

Form OF discrete energy photons only when an electron jumps
from a higher to a Lower orbit or from a Lower to a higher
orbit , respectively
E- Ei -

Ef
Eiµ-E
his =
Ei -

Ef → =

where is
frequency of radiation emitted
, Ei & Ef are the
energies associated with stationary orbit of principal quantum
number
hi and
nf respectively C where
Mi >☒
g)
 BOHR 'S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM .
Cina?

Radius of nth Orbit :-, In H atom an electron

, having -
e revolves
charge
-

around the nucleus of charge + e in a circular orbit of radius ☐ such

that necessary centripetal force is provided by the electrostatic Force of
attraction and nucleus .

i. e
m¥2=y¥qe¥ mv2=y¥g % lit
-

F
e- _ _
← - - •

r -
e

from Bohr 's quantization condition .

Mvr = nh_ or ✗= nd -
.

21T gamp

using equation in eq 2=1 et

we Get
m(I¥mr)
'

2
y ,tqr
"
T.fm#ri-iEe.Eorr=n42eo- met where n=1 , 2,3 ,
- - - -
is principal
quantum number .

i. e pan
2-

Radius of nth orbit of H atom

-
r =
n 2×0.529 A-
°

Radius OF
Hydrogen like species Hei ,
Litt, Bet "
such atoms have one electron like Hydrogen atom , but the charge of
their nucleus is + Eeg where Z is their atomic number .

So that in this case radius OF nth orbit of such atom becomes .

r=¥¥%ˢe ¥
.
or r =
✗ 0.529A
,

Speed OF Electron in nth Orbit OF Hydrogen atom

From Bohr 's quantization condition .

OF
mvr = nd
21T
or ✗ =
nd
Qtr
using
value r here , we get

nd I I ✗
c-n-i-ev-ijz.cn
✗=
§
v= or v =
✗ = ✗ or

&t(n¥mIg) Qnheo 2h Ceo

where ✗
=g%,q } Called Fine structure constant .
=
,
, ,

PYQ UsingBohr 's atomic model , derive the expression for the radius of nth
= '
Orbit of the revolving electron in a hydrogen atom CAI 2-0203 . .

Solution 8 →
answer in notes .
 Energy of Electron in nth Orbit Hydrogen atom .

An electron revolving in an orbit of H atom , has both kinetic energy -

and electrostatic potential energy .

Kinetic energy of the electron revolving in a circular orbit of radius

r is '
K=
EMV K= 1- É
using equation Is in it .

41TEo Qr

Electrostatic potential energy of electron of charge -

e
revolving around
of is
the nucleus charge + e in an orbit of radius r

U= I so
,
total
energy of electron in orbit of radius r is
41TEor
E =
Ktv E- 1 eh -
ed
UITEOTLV 41T Eor
E- -

I
using
y¥÷2fyy÷_egJ
wear value of E-
r we
get

En= MI-

En =

-14£
ell
{ tell -_ 1.6×10-9 }
8Efn2h2 i

note : → it .
-

ve sign of energy of electron indicates that the electron and nucleus

together form a bound system • i. e electron is bound to the nucleus .

III. energy of electron in its orbit varies inversely with

negative of n' •

i. e E at
AZ

energy level
diagram of
Hydrogen atom o

In the ground state of atom its Bohr radius is given

PXQ : → Hydrogen ,
as
5. 3×10 'm The atom
"
. is excited such that the radius becomes 21.2×10-1 'm .

Find the value of the principal quantum number and the total energy
of the atom in this excited state Delhi 2013C ) .

solution :-)
'
it since ran

so

¥ -7? =t1n=I=
n' n'
nY=¥;¥Y÷
= = 212
, ,
5- .
 Lii )
-13yd
E-
know that
-13mi 3.4
we = = -
ell
Answer -

→ THE LINE SPECTRA OF THE HYDROGEN ATOM . .

←

If Ei and Ef are energies associated with the radius of H atom of principal -

quantum number n , and ng respectively Chi > ng) , then on jumping of

electron from orbit n to ng g the difference of energy associated with
-

,
these orbit is emitted as a photon of frequency O whose energy is
' '

given BY

@neng.enYnatgmeeg7nyTyEiE-ioneinInB.or
'
E-
Ei Ef or his =
- -

t.me#i.EnEtiIorE--:neo*n.KnEtn.itxt=gmepIu
[ ¥ tnp)
-

or
f-
=
RH
[thy In ;] -

RH MEI -
-

8Etch
-
-

'
to axiom

is Called
-
I

Rydberg 's constant .

I
=
wave number .

Spectral series of Atom

Hydrogen .

When the electron in a H -

atom jumps from Higher energy level to lower

energy level , the difference of energies of two

energy Levels is emitted as
radiation of particular wavelength , called spectral line .

Spectral lines of different wavelengths are obtained for transition of

electron between two different energy levels
,
which are Found to fall
in a number of spectral series given by .

tillman series : I
=L RH
[ Ip In;] ht I
ni Ri 3,4 O
- -
-
- - -
-
- - -
.

lies in
Lyman series v.v
region .

Lii) Balmer I
If Rt,
[ Iz In;) 2
hi =3 4,5
=
-7
ng o
-
= - -
- -
o , ,

Balmer series lies in the Balmer

region .

Liii) Paschen series :→ I

f- RH
[ ya th ;) hf =3 hi 4,5
= = -
-
-
N -

.
- - -

= =

Paschen series lies IR

region of em .
waves .

.BR#ckttSeiesoo-I=,f=iRH-Ltfz-tnqJnf=4ni--5i6i
it -
- o

Brackett series lies in IR of

region em waves .

④ Ptund series it
I=¥=RH[ ¥ ÷) 5
hi 6,7
d
- -

ng
'
- - -
- - -

Pfund series also lies in IR of

region em waves .
 Energy level
diagram for spectral
of
series
Hydrogen .

Transition of Electron
is .

Emissions peetrum:→ when an electron jumps from higher energy state to lower

energy state, it emits energy in the form of radiation

which produce a spectrum called emission of spectrum .

ii. Absorption spectrum : when an electron jumps from lower '

energy state to higher energy state , it absorbs

energies of the photons of certain frequencies,
of the white light passed through the hydrogen gas .

The resulting spectrum then produced consist of

bright background with some dark lines corresponding
to the frequencies absorbed by the electron This pattern
.

of dark lines is called absorption spectrum .

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 NUCLEI
class
~~~~~
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12th NCERT CH
~~~~~~~
=
15th Acc New
.

~~~~~~~~
Syllabus

Composition Of Nucleus
The radius of nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom by a factor
OF 104 More than 99.9 % Mass of the atom is concentrated in the
•

Nucleus .

Nucleons :-) Proton and neutrons which are

present
in the nuclei of atoms are collectively
known as nucleons •

Atomic Number : →
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the
atomic number of the element •
Gt is denoted by E.

Mass Number : →
The total number OF protons and neutrons present in
nucleus is called the mass number of the element
a
- .

Gt is denoted by A •

→
number of protons in an atom = I
→ number of electrons in an atom Z =

→ number of nucleons in an atom A =

→ number of neutrons in an atom = N A -2 =

Nuclear mass :The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a

nucleus is called the nuclear Mass .

Nuclide A nuclide is a specific nucleus OF an atom characterised by

its atomic number ≥ and mass number A. Gt is
symbolically represented as E-✗ •

where
✗ = Chemical Symbol of the element .

Atomic Mass Unit :-) The mass of atom is very small, compared to
an a

kilogram . Therefore a different mass unit is

,
used for expressing atomic masses •
i e atomic mass unite
-

one atomic mass unit is defined as OF the

fun
u
actual mass OF carbon 12 atom -
•

Gt is denoted by amu or only 4 .

I am it =
Mass of one % atom
12
1 am U = I 992678
•
✗ 10-26 kg
I 2
I am u = 931 Mex

rTfpÉTI-
TTfEEEEf-Ef_IIoEfS
 TYPES OF ATOMS
/ te te →

Isotopes Isobars Iso tones Isomers .

is Isotopes :S are those atoms which have some atomic number but
different atomic masses .

'
IL : Fyi
'
c-
g ,
H , ,H3 ,
H

Cli ) Isobars : those atoms which have

are same atomic mass but
"
different atomic numbers
"
e.g Ar g
KYO ,
Ca etc .

,@ µ ↳

Liii) Isotones 8-2 are those atoms which have same number of neutrons in
their nuclei cire same number of neutrons)
" "

g g CL g + N' , go
5
e. N= A Z -

N = 14-6=8 15-7=8 , I G- 8=8 .

ill Isomers
. : → are the nuclei with same atomic no .
and same mass no .

but existing in different energy state .

Discovery of Neutron
In 1932 James Chadwick Observed that when
alpha particles are bombarded on beryllium
nuclei emission of neutral radiation take place .

This neutral radiation could knock

out protons from light nuclei such as those
of helium , carbon and nitrogen Chadwick .

assumed that the neutral radiation consists of

new type of neutral particles called neutrons .

i' tape
'
I
'

tie →
+ on
(neutron )

The neutrons is not a stable particle .

get spontaneously
decays as follow :

it t.ie
"

on → ti t
Q
 Important properties of neutron
lil Neutron is
.
an elementary particle present in the nuclei of all elements
except hydrogen .

is
Neutron has no
charge and its mass
slightly more than that of a

proton .
Mn = I .
00866 am U =
I .
6749×110-27 kg

Iii) A free neutron is unstable Gt .

spontaneously decays into a proton,
electron and an anti neutrino with a Half life of about 1000 s .

In →
it tie + J t Q

in Neutrons being neutral , have low ionising power

.
.

④ Being neutral , neutrons are not repelled or attracted by the

.

nucleus and the electrons of an atom They can easily penetrate

.

'

through heavy nuclei and induce nuclear reactions .

Hi) They induce radioactivity in many eldments .

Size of Nucleus LPXQ)

④ An alpha
.

particle which suffers head on collision, suffering a deflection

of 1800g helps us to find the radius of nucleus by
distance of closest approach .
As the alpha particle
comes to rest at almost on the surface of nucleus ,
IEEE
so distance of closest approach r, its kinetic
at

energy converts into electric potential energy .

:

-2,1%4%3
"
gives
¥eo2eIfe This approximate
r
Emv
or → an

idea of radius of nucleus

and is found to be order of 1044ns .

Gil volume of the nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons

in it; ie
-
on the mass number A of the nucleus so .

BoA's
'
Ab
It R in A Rd ie R =

5M Is
"
where Ro = lol X 15 called nucleus unit radius .

Density of the nucleus CPXQ)

D= massofnucteus k¥027
Afgf÷ezmU
or P =
P=
Volume of nucleus 1203
4g It

Note: s -

i) Density . of all the nuclei of all the atoms is same as it is independent

of mass number .

Ceil .
Matter is not distributed uniformly inside the nucleus and density
is maximum nucleus
at centre of .
which reduces towards it edge .

'
So
,
nucleus does not have sharp boundaries .

high density of
The the nucleus (a 1017kg m 3) suggest that nucleus is
-

highly compact .
 CAI 20203
PYQ → The nuclear radius of ight is 3. G Fermi .
find the nuclear radius of
:{ u .

Solution
Ab 's "

Piaf ( Aft ) ( Aff)

-

3
we know E- Ro i -
e
-
-

Rae -
-

Rai
. ,

"
Rue = 3.6
( GIF) 3 =
4 8 Fermi
.

LPXQ) Show that density of nucleus is independent of its mass number Ao

( Delhi 20193
Solution Answer in
=
= Notes . .

Nuclear force
The force acting
inside the nucleus or
acting between nucleons is
called nuclear force .

Nuclear forces forces in nature

→ are the
strongest .

→ gt is very short range attractive force .

→ gt is non -
central and non -
conservative force .

→ gt is independent of charge .

→ 9 t is too times that of electrostatic force and 1030 times that of gravitational
Force .

→
according to Yuk wa
,
the nuclear force acts between the nucleons due to
continuous exchange of meson particles .

# Features of Nuclear Binding force CPYYQ )

N The nuclear force is much stronger than the

.

coulombs force acting between charges on

the gravitational forces between masses .

The nuclear binding

force has to dominate
over the coulombs repulsive force between

proton inside the nucleus This happens .

only because the nuclear force is much

stronger than the coulombs force The .

gravitational force is much weaker

than even Coulomb force .

Ch The nuclear force between the nucleons falls rapidly to zero as their distance
-

is more than a few F-em to metres This heads to saturation of forces in a .

medium or a
large
-
sized nucleus, which is the reason for the constancy of
the binding energy per nucleon
A
rough plot of the potential energy between two nucleons as a
function of distance is shown in fig The potential energy is a minimum .

at a distance ro of about 0.8 fm This means that the force is attractive .

for distances larger than 0.8 fm and repulsive if they are separated by
distance less than 0 8 Fm .
.

G) The nuclear force between neutron neutron neutron and proton-proton

, proton
-
. -

is approximately the same The nuclear force does not

.
depend on the electric
charge .

Unlike Coulomb's Law

Newton 's Law of or
gravitation there is no simple
mathematical form of the nuclear force .
 mm

ERIE
:3 Draw a plot of potential energy of a pain of nucleons as a function of
their separation write two important conclusion which you can draw
.

regarding
the nature of nuclear forces . CAI do 153
-
.

Solution → Answer in above topic .

Mass -

Energy : Einstein showed that mass is another form of energy ,

say kinetic energy and vice-versa .

'
i -
e E =
me c
-
-
velocity of light in vacuum .

= 3×100 Mls

Numerical ( NCERT solved) :→ Calculate the energy equivalent of

1g of substance .

Solution
153kg
: 2
I
E = me m= g =

-
E =
10-3×13×108)
E= 9X lol -3J Answers .
.

Mass Defect The of nucleus is the sum of masses of its nucleons

:
expected mass
ie
-

proton and neutrons , within it But , it is found that the nest mass of
.

nucleus is always the sum of masses of its nucleons

less than .

The difference between the sum of the masses of the nucleons constituting a

nucleus and the rest mass of nucleus is known as mass - defect .

Gt is denoted
by AM °

of proton
[Tempt ( A Mp mass of neutron
Mn )
Mn mass
-

= -
-

Am =
mm
-

mµ= rest mass of nucleus .

Nuclear fission
The Process of splitting of a
heavy nucleus into two nuclei of smaller masses with
Liberation of energy is called nuclear fission .

"5
The nuclear fission reaction µ is represented as

int: i'i'Bati:kr
'
→
II. → + sin
'
neutron
on
= .

Nuclear fusion :S When two or more than two

light nuclei fuse together to form heavy
nucleus with liberation of energy , the process
is called Nuclear Fusion o

!H
'

,
H t →
2. H t ett Ot 0.42 MeV
Pt Q Q complete-
-
the following reactions : C Delhi 2015C )
at

⑨ .

:B in + → Ite t - - - - - - -

Cbs .

9470 tilt →
YjTet - - - - - - - -

solution La? 101-1 =

4+A 2 5+0=2-12
win
A = 7 2=3
ie t
Li
-

(b) .
94+2=95-1 A 42+1=43+2
A = 96-95=1 2--43-43=0
A =L 2=0

i e
-

in

note : → • Temperature a 107k are required for fusion to take place .

Nuclear fusion is basic of

a
Hydrogen bomb
.
•

• stellar Energy :S it is the energy obtained from the sun and stars . The
source of stellar energy is nuclear fusion .
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 Semiconductor Electronics
class -
12M NCERT CH -
14 Acc to New
.

Syllabus .

Classification of solids on the Basis of Energy Bands

Insulators : in insulators , the

valence band is completely filled
whereas the conduction band is

completely empty .

As there is no electron in conduction

band so no electrical conduction is
possible .
The energy gap between
conduction band and valence band
is so Large ( Eg > 3 ell) that no electron

l Jan
in valence band can be provided so
'

i
much energy from
any external

n
that it can jump this
source
energy gap .

Semiconductors : The energy band structure of a semiconductor is shown in

gr
Su

figure (b) It is similar to that of an insulator but

a
.

with a comparatively small energy gap C Eg <3 ex) .

At absolute temperature , the conduction band of semiconductor is

totally empty and valence band is completely filled .

PHYSICS
Therefore , they are insulators at Low temperatures .

However, at room Temperhere , some electrons in the valence band acquire

'

thermal energy greater than energy band gap and jump over to the conduction
band where they are free to move under the influence of even a small electric
field and acquire small conductivity .

Hence the resistance of semiconductor is not as high as that of insulators .

conductors (Metal) on In case of metals either the conduction band is

partially filled and valence band is partially
empty , conduction band and valence band overlap
or .

In case of overlap ing electrons from valence band can easily

move into the conduction band, thus Large number of electrons available
For conduction .

In case valence band is empty g electrons from its lower level can
move to higher level
making conduction possible .

This is the reason why resistance of metal is how or the conductivity

is high o

Energy Bands of solids

Li! Valence Band → This energy band contains valence electrons This band may be .

partially or completely filled with electrons but never be empty .

The electron in this band are not capable of gaining energy from
external electric field to take part in conduction of current -
 Conduction Band : This band contains conduction electrons This band is either .

empty or
partially filled with electrons .

→ Electrons present in this band take part in the conduction of current .

Liii) Forbidden Band : This band is completely empty . As temperature increases ,

Forbidden energy gap decreases
.

Nolan →
The minimum energy required to shift an electron from valence band to
conduction band is called Ba-ndG-ap.EEg)

Types of SEMICONDUCTOR
E) intrinsic semiconductor .

Extrinsic semiconductor .

A semiconductor in its pure state A semiconductor doped with a

is called intrinsic semiconductor .

suitable impurity increase its

to

Jan
conductivity is called extrinsic

l
or

A pure semiconductor which is Free

From every is known as
impurity
ni semiconductor
Types
.

gr
intrinsic semiconductor .
I
Su

{IuTe) {P-tyPesemiMg
e.
g Germanium ( Gel and silicon si)
→ in intrinsic semiconductors the
,
number of free electron ne is
qua,
a conductor .
conductor -

to the number OF holes ha That is .

when

PHYSICS
he nh n type semiconductor a
hi
→

gBB§q
-
= =

small amount of pentavalent

ni
= intrinsic carrier concentration impurity . is added to a
pure
@BE- semiconductor it is known as
,
n type semiconductor

If
-
.

"
""
covalent
i. e intrinsic -1 Pentavalent - n type -

if Semiconductor Semiconductor
si si si .

=ii¥¥±± P-type Semiconductor : when a

small amount of trivalent
Fifi impunity is added to a pure
semiconductor , it is known as
EEE

semi
cogguggG
→ all the valence electrons of P -

type semiconductor .

-
tor atoms are occupied in covalent

bonding . ie
-

Intrinsic + trivalent =
P
-

type .

→ when temperature is raised some of semiconductor impurity

the covalent bonds in semiconductor
break due to thermal energy supplied . •
Pentavalent→ As , Sb, P etc .

Thus the electron which set free ,

provide small electrical conductivity to •
Trivalent → In , B , Al etc .

a semiconductor crystal

→ conductivity of extrinsic semi -

→ when electron breaks its covalent

an conductor is high .

bond and becomes free , a vacancy is

created in the valence band .
 f
→ This missing electron in a covalent bond
is called a hole which acts as + we

charge
.

→ conductivity of intrinsic semiconductor

is low .

N -
Type semiconductor :-) =
A pentavalent impurity atom has
Five valence electron On .

adding
it to a semiconductor four of its electron Form
,
covalent bond with semiconductor atoms
, leaving
the Fifth valence electron unoccupied
small amount of
Thus on
adding pentavalent
impurity like As or Sb
, Large number of free
electron are produced in a semiconductor crystal .

Jan
impurity
The Fifth valence electron of

l
→ atom called

i
,
as Donar ◦

n
→ so in n -

type semiconductor majority carriers are free electron and

minority carries are holes

gr
.
Su

→
hit ni is density of in conduction
a
ie the number electron a
henn
=

g
band
→ so in n -

type semiconductor, current is mainly conducted by

Free electron ◦

P-type Semiconductor :

when a small amount of trivalent

PHYSICS
impurity is added to a pure semi
conductor , it is called P type, semi -

conductor
- .

A trivalent impunity atom has three

valence electrons On
adding it to a .

semiconductor three of its electron

,
Form three covalent bonds with semiconductor atoms , leaving
the Fourth covalent bond incomplete, with a vacancy of one electron .

This missing electron in the fourth covalent bond behaves as a hole .

,
The trivalent impurity atom are known as Acceptor atom .

p type semiconductor , majority

'
In -
carriers are holes and minority carriers are
free electrons .

→ i. e nenn =
hit or nh > he , so in p type
-

,
current is mainly
conducted by holes
in p type semiconductor , from
-
positive to negative terminal of semiconductor Crystal .

Electrical Conductivity of a semiconductor

let us consider semiconductor crystal of length
a
A¥
e' and cross -
section area A across which a potential
is applied then Magnitude of electric Field are set up v.
-
× ,

inside it
E-
Ie Lit
=
-
 Electric current flowing through the semiconductor is the both due to free electrons
and holes and is given by
I = Iet In from drift velocity & current relation
I = nee Ave +
nneavh I= ett Chevet nhvin)
-
cis .

he = no .

density of free electron hhz no -

density of free Holes .

so mobility of free electron is

Ciii )
HE
¥ ve HEE
- -
-

mobility of holes is CD
teh
VIE Ye Une
-
-
.
-

using equation Ciii ) & Ev) in eg

EAEC nemeth n Un)
CAVE lnelletnhlle)
R=¥= leached
I =
or E- or

'hnUu7 et

P=R¥=eA¥etnnUn7 ¥
so

i l Jan or p =
I

n ecneuetnn Un )

gr
Su

so the electrical conductivity of semiconductor is then given by

,

f-
Ip or r =
ecneeletnhllh )a
→ In Intrinsic semiconductor r =
ene Cnet un ) ooo ne nn
-
-
-
-
n

→ In
In extrinsic
extrinsic
n

p
-

-
type
type
r

r
-
-

-
-
PHYSICS
eneue
en nah
°

o
:
:
he> inn

nm> he

Note!→ as we > ten , so electrical conductivity of n -

type is more that that

of p -

type semiconductor .

PN Junction Diode on An arrangement consisting a p type semiconductor -

brought into a close contact with n type semiconductor , is called p n - -

junction → potential barrier

't
.

How ever if this junction is provided with P t n

a * I
metallic contacts at the ends for the ④ ④ to a - -

att , • •
• •

M
application
*

of external it is
voltage , then
I ⑧ 000

④ ④ ④
- -
a att ,
A • • •

junction
'
called Diode att
Pn p
- -
.
• •
l
④ ④ ④
a
a •

of
•
att ;
-

L y "
""

Engr:b! Electron-hole
Junction
P N

P N

when ph junction
is formed then at the junction free electrons from
,
n -

type
diffuse over to p type , thereby filling in the holes in p type
- - .
 Due to this a layer of positive charge is built on
p side and
-
a layer of
negative charge p side of pn junction This layer sufficiently
is built on - .

grows up within a very short time of the junction being formed, preventing any
Further movement of change carriers across the pn junction .

Thus a potential difference Vo of the order of o I to 0.3 V is setup across the .

potential
"

junction junction barrier

"
pan called barrier or .

The thin region around the junction containing immobile positive and negative
is known "
depletion layer
"

changes as .

Biasing
← →
① Forward
.

mmmm
Biasing ② . Reverse
rumrunner
Biasing .

is Forward
.

Biasing → when the tve terminal of battery is connected to p side and -

negative to n side of ph junction then pn junction is said to be forward

a
-

l J n
biased

i
.

depletion layer reduces

n
→ The width of
and external applied field is able to

gr
Su

overcome the
strong electric field of
depletion layer
a
.

→
movement of the majority charge carriers
across the junction gets established

→
Initially
the diode
the current
crosses threshold
PHYSICS
increases almost
voltage
negligibly
voltage or knee
,
till the
.
voltage across

cutoff diode current increases exponentially

After the
voltage the .

Knee
voltage voltage for Ge diode is 0.3 V and for si diode is about
0.7 Ho
→ In forward biasing resistance of
diode is very low , which can

be obtained by the slope of IV

characteristics .

② .
Reverse Biasing : when the tue
terminal of battery is connected to

n side and
-

negative terminal to P side

-

of a p -
n junction , then the p n junction-

is said to be Reverse Biased .

→
The width of depletion layer increases
and the electric field of depletion layer
becomes more
stronger .

depletion layer does not at all allow the transfer of

majority charge
→
The now

carriers while support the crossing of minority charge carrier .

Thus the
reverses current flow only due to
minority change carriers .
 → for the diode in very small treeA) and almost
reverse bias
,
the current is
remain constant However , for special cases
.

,
at very high reverse
bias C breakdown voltage) the current suddenly increases The
general .

,
diode are not used the reverse saturation current
purpose beyond region .

RECTIFIER
Rectifier is a circuit which converts alternating current La c) into direct
.

current Cd c) . .

of Rectifier Principle
Pn junction diode is a unidirectional device i e it allows
. -

the current to flow through it only in one direction , when

it is in forward bias
'
.

TYPES
Half wave Rectifier full Rectifier

¥÷ :÷ ÷: ÷:i ÷ ¥÷ ÷
wave

a
.

A half wave rectifier converts

il J n full wave rectifier converts the
A

n
the half cycle of applied AC whole cycle of applied AC signal
signal signal Ordinary into

gr
to D.c .
Dc signal .
centre tap -
Su

transformer may be used here '

.
transformer is used here .

Circuit
diagram a circuit diagram

PHYSICS
D, Da Di Da Di D2

:÷÷:÷÷÷:÷÷:÷¥:÷ .

→
For -
ve half cycle ,
diode is → for -
ve half Cycle Diode Da is forward
reversed bias .
i -
e do not biased .
i. e Dz conduct and we
get
conduct , no output across output across RL .

Ro

Special Purpose p
-
n junction Diode .

47 LED ② Photodiode (3) .

Solar cell .
① LED (
light Emitting Diode) → Gt converts electrical energy into light energy .

9T is heavily doped p -
n
junction which operates under forward bias
and emits spontaneous radiation .

→ The I-V characteristics of a LED is similar

to that of Si junction diode But the threshold .

voltagesare much higher and

slightly different
for each colour The reverse breakdown voltages
.

of LEDs are very low , typically around 54 -

The colour of light depends upon the types of material used

in making the semiconductor diode

Aisoycoeuerf
.

Li ?GaAs → Infrared radiation .

Ii ) Gap → Red or
green
Liii) GaAs P → Red or yellow light .

PHOTODIODE
A photodiode is a special type of junction diode used for
detecting optical signals Gt is a . reverse biased pn junction
made from a photosensitive material .

when it is illuminated with

light of photon energy greater
than the energy gap of the
semiconductor , electron -
hole
pains are
generated in near

relepletion region .

external is used for the movement of electron &

The voltage
holes
aisocouerusesz
.

Solar cell
Gt convert solar energy electrical energy into .

A solar cell Is basically a ph junction

which generates emf when solar radiation
Falls on the ph junction gt works on the .

same principle of
photodiode
is
except
that no external bias applied and
the junction area is kept laegeo

albicans