1.

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF NUCLEI

1.4 NUCLEAR SPIN

The nuclear constituents i.e., each proton and neutron is characterized by their individual orbital
quantum number l and intrinsic spin quantum number s. The orbital quantum number l of a
1
nucleon is zero or an integral multiples of ℏ, while the intrinsic spin quantum number s is 2 ℏ.

The resultant spin angular momentum of the nucleus is given by

𝑆⃗ = ∑ 𝑠⃗𝑖

where 𝑠⃗𝑖 is the intrinsic spin of the ith nucleon, while the resultant orbital angular momentum of
the nucleus is given by

𝐿⃗⃗ = ∑ 𝑙⃗𝑖

where 𝑙𝑖 is the intrinsic spin of the ith nucleon.

𝑆⃗ can be integral or half integral multiple of ℏ depending on whether A is even or odd. On the
other hand 𝐿⃗⃗ may be zero or integral multiple of ℏ.

The resultant angular momentum 𝐼⃗ of the nucleus, also called the nuclear spin, is the vector sum
of the orbital angular momentum 𝐿⃗⃗ and the spin angular momentum 𝑆⃗.

𝐼⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐿 + 𝑆⃗

𝐼⃗ will be integral if A is even and half odd integral if A is odd.

SOME FACTS OF NUCLEAR SPIN

The ground state spin of nuclei consisting of even Z-even N (also refereed as e-e nuclei) is
measured to be zero, i.e., 𝐼⃗⃗ = 0.

This implies that the nucleons within an e-e nucleus possess a tendency for equal and
oppositely aligned angular momenta to form pairs and cancel out each other's effects, thereby
rendering the nuclear spin to be zero.
 9
The highest measured ground state spin of nuclei, other than e-e nuclei is 2 ℏ. This value is much

less than the sum of the absolute values of 𝑙⃗𝑖 and 𝑠⃗𝑖 of all the individual nucleons of a standard
nucleus. This fact is in accordance to the pairing of like nucleons with equal and opposite
spins. Even number of protons and neutrons are paired up such that they have zero total
angular momentum. The few remaining nucleons outside the core determine the nuclear spin.
Hence, the nuclear spin will be a small number.

1.5 NUCLEAR MAGNETIC MOMENTS OF NUCLEI

Let us consider a charged particle of mass M and charge e, moving in a closed path of radius a.
The rotation of the particle in the circular path constitutes an electric current i

e
i (1)
2

Such a current loop behaves as a magnetic shell possessing a magnetic moment

   a 2i (2)

If  is angular frequency of revolution, then the total charge crossing any section of the path in
unit time is
𝑒 𝑒𝜔
𝑖=𝑇= . (3)
2𝜋

Therefore, the magnetic moment associated with the orbital motion of the particle becomes

𝑒𝜔𝑎 2
𝜇= (4)
2

If the charged particle is an electron,

then the magnetic moment will be
perpendicular to the plane of the orbit
as shown in Fig. 1._ and opposite to the
direction of its orbital angular
momentum as it is negatively charged.
Its angular momentum pl is expressed

Figure 1.1: Magnetic momentum due to a moving charge as

𝑝𝑙 = 𝑚𝑒 𝑎2 𝜔 (5)

From (3) & (4), we get,

𝜇𝑙 𝑒
= 2𝑚
𝑝𝑙 𝑒

𝑒
or 𝜇𝑙 = 2𝑚 𝑙ℏ = 𝑙𝜇𝐵 (maximum value of 𝑝𝑙 ) (6)
𝑒

where 𝜇𝐵 = 9.27 × 10−24 J/T = Bohr magneton.

Expression (6) shows that the current loop due to the electron circulating in its orbit is quivalent
to a tiny magnet of atomic size. The magnetic field at large distances may be described as due to
magnetic dipole located at the centre of current loop.

Similarly due to the spin angular momentum 𝑝𝑠 = 𝑠ℏ, there will be an intrinsic magnetic
momentum associated with the electron.
𝜇𝑠 𝑒
= 𝑔𝑠
𝑝𝑠 2𝑚𝑒

Similarly, the orbital and spin angular momenta of protons can produce extra nuclear magnetic
field which originates due to a magnetic dipole located at the centre of the nucleus. So we may
write for a proton,
𝑒
𝜇𝑙𝑝 = 𝑔𝑝 2𝑚 𝑙ℏ = 𝑔𝑝 𝑙𝜇𝑁 (due to orbital motion) (7)
𝑝

𝑒
𝜇𝑝 = 𝑔𝑝 2𝑚 𝑠𝑝 ℏ = 𝑔𝑝 𝑠𝑝 𝜇𝑁 (for spin motion) (8)
𝑝

𝑒ℏ
𝜇𝑁 = 2𝑚 is the nuclear magneton, almost 1000 times smaller than the Bohr magneton owing to
𝑝

its mass.

Similarly for neutron, there is no contribution to the magnetic moment from its orbital motion.
However there will be a contribution from its intrinsic motion
𝑒
𝜇𝑛 = 𝑔𝑛 2𝑚 𝑠𝑛 ℏ = 𝑔𝑛 𝑠𝑛 𝜇𝑁 (9)
𝑛

as mp ≈ mn.
Therefore, to find the magnetic moment for a nucleus consisting of Z protons and N neutrons, we
need to sum up the individual magnetic moments due to proton spin ∑ 𝜇⃗𝑝𝑖 , neutron spin ∑ 𝜇⃗𝑛𝑖
and the proton orbital motion ∑(𝜇⃗𝑙𝑝 )𝑖 .

𝜇𝐼 = ∑ 𝜇⃗𝑝𝑖 + ∑ 𝜇⃗𝑛𝑖 + ∑(𝜇⃗𝑙𝑝 )𝑖

The measured magnetic moment for proton is μp = 2.7927μN. Ideally, μp should be equal to μN.
The discrepancy between the measured and expected values is attributed to the non-uniform
charge distribution within the proton. The direction of the magnetic moment is anti-parallel to its
intrinsic spin momentum, just like that for a negative charge distribution.

On the other hand, the measured magnetic moment for neutron is μn = -1.9135μN. Ideally, μn
should be zero as it is electrically neutral. This discrepancy also suggests the non-uniform charge
distribution within the neutron. Further, the negative sign implies that the magnetic moment is
anti-parallel to its intrinsic spin momentum. The discrepancy can be resolved by considering the
strong meson exchange interaction between the protons and neutrons. In this model a free
neutron is surrounded for a part of its lifetime by a cloud of virtual negative pions generated
according to the decay mode

𝑛0 → 𝑝+ + 𝜋 −

This negative charge of the pions moving around the neutrons give rise to a negative dipole
moment.

1.6 NUCLEAR QUADRUPOLE MOMENTS OF NUCLEI

Quadrupole moments

So far we have assumed that nucleons inside the nucleus are so distributed that spherical
symmetry is maintained in them i.e., the shape of the nucleus is spherical . But actually the shape
of the nucleus is not spherical, but it is elliptical.

If the positive charge of the nucleus is distributed perfectly spherical, its quadrupole moment
should be zero. If the quadrupole moment of nucleus is positive, it means that the charge
distribution inside the nucleus is elliptical with major axis along the spin axis and if the
quadrupole moment is negative, it means that the minor axis of elliptical charge distribution
inside the nucleus is along the spin axis. Generally the quadrupole moment of all the nuclei
(except for the nuclei of some mass numbers) is found to be positive.

Calculations of Quadrupole Moment of Nucleus

Figure 1.2: Charge distribution in a nucleus

Let charge distribution inside the nucleus is not completely symmetrical i.e., the charge of
nucleus is not at the centre of the nucleus O, but it is at any other point A, which has coordinated
(x,y,z) from the centre O of the nucleus and distance OA = r Obviously, the electric potential at
the point P on Z-axis , which is outside the nucleus at a distance R from the centre O of the
nucleus , due to charge (+q) from the nucleus is
1 q
Vp  (10)
4o R0

where R0 = distance of point P from the charge centre A of the nucleus .

It is clear that 𝑅02 = 𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 – 2𝑟𝑅 𝑐𝑜𝑠 

 1/ 2 1 / 2
 2r r2  1 1  2r r2 
Or R0  R 1  cos   2  , Or  1  cos   2 
 R R  R0 R  R R 

  1  3  
      2 2 
 1  2r r  2  2    2r r 
2
 1      cos   2   
1 1
 cos   2   ........
R0 R   2  R R  2  R R  
 

1 r r 2  3cos 2   1  r 3  5cos3   3cos   

 1  cos     3    .......
R R R2  2  R  2  

From eqn.no.(9), potential at the point P

q  r r 2  3 cos 2   1  r 3  5 cos 3   3 cos   

Vp  1  cos   
2 
  3    .......
40 R  R R  2  R  2  

q qr cos  qr 2  3 cos 2   1 
    
40 R 40 R 2 40 R 3  2 

q qr cos  qr 2  3 cos 2   1  qr 3  5 cos3   3 cos  

    
 4 R 4 
   .......
40 R 40 R 2 40 R 3  2  0  2 

In the above equation, the first term represents the potential due to a single charge, hence the
1
coefficient of (i.e., total charge of the nucleus 𝑞 = 𝑍𝑒, where Z is the total number of
40
protons inside the nucleus or it is the atomic number of the nucleus) is called the monopole
moment. In the second term, since 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠  = 𝑍 component of the distance OP', therefore the
1
coefficient of is 𝑞𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠  = charge × Z component of distance. Hence 𝑞𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠  , the
40 R 2

1
coefficient of is called the dipole moment and the second term represents the potential
40 R 2
due to the dipole. Similarly the third term is the potential due to quadrupole and the coefficient
 3 cos 2   1  1
qr 2
of is called the quadrupole moment.
 40 R
3
 2

If the charge distribution has a charge density ρ, then the charge

𝑞 = ∫ 𝜌𝑑𝜏

Substituting this in () the potential can be rewritten as

 d z   3z 2  r 2 
𝑉   d   4 0 R3  2  d  .......
4 0 R 4 0 R 2

The electric dipole moment D is given by

𝐷 = ∫ 𝜌𝑧𝑑𝜏

Since the charge distribution of a nucleus arises from the probability distribution of the protons,
therefore

𝜌 ∝ |Ψ|2

As nuclear states have a definite parity, |Ψ|2 is an even function of z i.e., it has the same value for
+z and -z. The dipole moment will vanish as the integral from 0 to ∞ will therefore be equal to -
∞ to 0. Similar arguments show that odd-numbered electric moments will be zero.

Therefore, the lowest order deviations from spherical symmetry in a nucleus are identified from
the electric quadrupole moment.

The intrinsic quadrupole moment of the nucleus in Z-direction at the point P(0, 0, R) is


Q    3z 2  r 2 d , 
Since 𝑟 2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 , for a spherically symmetric charge distribution

1
  x d    y d    z d  3  r d
2 2 2 2

Therefore, Q  0 .

If however, the nucleus is elongated along the Z-axis then

1
  z d  3  r d
2 2

=> Q  0

Such a charge distribution is called a prolate spheroid (cigar shaped).

On the other hand, if the nucleus is compressed along the Z-axis then

1
  z d  3  r d
2 2

=> Q  0

Such a charge distribution is called an oblate spheroid (pancake shaped).

Fig. 6. Shape of nucleus according to the quadrupole moment

The intrinsic quadrupole moment Q0 is measured in a reference frame fixed with the nucleus,
while the observed quadrupole moment Q is measured in a lab-fixed frame of reference. The two
moments are related by the equation given below

𝐼(2𝐼−1)
𝑄 = (𝐼+1)(2𝐼+3) 𝑄0

If I = 0 (e-e nucleus), Q = 0.

If I = 1/2, Q = 0.

This does not mean that the nucleus has spherical symmetry. It only suggests that the maximum
observable component of Q is zero.

The unit of quadrupole moment is barn. A barn is a metric unit of area equal to 10-28 m2. It is
approximately the cross-sectional area of a uranium nucleus.