Public

Relations

SECOND EDITION

Tom Kelleher
University of Florida

New York Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Kelleher, Tom (Tom A.), author.

Title: Public relations / Tom Kelleher, University of Florida.
Description: Second edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, [2021] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019034697 (print) | LCCN 2019034698 (ebook) | ISBN
9780190925093 (paperback) | ISBN 9780190925109 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Public relations.
Classification: LCC HD59 .K45 2021 (print) | LCC HD59 (ebook) | DDC
659.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034697
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019034698

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in Mexico by Quad/Mexico
 To my parents, Fred and Imogene

And for my wife Robin and our sons

Miles and Henry

 Brief Contents
PREFACE XIII
ABOUT THE AUTHOR XXI

SECTION I FOUNDATIONS
CHAPTER 1 Principled Public Relations 1
CHAPTER 2 Public Relations Models Through the Ages 27
CHAPTER 3 Convergence and Integrated Communication 55
CHAPTER 4 Relationship Management 86

SECTION II STRATEGY
CHAPTER 5 Research 117
CHAPTER 6 Planning 148
CHAPTER 7 Implementation 177
CHAPTER 8 Evaluation 200

SECTION III TACTICS

CHAPTER 9 Writing 225
CHAPTER 10 Social Media and Mobile 256

SECTION IV CONTEXTS
CHAPTER 11 Legal 288
CHAPTER 12 Issues and Crises 319
CHAPTER 13 Global 349
CHAPTER 14 Careers 374

APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCIES 398

NOTES 402
GLOSSARY 421
CREDITS 429
NAME INDEX  430
SUBJECT INDEX  431

v
 Preface xiii

About the Author xxi

SECTION I FOUNDATIONS
Contents

CHAPTER 1 Principled Public Relations 1

Defining public relations 2 Why ethics matter 15
Textbook definitions 3 Reasons for studying ethics 16
CASE STUDY: HOLD THE FIASCO, PLEASE. 4 Competing duties 17
Crowdsourcing a definition 6 A guide for ethical decision-making 18
Principled public relations management 7 CASE STUDY: “TWEETING UNDER FALSE
CIRCUMSTANCES” 18
Tell the truth 8
Prove it with action 9 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: KATHY FITZPATRICK 22

Listen to the customer 10

Codes of ethics 23
Manage for tomorrow 10
Criticisms of codes 23
Conduct public relations as if the whole company
Advantages of codes 23
depends on it 11
Professional associations 24
Remain calm, patient and good-humored 12
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 25
CASE STUDY: HOW CROCK-POT FOUGHT FIRE BY KEEPING
ITS COOL 12 Summary 25
Realize the company’s true character
is expressed by its people 15 Discussion questions 26

CHAPTER 2 Public Relations Models Through the Ages 27

Public relations models in history 28 Major motivations for public relations 44
Press agentry/publicity 28 Recruitment 44
CASE STUDY: A TALL ORDER: GAINING ATTENTION AND Legitimacy 45
PUBLICITY IN THE MARKETPLACE OF IDEAS 30 Agitation 46
Public information 32 Advocacy 48
CASE STUDY: EDWARD BERNAYS’ “TORCHES OF Profit 48
FREEDOM” 35 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: KAREN MILLER RUSSELL 50
Two-way asymmetrical communication 37
Ethics: transparency, objectivity
Two-way symmetrical communication 38
and advocacy 51
A broader social history of public IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 52
relations 41
Religion 42 Summary 53
Education 42 Discussion questions 54
Politics and government 43

vi
 Contents
CHAPTER 3 Convergence and Integrated Communication 55
Convergence 56 How public relations is different at
Technological convergence 56 its core 77
Cultural convergence 58 Organization (beyond offerings) 77
Economic convergence 59 Publics (beyond audiences) 77
Professional convergence 61 Relationships (beyond sales) 78
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: BILL IMADA 79
Divergence 62
Advertising 63 Ethics: free flow of information
Marketing 65 and data protection 80
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 83
Integration 70
Integrated marketing communication 70 Summary 84
Hybrid functions 73
Discussion questions 84
CASE STUDY: RED BULL’S CONTENT MARKETING
STRATEGY 75

CHAPTER 4 Relationship Management 86

Managing relationships 87 Issues-driven relationships 104
Taking care of relationships 88 Nonprofit organizations 105
Key outcomes of relationships 89 When publics are organizations and
organizations are publics 106
News-driven relationships 92
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: ROB CLARK 110
Media relations 92
Pitching 93 Ethics: corporate social responsibility
and loyalty 111
Commerce-driven relationships 97
CASE STUDY: COCA-COLA AND CORPORATE SOCIAL
B2C 97 RESPONSIBILITY 111
B2B 98
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 114
Employee relations 100
CASE STUDY: PUTTING MONEY WHERE THEIR MISSION IS: Summary 115
MEDTRONIC REBUILDS AFTER HURRICANE MARIA 102
Discussion questions 115
Investor relations 103

vii
 SECTION II STRATEGY

CHAPTER 5 Research 117

Contents

Research in the RPIE cycle 118 Interviews 136

Formative research 118 Focus groups 136
Summative research 119 Direct observation 137

Situation analysis 120 Secondary and primary research 138

Situation research 120
Formal and informal research 138
Organization research 123
Reliability and validity 139
Publics research 125
Trade-offs in research design 141
CASE STUDY: APPLYING THE SITUATIONAL THEORY
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: MEGAN KINDELAN 142
OF PUBLICS: NET NEUTRALITY 128

Ethics: doing the greatest good for the

Quantitative research 133
greatest number of people 143
Surveys 134
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 145
Experiments 134
Content analysis 134 Summary 146

Qualitative research 136 Discussion questions 147

CHAPTER 6 Planning 148

A hierarchy of outcomes 150 Events 163
Tuning in 151 Evaluation 164
Attending 151 Budgets 165
Liking 151 Personnel 165
Comprehending 152 Administrative costs and supplies 168
Learning 152 Media and communication expenses 169
Agreeing 153 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: NATALIE ASOREY 170
Remembering 153
Ethics: beware of zombies; enhance
Acting 153
the profession 172
Proselytizing 153
Define the specific issue/conflict 173
Using McGuire’s hierarchy of effects
for planning 154 Identify internal/external factors 173
Identify key values 173
Strategic planning 155
Identify the parties involved 173
CASE STUDY: GLOBAL HANDWASHING DAY: GOALS,
Select ethical principles 174
OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES 158
Make a decision and justify it 174
Timelines 161 IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 175
Formative research 161
Client/management meetings 162 Summary 175
Action and communication tactics 163 Discussion questions 176
Production of media and communication
materials 163
viii
CHAPTER 7 Implementation 177

Contents
Taking action 178 CASE STUDY: PUPPIES AS PUBLICS? BARKBOX MARKS ITS
CASE STUDY: PULLED PORK: CHIPOTLE’S CHALLENGE TERRITORY ACROSS OWNED, PAID, SHARED
TO ACT ON ITS PRINCIPLES 179 AND EARNED MEDIA 191

VOICES FROM THE FIELD: ROSANNA M. FISKE 193

Choosing channels 181
Ethics: loyalty and diversity in communication
Controlled and uncontrolled media 182
and action 195
Owned, paid, shared and earned media 184 CASE STUDY: DOING GOOD BY DOING WELL: KIMBERLY-
Owned media 184 CLARK’S EFFORTS TO PROMOTE DIVERSITY 196

Paid media 186 IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 197

Shared media 187
Summary 198
Earned media 189
Mixed media 191 Discussion questions 199

CHAPTER 8 Evaluation 200

Message testing 202 CASE STUDY: GILLETTE’S “WE BELIEVE” CAMPAIGN
Focus groups 202 GAUGED BY MORE THAN JUST NUMBERS 214

Readability tests 203 Principle 5: advertising value equivalencies are

Experiments 203 not the value of communications 216
Principle 6: social media should be measured
Media monitoring services 204 consistently with other media channels 217
Metrics, analytics and data 206 Principle 7: measurement and evaluation should
Tracking visitor behavior 208 be transparent, consistent and valid 217

Segmenting referring sources 208 Measuring the right outcomes 218

Parsing big data 208 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: TINA MCCORKINDALE 219

Barcelona principles 209 Ethics: independence 220

Principle 1: goal setting and measurement IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 222
are fundamental 210
Principle 2: measuring communication outcomes Summary 222
is recommended 210
Discussion questions 223
Principle 3: the effect on organizational
performance should be measured 213
Principle 4: measurement and evaluation require
both qualitative and quantitative methods 213

ix
 SECTION III TACTICS

CHAPTER 9 Writing 225

Contents

Five reasons to write well in public Writing for intermediaries 238

relations 226 Writing for news media 238
Relationships 227 Writing for social media 243
Influence and persuasion 227 Writing for search engines 246
Goals and objectives 227
Business writing 249
Reputation management 228
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: CORNELIUS FOOTE 249
Impression management 228

Storytelling 229 Ethics: expertise and writing

for mutual understanding 251
CASE STUDY: A VIRTUOUS (BI)CYCLE: HOW THE WORLD
CASE STUDY: WORDS MATTER: A STRANGE CHOICE
BICYCLE RELIEF ORGANIZATION TELLS STORIES WITH
FOR AN AGENCY NAME 251
PURPOSE 229
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 253
Features 231
CASE STUDY: THE GOAT’S SURF RANCH: HOW A FEATURE Summary 253
STORY HELPED BUILD A WAVE OF INTEREST IN A NEW
BUSINESS VENTURE 231 Discussion questions 254
News 236

CHAPTER 10 Social Media and Mobile 256

Mobile first 258 Text 269
Ubiquitous 258 Images 271
Social 258 Video 273
Personal 259 Curated content 275
Local 260
Building relationships and community 276
CASE STUDY: BURGER KING USES MOBILE APP TO TROLL
Community management 277
COMPETITORS 260
Influencer and advocate engagement 279
Uses and gratifications of media 262 CASE STUDY: MILLIONS SHARE THEIR MICKEY MOUSE
EARS FOR CHARITY 281
Social and visual listening 263
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: SHANE SANTIAGO 282
What is social listening? 263
What is visual listening? 264 Ethics: privacy and safeguarding
What are the benefits of social confidences 283
and visual listening? 264 IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 285
How do you conduct a social listening
search? 267 Summary 286

Creating engaging content 267 Discussion questions 286

x
SECTION IV CONTEXTS

CHAPTER 11 Legal 288

Contents
International legal contexts 289 Financial information 306
CASE STUDY: TESLA CEO AND FEDERAL REGULATORS GET
The first amendment 291
INTO A TIFF OVER FREE SPEECH 307
CASE STUDY: AMAZON V. NYT: A CASE IN THE COURT OF
PUBLIC OPINION 292 Privacy 310
Intrusion into seclusion 310
Defamation 294
Appropriation of likeness or identity 311
Intellectual property 295 Public disclosure of private facts 312
Copyright, trademarks and patents 296 Portrayal in a false light 312
Plagiarism 296 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: CAYCE MYERS 313
Fair use 298
Intellectual property issues 301 Ethics: safeguarding confidences—who owns
your social networks? 314
Public information and the Freedom IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 316
of Information Act 304
Summary 316
Protecting publics 305
Safety and accuracy 305 Discussion questions 318

CHAPTER 12 Issues and Crises 319

Managing conflict 320 Accident crises 335
CASE STUDY: IS THE CUSTOMER ALWAYS RIGHT? . . . A BIG Preventable crises 335
WIN FOR LITTLE ITALY 323
Crisis response strategies 335
Managing issues 324 Deny strategies 336
CASE STUDY: THE ISSUE LIFE CYCLE OF VOLKSWAGEN’S Diminish strategies 337
“DIESELGATE” 325 Rebuild strategies 337
Reinforce strategies 339
Proactive issues management 328
CASE STUDY: MR. ZUCKERBERG GOES TO
1. Monitoring 328
WASHINGTON 339
2. Identification 329
3. Prioritization 330 Social media and crises 341
4. Analysis 330 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: BARRY FINKELSTEIN 343
5. Strategic planning 331
Ethics: conflicts of interest 344
6. Implementation 331
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 346
7. Evaluation 332

Crisis types 333 Summary 346

Victim crises 333 Discussion questions 348

xi
 CHAPTER 13 Global 349
Public relations and culture 350 CASE STUDY: MASTERCARD’S WORLD CUP CAMPAIGN
Contents

Low-context versus high-context GETS A RED CARD 365

communication 352
Public diplomacy 367
Cultural dimensions 354
VOICES FROM THE FIELD: PATRICK FORD 368
CASE STUDY: VICKS REDEFINES “CARE” DESPITE
CULTURAL PREJUDICE 356 Ethics: dialogic ethics 370
Cultural intelligence 357 IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 371

International public relations 359 Summary 372

Environmental variables 360
Discussion questions 373

CHAPTER 14 Careers 374

Personal branding 375 Sports and entertainment 387
Strategic 375 Political and public affairs 388
Positive 376 Financial and entrepreneurial 388
Promising 377 Consumer 388
Person-centric 377 International 389
Artifactual 378
Education and continued learning 389
Internships and projects 380
CASE STUDY: CEO VERSUS NEW HIRE: WHO WINS? 392
Employers 381 VOICES FROM THE FIELD: KRISLYN HASHIMOTO 393
Agencies 381
Corporations 382 Ethics: competition, loyalty and job
changes 394
Nonprofits and NGOs 383
IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 396
Government 384
Self-employment and small business 385 Summary 396
Areas of specialization 386 Discussion questions 397
Health 386

Appendix A: Universal Accreditation Board

Competencies 398
Notes 402
Glossary 421
Credits 429
Name index  430
Subject index  431
xii
Preface
Writing the first edition of Public Relations and then developing the second
edition to keep up with the times has kept me mindful of the pace of change
in public relations. New technologies, new news, new cases, new faces—
I’ve continued to try to keep the content fresh while retaining the lasting
concepts that are still sound so that the lessons gleaned from each chapter
can be applied to the next big app, meme, crisis, or event to fill our cease-
less newsfeeds. In addition, I have added videos to provide context for
many of the case studies and examples included throughout the book and
assessments to ensure students understand and can apply the concepts
discussed.
The passage of time during the relatively slow cycle of writing, editing,
revision and publication forces us to check how our understanding of the con-
cepts and the lessons from yesterday’s cases and examples can be applied in
the present, and how we can use that knowledge to analyze unfolding trends
and news. Unlike a status update, snap, tweet or post, the content of this text
has to be evaluated on the knowledge it delivers more than on the momentary
trends it taps.
Look at the citations and links in the references. There are hundreds of
referrals that lead to countless additional resources—almost all of it freely
available online. My goal for this book continues to be to offer a structure to
work with so students can climb the pyramid of Bloom’s taxonomy from
recall to understanding to application to analysis to evaluation. For the most
part, I’ve left the top of the taxonomy—creation—to students and their pro-
fessors. Courses in public relations writing, multimedia production or cam-
paigns will focus more on that part, and students will turn to other texts,
trainings and online resources as they delve deeper into creating public rela-
tions tactics and programs on their own.
In any case, I am grateful for the time I’ve had to tweak the material and
test its resilience across two editions. In a way, each of the case studies and
examples is a little test. Does the moral of the story still resonate? Does the
key point still hold? My highest hope for the second edition of Public Relations
is still that it offers a cohesive enough foundation that teachers, students,
and professionals can explore the changing world of public relations with
mutual understanding and a common vocabulary.

NEW PERSPECTIVES
Scores of reviewers have taken time to offer feedback on countless drafts of
both the first and second edition of Public Relations, and all of what you will
read in the chapters that follow. Every single reviewer has helped improve
the book in some way. Each one of them brings specific knowledge of

PREFACE xiii
 different areas of public relations, as well as different life experiences that
have informed their feedback.
One of the specific challenges of writing the second edition was to in-
clude and acknowledge all these diverse perspectives and voices while retain-
ing my own. Sometimes the shift is subtle—the choice of a geographical
reference or current event. Other times the voices are represented much
more directly with specific quotes or interviews via the “Voices from the
Field” included with each chapter.
As a field of communication, public relations is dynamic and conversa-
tional. And conversational communication requires authenticity. My job as
author isn’t so much to be the authority but to be authentic in presenting the
field in an engaging way.
Speaking of dynamic and authentic voices, I would be remiss in discuss-
ing the revisions made for the second edition of this text without a huge ac-
knowledgement and thank you to Natalie Asorey. It was a tremendous stroke
of good fortune for me when the University of Florida was able to hire Natalie
as a lecturer here at about the same time as I began working on the second
edition. Looking at her bio in the “Voices from the Field” for Chapter 6, you’ll
see why. Natalie brings to her students a wealth of public relations wisdom
and experience in cross-cultural communication and social media. She most
recently was in charge of social media at BODEN in Miami, where she man-
aged the McDonald’s USA account and led Escucha, the agency’s social listen-
ing practice. Natalie contributed greatly to the insights and perspectives
reflected in the extensive revisions to Chapter 10 (“Social Media and Mobile”)
and Chapter 13 (“Global”), all while maintaining the narrative flow that has
become a hallmark of this book.

NEW TO THE SECOND EDITION

Trying to maintain the mantle of “the most contemporary introduction to
public relations” has proved to be one of the greatest challenges in writing
a second edition. Of course, social media and current events provided a
bountiful supply of fresh stories and illustrations, but reviewer recommen-
dations were key in making sure that the pursuit of shiny new examples
did  not come at the expense of important student learning outcomes.
­Sometimes the revisions meant filling gaps pointed out by reviewers. Other
times new trends were taken into account to update the setting for contem-
porary cases and stories, such as direct-to-consumer (or DTC) communica-
tion and branding strategies (Chapter 7), social and visual listening
(Chapter 10) and the gig economy (Chapter 14).
In addition to updating and replacing examples and illustrations through-
out, the second edition features the following key revisions:

• MOBILE & SOCIAL MEDIA: Chapter 10, "Social Media and Mobile," more
clearly highlights the tactical skills needed by public relations

xiv PREFACE
 practitioners today and how practitioners can use social media to listen
to, engage with and build relationships with their publics.
• GLOBAL PERSPECTIVES: Chapter 13, “Global,” heeds the advice of the
2017 report from the Commission on Public Relations Education,
which recommends that students in introductory courses learn how
the practice differs throughout the world, by integrating more exam-
ples and perspectives from outside the United States.
• CAREER STRATEGIES: Chapter 14, “Careers,” covers personal branding
as a career strategy with tips that guide students in building skill sets
to bring to the dynamic public relations job market, including intern-
ships and jobs in agencies, corporations, nonprofits and NGOs.
• NEW CASE STUDIES: Fourteen new case studies highlight examples of
public relations successes and failures. These include Papa John’s, Crock
Pot, IHOP, Medtronic, Bark Box, Gillette, World Bicycle Relief, Kelly
Slater Wave Company, Burger King, Disney/Make-A-Wish, Tesla, Face-
book, Vick’s and MasterCard.
• NEW INTERVIEWS: Five new Voices from the Field interviews feature new
practitioners giving practical advice on the skills students need to be
successful in the industry: Rob Clark, VP of Global Communications
and Corporate Marketing for Medtronic; Megan Kindelan, Director of
Public Affairs for the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics; Natalie Asorey,
University of Florida Lecturer and former head of social media at
BODEN; Tina McCorkindale, President and CEO of the Institute for
Public Relations; and Patrick Ford, professional-in-residence at UF and
former Burson-Marstellar worldwide vice chair and chief client officer.
• NEW DISCUSSION QUESTIONS: Discussion questions and hands-on ac-
tivities at the end of each chapter provide a jumping-off point for pro-
ductive classroom discussions of every major subsection, learning
outcome and case study.
• NEW INTERACTIVE E-BOOK: The enhanced interactive e-book includes
integrated videos tied to several extended examples and case studies as
well as additional assessments (multiple choice questions) tied to the
main learning objective sections and end-of-chapter self-assessments.
Beyond these core content changes, the second edition features a re-
freshed design and art program that better signposts key examples, vivid
images, and extensive social media and ethics coverage that continue to be
hallmarks of the book.

ORGANIZATION
The second edition of Public Relations has four sections: (I) Foundations,
(II) Strategy, (III) Tactics, and (IV) Contexts.

PREFACE xv
 The Foundations section starts with Chapter 1, “Principled Public Rela-
tions,” which presents classic definitions of public relations alongside the
crowdsourced PRSA definition. Arthur Page’s principles of public relations
management provide a framework for introducing ethical practice. Profes-
sional organizations and codes of ethics are also introduced. The rest of the
Foundations section identifies concepts that have always been core to good
public relations. Chapter 2, “Public Relations Models through the Ages,”
covers public relations history with Grunig and Hunt’s models and Lamme
and Russell’s taxonomy of public relations goals. The next two chapters apply
scholarship on “Convergence and Integrated Communication” (Chapter 3)
and “Relationship Management” (Chapter 4) to the contemporary practice of
public relations.
The Strategy section includes all of the elements of the traditional
four-step, R-P-I-E process. The section starts with “Research” (Chapter 5)
and includes a discussion of formative and summative research to
­highlight the cyclical nature of strategy. Next is “Planning” (Chapter 6),
followed by “Implementation” (Chapter 7), which covers action and com-
munication in strategic programs and campaigns. The last chapter in the
Strategy ­section, “Evaluation” (Chapter 8), returns to the importance of
research with a focus on measurement and metrics for success in digital
communication.
The Tactics section includes three major skill and technology areas: “Writ-
ing” (Chapter 9) and “Social Media and Mobile” (Chapter 10).
The Contexts section (Chapters 11–14) addresses the forces influencing
the practice of public relations as emerging sociotechnical trends challenge
public relations people to confirm, rethink or in some cases abandon past
practices and ideas. Chapter 11, “Legal,” discusses law and policy. Chapter 12,
“Issues and Crises,” covers the issues lifecycle and cases of conflict and crisis
management. Chapter 13, “Global,” covers global and cultural ­contexts that
are broadening today’s practice of public relations. Finally, Chapter 14,
­“Careers,” delves into public relations careers with advice on personal brand-
ing and coverage of different areas of specialization and different types of
employers.

POSITIONING STUDENTS FOR SUCCESS

Consistent with the high standard set in the first edition, the second edi-
tion of Public Relations showcases an outstanding set of features and peda-
gogy to help students understand and learn the concepts. These include
learning outcomes aligned with key UAB competencies, case studies, ethics
topics representing key provisions of the PRSA Code of Ethics, “In Case You
Missed It” (ICYMI) practical tips, Q&A’s with professionals and scholars,
bulleted summaries, discussion questions and activities and defined key
terms. In addition, the interactive e-book includes videos associated with
examples and case studies as well as a number of multiple self-assessment
questions tied to the learning outcomes.

xvi PREFACE
Learning outcomes
In addition to learning outcomes specific to contemporary public relations
practice, each chapter opens with public relations learning outcomes aligned
with the Universal Accreditation Board (UAB) groupings of competencies
(as outlined at http://www.praccreditation.org/resources/documents/2016-
apr-KSAs-Tested.pdf). This ensures Public Relations continues to be profes-
sionally relevant.

Case Studies
Every chapter includes at least one extended run-in case study embedded in
the text, and some chapters contain two or even three. These cases provide
relevant, real-world examples to illustrate the important concepts intro-
duced in the book.
Ethics Topics Mapped to the PRSA Code of Ethics
Ethics are integral to the first chapter and discussed in every chapter there-
after. Each of the six provisions for conduct in the PRSA Code of Ethics is
covered to ensure students have a firm grasp of the code that governs and
sets guidelines for the public relations industry.

In Case You Missed It (ICYMI)

End-of-chapter boxes summarize some of the most useful tips covered in
the chapter, so students remember the most practical points.
Voices from the Field Q&As with Professionals
and Scholars
Each chapter includes a Q&A with a practitioner or scholar offering addi-
tional from-the-field perspectives and insights into the success stories and
cases presented in the chapters. These interviews give students a chance to
see how the theories and concepts introduced in the book work in practice
and also to gain some insights into ways they may enhance their chances
for future success in public relations.

Captions
Queries included at the end of photo and figure captions prompt students
to think more critically about the highlighted examples.

Bulleted Summaries
Summaries organized around the learning outcomes identified at the start
of each chapter reinforce the key takeaways, so that students have a firmer
understanding of the concepts they should have learned.

Discussion Questions and Activities

Questions and activities at the end of each chapter encourage students to
demonstrate learning outcomes by discussing personal and professional
experiences or by analyzing and evaluating online resources. Instructors
can easily deploy these in face-to-face or online teaching as writing assign-
ments or discussion starters that connect student learning outcomes with
current events and technologies.

PREFACE xvii
 Glossary
Key terms are defined in the margins of the print text and hyperlinked to
the bolded key terms in the interactive e-book, to reinforce key concepts.
Flashcards (in the interactive e-book) also help students to review key
terms in preparation for exams.
Videos (Interactive e-Book)
Between two and four videos appear in every chapter of the e-book. These
videos provide context and expand on many of the examples and case stud-
ies included in each chapter.
Multiple-Choice Questions Tied to Learning Outcomes
(Interactive e-Book)
Multiple-choice questions tied to the learning outcomes of the book and
included at the end of every major heading and at the end of each chapter in
the e-book provide students with opportunities for low-stakes assessment
to make sure they understand the key terms, ideas, and concepts as they
proceed through the reading.
Digital Study Guide
A robust Digital Study Guide available at www.oup.com/he/kelleher2e
­includes flashcards, videos and self-study quizzes. Additional materials,
­including summary videos, video quizzes, discussion and case study ques-
tions, and additional assignable quizzes, are available via an instructor
LMS course package when students redeem the access code that comes free
with every new print book and ebook.

• FLASHCARDS: Flashcards help students to review key terms and pre-

pare for exams.
• VIDEOS: Videos related to many examples and case studies in the book
help to further contextualize and reinforce ideas and concepts. In addi-
tion to being embedded in the interactive e-book, each of these videos
is also available with multiple-choice questions in the interoperable
cartridge to be assigned to students by the instructor.
• MULTIPLE-CHOICE ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS: Multiple-choice questions
related to the learning outcomes of the book appear at the end of every
major heading and also at the end of each chapter to test students’ un-
derstanding of the material and help them prepare for exams.
• DISCUSSION QUESTIONS AND ACTIVITIES: Discussion questions and ac-
tivities from the end of each chapter are available in the interoperable
cartridge to be assigned to students by the instructor. These questions
and activities require students to engage in higher order thinking and
apply what they have learned in each chapter.
• SUMMARY VIDEOS: Videos for each chapter provide context and insights
into the importance of the chapter content and relevance to students
for their future in public relations.

xviii PREFACE
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to God for blessing me with wonderful parents, family, teachers
and friends. Thanks to my wife Robin and sons Henry and Miles. Revising
a book sounded at first like it would be much less taxing on family time
than writing the original, but they were remarkably patient and supportive
on many days when that didn’t feel like the case.
Thank you to UF College of Journalism and Mass Communications Dean
Diane McFarlin, Executive Associate Dean Spiro Kiousis and all of my col-
leagues past and present. Thanks again to my colleague Natalie Asorey for her
fresh perspective on the field.
Thanks to everyone at Oxford University Press, especially Senior Devel-
opment Editor Lisa Sussman, who has reviewed, edited and made better
every single paragraph of this book through both editions. Thanks to Acqui-
sitions Editor Toni Magyar and her successor Keith Chasse for their contin-
ued faith in the value of this whole project. Thanks to Assistant Editor Alyssa
Quinones, who commissioned reviews, helped prepare the book for produc-
tion and hired supplements authors. Thanks to Senior Production Editor
Keith Faivre, Senior Media Editor Michael O. Quilligan and Marketing Man-
ager Sheryl Adams.
I also am grateful to Natalie Asorey for developing the end-of-section
and end-of-chapter eBook self-tests, as well as Cayce Meyers of Virginia Tech
for writing the instructor’s manual, Amy Shanler of Boston University for
the test bank, Katherine Fleck of Ohio Northern University for the eBook
pre- and post-tests, Jamie Ward of Eastern Michigan University for the
Power­Point presentations, Melanie Formentin of Towson University for the
video summaries of each chapter and to Katy Robinson here at the University
of Florida for the video quizzes.
Many thanks to all of the following reviewers for their useful
comments:

Liron Anderson-Bell Temple University

Anastacia Baird University of La Veme
P. Anne Baker Oakland University
Vincent Benigni College of Charleston
Kati Berg Marquette University
Brigitta Brunner Auburn University
Julie A. Cajigas The University of Akron
Christopher Caldiero Fairleigh Dickinson University
Michelle Carpenter Old Dominion University
Shirley S. Carter University of South Carolina
Jennifer Chin University of North Carolina–Wilmington
Lolita Cummings Carson Eastern Michigan University
Rochelle R. Daniel Bowie State University
Veronica R. Dawson California State University
Jocelyn DeAngelis Western New England University
John DiMarco St. John’s University

PREFACE xix
 Jeff Duclos California State University–Northridge
Tasha Dunn University of Nebraska at Kearney
James Everett Coastal Carolina University
Michele E. Ewing Kent State University
Patricia Fairfield-Artman University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Barry Finkelstein Luquire George Andrews
Robert French Auburn University
Tamara Gillis Elizabethtown College
Mark Grabowski Adelphi University
Chris Groff Rutgers University
Karen L. Hartman Idaho State University
Christine R. Helsel Austin Peay State University
Amy Hennessey Ulupono Initiative
Corey A. Hickerson James Madison University
Randy Hines Susquehanna University
Sallyanne Holtz University of Texas at San Antonio
Brad Horn National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum
Nathan Kam Anthology Marketing Group
Katherine Keib Oglethorpe University
Natalie Kompa Ohio Dominican University
Thomas A. Lamonica Illinois State University
Keith Lindenburg Brodeur Partners
Lisa Lundy University of Florida
Sufyan Mohammed University of Scranton
Aaron Moore Rider University
Lisa H. Newman University of Cincinnati
Dana Alexander Nolfe Bryant University
Susan Pahlau Colorado Christian University
Veronika Papyrina San Francisco State University
Heather Radi-Bermudez Florida International University
Kyle F. Reinson St. John Fisher College
Nazmul Rony Slippery Rock University
Risë J. Samra Barry University
Jean K. Sandlin California Lutheran University
Kathleen Stansberry Cleveland State University
Marlane C. Steinwart Valparaiso University
Robin Street University of Mississippi
Dustin W. Supa Boston University
Kaye D. Sweetser San Diego State University
Philip Tate Luquire George Andrews
Richard Waters University of San Francisco
Susan E. Waters Auburn University
Cynthia Wellington Webster University
Brenda Wilson Tennessee Tech University
Quan Xie Bradley University
Alissa Zito Loyola Marymount University

xx PREFACE
About the Author
TOM KELLEHER , Ph.D., is Associate Dean for Graduate Studies and Research
in the College of Journalism and Communications at the University of
Florida.
Kelleher joined the UF faculty in 2014 after 13 years on the faculty at the
University of Hawaii, where he anchored the public relations track. From
2010 to 2013, he served as Chairman of the School of Communications at the
University of Hawaii, which offers two B.A. degrees (communication and
journalism), an M.A. in communication, and a Ph.D. as part of an interdisci-
plinary program in communication and information science. He also served
in the public relations department of the School of Journalism and Mass
Communication at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill from 2004
to 2006. He earned his B.A. from Flagler College and his M.A. and Ph.D. from
the University of Florida.
Kelleher has designed and taught 22 different courses at three flagship
state universities (Florida, North Carolina, and Hawaii) and has published in
numerous journals including Journal of Public Relations Research, Public Rela-
tions Review, Journal of Communication, Journal of Computer-Mediated Commu-
nication and Journal of Mass Media Ethics.
In addition to the first edition of Public Relations, Kelleher also wrote
Public Relations Online: Lasting Concepts for Changing Media, which was the
first scholarly textbook in public relations to focus on the implications of
social media and “Web 2.0” technologies for theory and practice. He served on
the editorial board for Journal of Public Relations Research for nearly two dec-
ades, regularly reviews papers for the AEJMC public relations division, and
for 12 years served as faculty advisor to his school’s chapter of PRSSA. He has
been a member of AEJMC since 1996, PRSA since 1999, and ICA since 2000.
Kelleher has worked in university relations at the University of Florida;
science communication at NASA in Huntsville, Alabama; and agency public
relations at Ketchum in Atlanta.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR xxi

 C HAP TE R 1

Principled Public Relations

This simple kitchen appliance became the villain in one of

America’s most viewed TV series. How did Crock Pot use
humor to simmer down the public outrage?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.1 Define public relations in 1.4 Apply systematic ethical

terms of organizations, publics decision-making for public
and the relationships between relations.
them. 1.3 Understand the
1.5 Identify international
i­mportance of ethics in public
1.2 Explain how public ­ rofessional associations and
p
relations.
r­ elations can serve a become familiar with codes of
­management function through ethics.
key principles and values for
ethical conduct.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

2.1 INTEGRIT Y • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 3.3 COUNSEL TO MANAGEMENT
4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD • 5.5 LEADERSHIP SKILLS
 E
Publics ngagement. Conversation. Influence. Transparency. Trust. These con-
Groups of people with shared inter-
ests. An organization’s publics
cepts pepper workshops, seminars, articles and online discussions of
either have an effect on the organi- what social and digital communication technologies mean for public
zation, are affected by the organiza- relations. While essential for professional practice today, they have been at
tion, or both.
the heart of good public relations since long before Facebook, Twitter and
General public LinkedIn.
A nonspecific term referring to ev- This chapter introduces classic definitions of public relations as well as
eryone in the world, making the a modern description crowdsourced by the Public Relations Society of
concept rather meaningless in stra-
tegic communication and relation- America (PRSA). By and large the crowdsourced, social-media-era defini-
ship building. tion matches the classics that have been used in the teaching and practice
of public relations for decades. While keywords like publics, organizations,
Organization
A group of people organized in communication and relationships may not be buzzworthy, these concepts
pursuit of a mission, including busi- have stood the test of time as key components in any sound definition of
nesses, nonprofits, NGOs, clubs, public relations.
churches, unions, schools, teams
and government agencies.

Nongovernmental
organization (NGO)
A group of people organized at the
Defining Public Relations
local, national or international level, Publics—it’s not a term you hear every day outside of classrooms and strategy
often serving humanitarian func- meetings. I still recall vividly the first day in my very first public relations
tions and encouraging political par-
ticipation. Many NGOs work closely
course. The professor started right in discussing the importance of relation-
with the United Nations. ships between organizations and publics. For a moment, I was confused
about why we would spend so much time talking about relationships between
organizations and Publix, the prominent southern U.S. supermarket chain
(“Where shopping is a pleasure!”). Of course, he was talking about the plural
of the term public, which did turn out to be important to our first lesson in
public relations. In public relations, publics are groups of people with shared
interests related to organizations.
General public—now here’s a term, referring to everyone in the world,
you probably do hear every day. How is the general public responding to
today’s news events? What’s the best way to get our message out to the gen-
eral public? Can we engage the general public on this issue? The first two
questions are nearly impossible to answer, and the answer to the third
question is probably “no.” That is the problem with the general public. For
all practical purposes the general public doesn’t help us with strategy, and
it doesn’t help us identify any real people with whom we want to
communicate.
Engaging in public relations means communicating with people who
are part of specific groups with specific interests. Some of these publics are
Among Publix’s publics are fre- groups that have an effect on the organizations for which we work. These
quent shoppers, fans and coupon include large corporations, small businesses, nonprofits, schools, govern-
clippers, including the mother of ment agencies, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) organized at
two who developed the “I Heart
Publix” website at http://www.
the local, national, or international level, and even clubs and student
iheartpublix.com/. groups—pretty much any group of people organized to pursue a mission.
Are you part of a public for Others are people who are affected by our organizations. Most publics fit
Publix? both criteria in that the influence is mutual.

2 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

 Charity: Water (organization) appeals
to Amazon shoppers (public) to raise money
to bring clean drinking water to more than
37,000 people around the world (another
public). That’s public relations. Representa-
tives of a Public Relations Student Society
of America (PRSSA) chapter (organization)
make an announcement in an introductory
communications class to recruit new
­members (public). That’s public relations.
The Japan National Tourism Organization
(organization) posts photos and videos to
its “Visit Japan” Facebook page and
­interacts with commenters (public) on the
page. That’s public relations. Hewlett-Pack-
ard Co. (organization) posts a news release
announcing that quarterly profits have
­
slipped and hosts a live audio conference
call for media contacts (public) and
investors (another public) in order to
­
­satisfy ­Securities and Exchange Commis-
sion (SEC—yet another public) regulations.
That’s public relations too. Notice that in
none of these cases has the organization
set out to engage the general public.
­Instead, Amazon shoppers, new communi-
cation majors, Facebook commenters,
media contacts, investors and the SEC are
identified as specific publics. Charity: Water partnered with Amazon to raise money on Amazon Prime Day.
The labels for publics and organiza- Who were the key publics?
tions are sometimes interchangeable. If
executives from Hawaiian Electric Co.
­
(organization) visit homes of community leaders in the neighborhood of To define public
proposed new power lines (public) to discuss options for meeting increased relations, consider
energy demand, that’s public relations. And if neighbors in the community organizations,
organize a coalition (organization) to oppose the electric company (public) publics and the
at government hearings, that’s still public relations. relations between
Completing a full definition of public relations requires more than them.
just identifying organizations and publics. We still have to understand the
second part of the term public relations—the relations.
Public relations
Textbook Definitions Management of communication
Perhaps the most commonly cited definition of public relations is the one between an organization and its
written by James Grunig and Todd Hunt in their classic 1984 public relations publics, or the strategic communi-
cation process that builds mutually
text Managing Public Relations: “the management of communication between beneficial relationships between
an organization and its publics.”1 There’s a lot to this business of managing organizations and their publics.

Defining Public Relations 3

 communication, which is why so many other definitions of public relations
abound. Another classic definition from another classic public relations text,
Cutlip and Center’s Effective Public Relations, defines public relations as “the
management function that establishes and maintains mutually beneficial re-
lationships between an organization and the publics on whom its success or
failure depends.”2
Naturally, people are wary, or even skeptical, of textbook definitions.
Ask people outside of the field of public relations what public relations is
and you’ll get very different answers. In introductory communication
courses, I often ask students to name the first thing that comes to mind
when I say “public relations.” “Damage control” and “spin” are almost always
mentioned.

Case Study
Hold the Fiasco, Please.
Often when we hear about public relations in the news or on social media,
it’s not pretty. In fact, generally, it’s a “PR nightmare,” “disaster” or “fiasco”
that makes headlines. These were the words used by various media outlets
to describe an incident involving Papa John’s founder and Chairman John
Schnatter when Forbes.com revealed that Schnatter had used the N-word on
a conference call with a marketing agency.
Ironically, the conference call was intended “as a role-playing exercise for
Schnatter in an effort to prevent future public-relations snafus,” according to
Forbes’ Noah Kirsch, who broke the story.3 A few months earlier, Schnatter had
publicly entered a debate about National Football League players protesting the
national anthem. Schnatter had blamed slow pizza sales, in part, on the NFL’s
issues. Papa John’s then hired a public relations agency to help recover from the
fallout with the NFL. However, no one from the public relations agency was on
the conference call with the marketing agency a few months later. After the
story broke, both agencies terminated their contracts with Papa John’s.
On the day that news of the conference call broke, Papa John’s stock
prices dropped nearly 5 percent. That same night, Schnatter apologized and
resigned. On the very next day, Papa John’s stocks jumped 11 percent. And
get this—as a 30 percent stockholder, Schnatter increased his net worth by
an estimated $50 million in one day as a result!4
Inasmuch as Schnatter was the namesake, spokesperson, and even the
guy whose image was on the pizza boxes, his personal actions were inextrica-
bly tied in with the Papa John’s organization and its relationships with key

4 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

publics. Therefore, it would be difficult to deny that this incident illustrates
public relations—and also, unfortunately, what people commonly think of
when they think of PR. However, the case made by Papa John’s CEO Steve
Ritchie the following week more closely resembles preferred definitions of
public relations.
In an open letter sent via email to customers and posted on the compa-
ny’s web page, Ritchie attempted to speak for the whole organization in man-
aging Papa John’s relationships with its publics. Before outlining a specific
plan of action to “rebuild trust from the inside-out” by “engaging a broad set
of stakeholders,” Ritchie set the context:

Papa John’s is not an individual. Papa John’s is a pizza company with

120,000 corporate and franchise team members around the world. Our
employees represent all walks of life, and we are committed to fostering an
inclusive and equitable workplace for all. Racism and any insensitive lan-
guage, no matter what the context[,] simply cannot—and will not—be
tolerated at any level of our company.5

Schnatter, however, did not go silently. Although he stepped down as

chairman after the conference call controversy, he remained the largest
single shareholder in the company. Schnatter filed a lawsuit against the com-
pany and started his own website, https://savepapajohns.com, where he too
attempted to appeal to multiple publics: “I built Papa John’s from the ground
up and remain its largest shareholder. I love my Company, its employees,
franchisees and customers.”6 On the website, he made very public his criti-
cisms of the company’s leadership and included direct challenges to Ritchie,
who also faced criticism for poor leadership and creating a toxic work envi-
ronment.7 The real “fiasco,” it turned out, likely resulted as much from a cul-
ture of inappropriate leadership as it did from the actions of any one
individual. And the real challenge for public relations professionals was to
rebuild trust and relationships from the very top of the organization all the
way down.
So what do we make of this disconnect between public relations as pro-
fessors and professionals want to define it and public relations as so many
others see it? It is tempting to just ditch the name and call it something else.
It was labeled a PR disaster when
Many organizations have done that, or they have never called the function former Papa John’s chairman and
public relations in the first place. Instead, they have departments of public CEO John Schnatter used a racial
affairs, corporate communications, community relations and so on. Some or- slur on a conference call with a
marketing agency and later
ganizations have exercised great creativity in naming these roles. Dane resigned.
Cobain of South Africa’s Memeburn website highlighted 21 ridiculous job
How does this incident, and its
titles.8 Among them are social activationist, community data guerrilla, senior coverage by the media, shape
social media capability architect and the dreaded social media guru. perceptions of public relations?

Defining Public Relations 5

Crowdsource Crowdsourcing a Definition
To obtain information or input into a
particular task or project by enlist- The negative connotations and confusion over job titles have not been lost on
ing the services of a number of those in the profession. In late 2011 and early 2012, PRSA set out to tackle
people, either paid or unpaid, typi- the definition of public relations.
cally via the internet.

“Public Relations Defined” is an initiative to modernize the definition of

public relations. Through an open and collaborative effort, PRSA and its
industry partners are providing a platform for public relations, market-
ing and communications professionals to add their voice to a new defini-
tion of public relations.9

The effort included consultation with 12 allied organizations including

the Canadian Public Relations Society, PRSSA, the National Black Public
Relations Association, the Hispanic Public Relations Association and the
Word of Mouth Marketing Association. The advent of social media was cer-
tainly a factor, as reported by Stuart Elliot in The New York Times:

Perhaps the most significant changes have occurred most recently, as the
Internet and social media like blogs, Facebook and Twitter have trans-
formed the relationship between the members of the public and those
communicating with them. A process that for decades went one way—
from the top down, usually as a monologue—now goes two ways, and is
typically a conversation.10

Given the circumstances, PRSA’s use of a blog and its comments from
readers (http://prdefinition.prsa.org), Twitter (#PRDefined) and an online
form for submitting candidate definitions seemed appropriate. It was an
exercise in crowdsourcing. Oxford Dictionaries defines the verb crowd-
source as “obtain (information or input into a particular task or project)
by enlisting the services of a number of people, either paid or unpaid,
typically via the internet.”11 And that’s exactly what PRSA did. In this
case the help was unpaid. By day 12 of the open submission period, the
top 20 words submitted as part of suggested definitions for public rela-
tions were:

organization (mentioned in 388 inform (144)

submissions) management (124)
public (373) brand (119)
communication (280) company (116)
relationship(s) (260) business (112)
stakeholders (172) people (100)
create (170) engages (94)
mutual (158) client (92)
understand (153) awareness (88)
build (152) maintain (81)12
audiences (147)

6 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

 The task force soon had narrowed the field of definitions down to three
finalists, opened a public comment period online, hosted a second “Defini-
tion of Public Relations Summit” with partner organizations, revised the
three definitions, and held a public vote to select the new definition. And the
winner was . . . “Public relations is a strategic communication process that
builds mutually beneficial relationships between organizations and their
publics.” You may have noticed that the crowdsourced and modernized defi-
nition of public relations isn’t all that different from the classic definitions.

Principled Public Relations Management

Regardless of how you define it, good public relations requires excellent man-
agement. When an organization’s communication is focused more on image
and less on what the organization is actually doing, negative connotations
like spin and damage control become unfortunately accurate descriptions.
The problem with communication strategies based on image and fluff,
however, is that publics can see right through them. Sometimes they will
play along for the fun of it. This is common in sports and entertainment.
Sensationalism, snafus, ballyhoo and bombast are all part of what keep
people interested in Kylie Jenner’s cosmetics or LaVar Ball’s business ven-
tures well beyond their families’ talents in entertainment and athletics.
This isn’t to say that celebrity and social media influence doesn’t have a
place in legitimate public relations. Social media influencers who have
earned credibility in specific market segments and with specific publics can
be instrumental in strategic communication programs. The keys to success-
ful social media influence are reach and authenticity, and the key to authen-
ticity is matching influencers to organizations and their causes. For example,
Serena Williams is one of the world’s best tennis players, but she’s also a pow-
erful social media influencer with more than 10 million Twitter followers and
more than 10 million Instagram followers. As such, she promotes Nike, Beats
by Dr. Dre and the Allstate Foundation’s Purple Purse, which helps domestic Spin
violence survivors by supporting financial empowerment. Disingenuous strategic communica-
tion involving skewed interpretation
Of course, publics have been discussing businesses and their authen-
or presentation of information.
ticity since long before the internet, and managing relationships between
organizations and publics is about a lot more than finding the right social Social media influencer
Social media user who has earned
media influencer. Arthur Page, longtime vice president of AT&T Inc., credibility with specific publics and
worked at the company from the 1920s through the ’30s and ’40s and into who can be instrumental in strategic
the ’50s. Page was one of the first public relations people to reach that level communication programs because
of his or her reach and
of management in an organization of that magnitude. He articulated and engagement.
practiced principles of public relations management that apply as well now
as they did in the mid-20th century. Authenticity
The degree to which one communi-
cates reliably, accurately and true to
1. Tell the truth. his or her own character and the
character of the organization that
2. Prove it with action. he or she represents.

Principled Public Relations Management 7

Arthur W. Page was an early propo-
nent of authenticity and transpar-
ency in American public relations.
Do Page’s principles apply any
more or less in the digital age?

Serena Williams is a powerful social media influencer who partners with Nike, Beats by Dr. Dre
and the Allstate Foundation Purple Purse.
Why do these partnerships work?

3. Listen to the customer.

4. Manage for tomorrow.
5. Conduct public relations as if the whole company depends on it.
6. Remain calm, patient and good-humored.
7. Realize the company’s true character is expressed by its people.

Tell the Truth

It’s one thing to not lie; it’s another to proactively tell the truth. This principle
can be equated with the idea of transparency.13 Public relations researcher
and ethicist Brad Rawlins has defined it as the opposite of secrecy:

Transparency is the deliberate attempt to make available all legally rea-

sonable information—whether positive or negative in nature—in a
manner that is accurate, timely, balanced, and unequivocal, for the pur-
pose of enhancing the reasoning ability of publics and holding organiza-
tions accountable for their actions, policies, and practices.14

Transparency Arthur Page realized that large organizations like AT&T were particularly
Deliberate attempt to make avail- susceptible to public mistrust and suspicion when they overzealously protected
able all legally reasonable informa-
tion for the purpose of enhancing secrecy. Governments, schools, churches, NGOs and nonprofits are all in
the reasoning ability of publics. danger of breeding fear, apprehension, dislike and distrust when they shirk

8 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

transparency. Of course, there are times when secrecy makes sense to publics, Good public
such as in times of national security crises or when businesses want to protect relations is based
proprietary information to compete in markets, but even in those cases, orga-
nizations can still “tell the truth” about what they are keeping secret and why.
much more on what
an organization
Prove It with Action does than on what
You might call it the 90-10 rule. Page said that 90 percent of good public it says.
relations should be determined by what an organization does, and about
10 percent by what they say. Publicity is important, but only if it follows
action. Disneyland is the happiest place on earth. Ajax is stronger than dirt.
3M is innovation. Levi’s quality never goes out of style. These are among
the 50 most powerful slogans for brands, according to the Advergize
­website,15 but think about how much work goes into making the slogans
resonate. The slogans are hollow if the organization isn’t managed in such a
way as to make the words ring true.
You won’t see BP’s “Beyond Petroleum” slogan on the list. In 2000, BP in-
troduced a new logo as part of a major re-branding campaign by its agency,
Ogilvy & Mather. The bright, new—and of course green—sunburst logo was a
textbook example of branding. Literally. In Pavlik and McIntosh’s Converging
Media textbook, the authors defined branding as “the process of creating in the
consumer’s mind a clear identity for a particular company’s product, logo, or
trademark.” To illustrate the concept in the second edition of that text, the logo
was captioned “British Petroleum has successfully rebranded its company with
a new logo and a public image as being environmentally friendly.”16 (And I’m
the first to admit I used it as an example in my own classes!) BP’s sunburst logo was designed
to highlight the company’s commit-
But according to contributors on the PR Watch website, “BP’s invest- ment to the environment.
ment in extractive oil operations dwarfed its investment in renewable
What comes to your mind when
energy.”17 Critics immediately began to question the campaign. Then in the you see the BP logo?
summer of 2010, when BP’s Deepwater Horizon rig exploded, leading to
one of the worst manmade environmental disasters in history, BP was just
hammered on social media. Online contests were introduced to see who
could design the best logo mocking BP’s green sunburst. A YouTube video
portraying clumsy BP executives botching an attempt to clean up spilled
coffee went viral, getting 10 times more views than BP’s official YouTube
channel headliner following the accident. More than 160,000 Twitter users
followed a fake BP Twitter account spoofing the company.
Later, BP did make some commendable efforts as part of its continuing
road to recovery. They used Twitter to send important information out as
quickly as possible when media inquiries were overwhelming their media
relations staff. But in terms of action, BP soon became seen as “A Textbook
Example of How Not to Handle PR,” at least according to an NPR story title.
After interviewing experts, journalist Elizabeth Shogren concluded that BP
had “failed to communicate the three key messages the public needed to Following the BP oil spill, web
hear: That BP was accountable for the disaster, was deeply concerned about users competed to design the best
mock logo for the company.
the harm it caused and had a plan for what to do.”18 Not only were they not
able to communicate well, they also weren’t ready to prove it with action. Why do you think it was so easy
to mock BP after the oil spill?

Principled Public Relations Management 9

Listening Listen to the Customer
Deliberately paying attention to and
processing what others are commu- Listening, or paying attention to and processing what others are communi-
nicating. In public relations and cating, is at the heart of two-way communication. For organizations with
organizational communication, this large publics, listening requires an investment in systematic research. It also
means processing feedback.
requires management to be responsive to what the media and employees
Two-way communication have to say. The press may pick up on public sentiment, and employees often
When both parties send and receive have a very good sense of what people outside the organization think. In both
information in an exchange, as op-
posed to the one-way dissemination technical terms and everyday language, listening is more than just hearing.
of information from an organization While those managing an organization may hear what’s being said about the
to its publics. organization in the news, at the water cooler, online or out on the street, real
Feedback listening means considering what the feedback means for the organization
Information returned from the envi- and what can be done about it. Page saw listening as an important part of
ronment in response to an organiza-
public relations, and he saw the public relations person’s role as one of keep-
tion’s action or communication that
can be used for continuous adjust- ing upper-level management and others inside an organization informed
ment and improvement of the about public sentiment.
organization. Counting headlines, Facebook likes, Twitter followers, phone calls, You-
Proactive Tube views or keyword mentions gives some indication of what people are
A management style that is antici- thinking and talking about, but good listening requires more careful and de-
patory, change-oriented and self-
initiated to improve the organiza-
liberate attention to what is being said and what that means for your organi-
tion’s environment and its future. zation and how it is managed. You can’t manage a business on buzz alone.
Reactive
A management style that mainly Manage for Tomorrow
responds to problems as they arise Be proactive. That’s easy enough to say, but harder to do. After a crisis hits,
rather than anticipating them and it is much harder to engage in thoughtful dialogue with publics about what
averting them.
an organization can and should be doing. When public relations people are
called in after a major screw-up to clean up the mess, their role is mostly
reactive, limited to damage control, at best, or spin, at worst, unless they can
report that the organization is taking real action to correct whatever prob-
lems have occurred. While even the very best-managed of organizations are
susceptible to surprise crises, some organizations simply miss opportunities
to stave off disasters because they are not listening well to what is going on in
their environment and considering the ethical implications. This kind of lis-
tening today requires traditional research as well as participation in and
monitoring of online communities and forums.
Page’s proactive public relations—managing for tomorrow—means
building goodwill, avoiding business practices that will lead to unfavorable
business conditions, and anticipating how publics will respond to business
decisions that will have negative consequences. This concept of proactive
To effectively listen public relations is based on two big assumptions. First, public relations
in public relations, people have a role in managing the operations and policies of an organiza-
participate in and tion. Second, public relations people are in a position to sense when major
monitor online opportunities arise or when trouble is brewing.
communities, in Page acknowledged that the purpose of public relations isn’t to try to
addition to using answer every little complaint, “because you can’t run around and put salve on
traditional every sore that appears in the world.” This is good news for those monitoring
research. online product reviews! Rather, proactive public relations is tied to a broader

10 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

strategy. University of Florida Professor Emeritus Robert Kendall (the one
who taught me about publics in my very first public relations course) defined
proactive public relations as a “philosophy of public relations that takes the
initiative in planning the nature of the relationships desired with publics and
executes programs, campaigns, or activities designed to achieve the desired
ends.”19 Strategic public relations is proactive.

Conduct Public Relations as if the Whole

Company Depends on It
Page saw public relations as a management function, but he also realized
that top managers were not the only ones responsible for public relations. In
discussing leadership, he described how the role of a company president is
“first to have the company intend to do the right thing by the public” and
then to “get everyone in the company to do his part in carrying out the policy,
effectively, reasonably and politely.”
Employees have always been spokespeople for organizations, whether
that was in their job titles or not. If we want to know what is going on with
the big manufacturing plant in our community, we may read about it in the
news, but we also won’t be afraid to ask our neighbors who work there. Air-
line ticket agents and flight attendants may be our windows into the work-
ings of the larger airline. The mail carrier may be our source on the postal
service. Public relations depends on all of these people, and all of these
people depend on public relations.
No one wants to be part of an organization that is dreaded in his or her
own neighborhood. We want to go to schools, volunteer for nonprofits and
join civic and religious organizations that are respected in our communi- Management function
Part of an organization involved in
ties. We want to work for organizations that are managed well and are pro- its overall leadership and decision-
active in public relations, and of course we want them to stay solvent and making, guiding how the organiza-
avoid crises too. To the degree that public relations supports these goals, we tion operates in its environment,
rather than merely following the
all depend on it even if we aren’t officially working in public relations. instructions of others.

All members of an organization play a role in maintaining integrity and ethics.

How does that affect the job of a public relations manager?

Principled Public Relations Management 11

 Remain Calm, Patient and Good-Humored
I love this one. Page reminds us not to forget the importance of being good-
natured, even in dealing with stressful day-to-day situations and larger
­organizational crises. Publics resent organizations with rude people repre-
senting them and, all else being equal, are more forgiving of those that are
pleasant. It’s human nature.
Throughout the ages, good public relations people have known how im-
portant it is to maintain good relationships with reporters. “Never pick a
fight with someone who buys ink by the barrel,” the old saying goes. The
same idea applies in this era of digital publishing and consumer-generated
media (CGM). Review sites like Yelp, Google Places, Angie’s List and
­TripAdvisor give all sorts of consumers a voice. No barrels of ink required.

Case Study
How Crock-Pot Fought Fire by Keeping
Its Cool
In 2018, Newell Brands, which owns Crock-Pot, found its signature slow-
cooker product under fire from an unlikely public—viewers of NBC’s number
one hit drama This Is Us. In an unusual plot twist, it was revealed that one of
the show’s most beloved characters, Jack Pearson, had died in a raging house
fire caused by a Crock-Pot that had been switched off after a Super Bowl party.
The plot line was fictional, but the potential damage to Crock-Pot’s rep-
utation was real. Twitter users raged with raw emotion. “Just watched the
episode of This Is Us where Jack dies. I’m f***ing bawling f*** that
crockpot!!”20 wrote one. “Just finished the last episode of ‘This is Us’, and
promptly checked the smoke alarm and threw out the crockpot.
­#mywifeisstillcrying,” posted another.21 In response to media inquiries,
Crock-Pot’s public ­relations team at first took a rather technical approach,
remarking on the internal testing protocols, safety standards, third-party
testing, and w ­ attage specifications, and so on before pleading with NBC to
“help us in spreading factual information regarding our product’s safety.”22
The company also reportedly considered suing NBC.23
Ultimately, however, Crock-Pot’s public relations agency, Edelman, chose
a different tack. They opted instead to remain calm, patient and ­good-humored.
Crock-Pot representatives responded directly to commenters on their
­Facebook page. For example, in response to one Facebook user’s concerns,
they wrote, “We’re heartbroken over last night’s episode too! Ruthie, we’re
innocent until proven guilty. . . .” These and many other responses invited
users to “DM us with any questions, and we’d be happy to tell you more about
our safety standards!”24

12 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

 Then Crock-Pot won the internet when NBC released a pre-Super Bowl
promotional message and hashtag (#CrockPotIsInnocent) across all its online
platforms. The one-minute video, titled “A Special Message from This Is Us,”
featured the actor Milo Ventimiglia, who plays Jack Pearson, making his way
to the kitchen on set. Ventimiglia ruminates on what it means to gather with
friends and family on a Super Bowl weekend.

But in 2018 gathering with friends and family is—well it’s not as easy as
what it used to be, you know, the country’s divided and sometimes that
can make it tough to find common ground.

He moves toward the counter.

This year, this year I think we should all take a deep breath, find the ability
to forgive and remind ourselves there is no difference so great that we
can’t overcome it.

The camera pans down to a shiny new Crock-Pot on the counter as Ven-
timiglia ladles out a cup of chili. The screen fades to black, and then the
Crock-Pot logo and #CrockPotIsInnocent hashtag appear.
The spot won Edelman a Silver Lion award in the public relations cate-
gory at the Cannes Lions International Festival of Creativity. More impor-
tantly, the overall strategy won back Crock-Pot consumers. “Sales actually
rebounded,” said Edelman’s global chair of brand practice Mark Renshaw,
who reported that sales increased more than $300,000 that February. “Not
only did we restore the brand and restore the reputation and trust, but we
got, actually, a sales lift out of it.”25

Newell Brands and its public relations firm Edelman opted to use humor in responding to the Crock-Pot backlash following an episode of This Is Us.
Why did humor work in this case?

Principled Public Relations Management 13

Conversational voice Academic research bears out Page’s principle as well. In surveys and
An authentic, engaging and natural
style of communication that publics
experiments, my colleagues and I have found that a variable called
perceive to be personable. c­ onversational voice is important in maintaining good relationships with
publics online. This “voice” is gauged by asking people how much they agree
Flaming
Hostile communication among inter- with statements about how an organization communicates. Organizations
net users. with communicators who are perceived as making communication enjoy-
able, using a sense of humor, admitting mistakes and even providing links
to competitors rank higher on the conversational-voice scale. And that con-
versational voice correlates with public relations outcomes such as satisfac-
tion and commitment, as well as trust.26
PCWorld’s Robert Strohmeyer offered sound advice in writing about
how to deal with Yelp disasters:

I like to think that most people are generally sensible, but the Internet has
an uncanny knack for transforming rational adults into raving, infantile
morons. Yelp, doubly so. Once you accept this basic tenet, you can begin to
view your online critics as the reasonable minds they probably are, rather
than the juvenile half-wits they appear to be.
Respond
constructively and He discourages hostile communication or flaming of critics or trying to sue
politely to critics them. Instead, he recommends working within the Yelp toolset by signing
online, the same up for a business account, which lets you claim your business’s Yelp page.
way you would if Once you’ve done that you can both encourage positive reviews (but don’t
they were at your insist on them!) and respond constructively and politely to critics, the same
service counter or way you would if they were at your service counter or reception desk. More-
reception desk. over, says Strohmeyer, “Have fun with it.”27

Sometimes the best way to handle tense situations is to stay engaged with the community and
keep a sense of humor.
Would you be inclined to dine at this restaurant?

14 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

Realize the Company’s True Character
Is Expressed by Its People
Effective integrated communication means that publics form their beliefs and
attitudes about organizations based on all their points of contact with an or-
ganization. Organizations are made up of people, and these people themselves
are the most powerful points of contact that others have with the organization.
“I am quite certain that the general body of our employees can be trained to
represent the company effectively even on complicated subjects,” said Page.28
As Harold Burson, founding partner of Burson-Marsteller, put it, “The think-
ing goes like this: public relations should permeate every corporate
­transaction—literally involving almost every employee—from the reception-
ist to the person at the check-out counter, those who sell the product and those
who service it.” In other words, “Public relations is now everybody’s job.”29
Managing relationships between organizations and publics means
managing organizations in ways that encourage constructive relationships
to arise from the countless interpersonal interactions online and offline
between all the people who represent the organization and all those with
whom they communicate in that role. While the idea of managing for effec-
tive integrated communication that is consistent across organizational
functions goes way back to before the internet, social media have changed
the game with new management challenges in an era in which people “like
me” are more influential, and mainstream media are struggling for credibil-
ity. Particularly in online contexts, this requires managing distributed
public relations, in which public relations responsibilities are shared
among a broad cross section of an organization’s members or employees.
People look for authenticity in online communication. They still read and
view news stories told by journalists about organizations, but publics com-
municate directly with all sorts of people from organizations online. When
that happens, there is an opportunity for the organization to communicate
its true character.

Why Ethics Matter

Page’s principles of public relations make sense on a practical level. It is not
hard to understand why he had such a long and successful career. But these
principles also show the importance of moral philosophy and ethics in public Integrated communication
relations. Truth, action, empathy and character give meaning to the day-to- Communicating with publics consis-
day work of public relations. Put bluntly, damage control and spin are #fails. tently across organizational func-
tions including public relations,
Who wants to do that for a living? There are many good reasons to put ethics advertising, marketing and cus-
at the center of your thinking about good public relations. You are probably tomer service.
already familiar with a number of classic ethical concepts such as the golden
Distributed public relations
rule (do unto others as you would have them do unto you) and utilitarianism Intentional practice of sharing public
(try to do the greatest good for the greatest number of people). And you may relations responsibilities among a
also strive for key values such as honesty, loyalty, transparency and social broad cross section of an organiza-
tion’s members or employees, par-
responsibility in your own life. Every chapter in this book includes ethical ticularly in an online context.

Why Ethics Matter 15

 discussions and their application to public
relations careers to help you differentiate
good proactive public relations from reac-
tive damage control and deceptive spin.

Reasons for Studying

Ethics
You’ll feel better about yourself. Ethics are
moral principles that govern behavior and
are deeply personal. You’ll wake up in a
much better mood every morning if you
know you are going to work for an organi-
zation with values congruent to your own.
Strategic public relations means that the
Learning about professional values and ethics is an important part of learning
public relations. public relations tactics you perform are
derived from solid goals and objectives,
What do you see as the major benefits of studying ethics before starting
your career? and that those goals and objectives serve
the broader mission of your organization.
This doesn’t mean that you have to agree
Ethics with every single action the organization takes. In fact, the very nature of
Moral principles that govern a per-
ethics is dealing with competing values and gray areas. You may agree
son’s or group’s behavior.
wholeheartedly with the mission of a nonprofit that employs you, but that
doesn’t mean you agree with the way they go about pursuing that mission.
Sometimes you have to take a stand in your own organization to make your
case when you disagree, and you should feel empowered to do so. The im-
portant thing is that you can practice public relations in a way that feels
right to you and in a place where you don’t feel like you are selling your soul
to get the job done every day. In a field like public relations, which year after
year is listed among the most stressful career options you can choose, your
sanity may well depend on how you and those you work with handle ethical
dilemmas and gray areas.
Of course, ethics aren’t all about gut feelings. Good people make bad
decisions all the time. Resolving ethical problems is a matter of the heart,
but it is also an intellectual activity. As public relations practitioners move
up in their careers, and as they earn more and more respect in manage-
ment, the importance of their ethical decision-making becomes more im-
portant to the organizations they represent, and, ideally, they get better at
ethics. This is why it is essential to study principles and systems for ethical
reasoning now and to continue to brush up on your ethics throughout your
career, which leads to the next point.
You’ll be better at your job. Many ethical dilemmas arise out of inter-
actions with reporters, clients, colleagues and members of various pub-
lics. Solid relationships with reporters are built on trust, consistency
and mutual understanding of professional roles and responsibilities.
Retaining clients and attracting new ones requires a reputation for fair-
ness and integrity. Loyalty and expertise are among the keys to positive

16 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

and productive relationships with colleagues. And transparency is es-
sential in dealing with online communities when strategic communica-
tion is the essence of your job. Developing a solid ethical framework
that you can explain to others will help you in all of those relationships,
and those relationships are the stuff of which successful, fulfilling ca-
reers are made.
You’ll be more important at work. As Shannon Bowen puts it, communica-
tion professionals must pay attention to ethics before they desperately
need to. “Once a crisis of conflicting ethics or high media interest befalls
the organization it is too late to begin searching for ethical guidance.”30
Bowen is a professor, ethicist and member of the Arthur W. Page Society. In
her research she has found that spotting ethical dilemmas is key to resolv-
ing issues before they become crises. Beyond just identifying ethical dilem-
mas, public relations people must be able to discuss the issues with members
of their organizations’ dominant coalitions. Dominant coalition is a term
used to describe the group of people with the greatest influence in how an
organization operates, including CEOs, presidents, board members, top
managers, vice presidents and so on. The dominant coalition may or may
not include public relations executives. However, these are the people who
steer the organization at the highest levels, and a public relations person
who is well versed in rational, defensible, ethical decision-making will be in
the best position to inform this group in handling public relations issues
before they become crises.

Competing Duties
Working in public relations means serving many masters. In their book
Public Relations Ethics, Philip Seib and Kathy Fitzpatrick highlight the
source of many ethical dilemmas as individual practitioners face them. 31
That source is competing duties. If you work in public relations, you have
a duty to: (1) yourself, (2) your client, (3) your employer, (4) the profes-
sion, (5) the media and (6) society. I’m willing to bet that there are vege-
tarians who work in public relations agencies that represent steakhouses.
I’m sure there are people who are deeply annoyed by cable news channels,
but who still work hard to accommodate their TV producers prior to inter-
views. I even know a certain textbook author and professor who criticizes
Walt Disney Co.’s massive media empire and then happily takes his kids
to Walt Disney World. None of these folks is necessarily a sellout. The
vegetarian may welcome the restaurant to his community to boost the
economy while providing jobs, not to mention the business for his own
agency, which supports his own financial stability. The public relations
practitioner arranging the cable news interview may weigh the impor-
tance of free speech and vigorous debate as much more important in soci-
ety than her opinion of the particular station’s host and format. And your Dominant coalition
textbook author doesn’t think a personal boycott of a major media Group of people with the greatest
influence in determining how an
­conglomerate is a requisite for educating others about issues of media organization operates and pursues
consolidation in society. On the other hand, there are times when public its mission.

Why Ethics Matter 17

 relations practitioners must say no to reporters. There are times when
agencies should decline clients. There are times when a potential paycheck
is not worth the dissonance it creates.

A Guide for Ethical Decision-Making

Addressing these apparent dilemmas ethically requires careful thinking.
Fitzpatrick offers the following guide for public relations practitioners:

1. Define the specific ethical issue/conflict.

2. Identify internal/external factors (e.g., legal, political, social, eco-
nomic) that may influence the decision.
3. Identify key values.
4. Identify the parties who will be affected by the decision and define
the public relations professional’s obligation to each.
5. Select ethical principles to guide the decision-making process.
6. Make a decision and justify it.32

In many ways, social media make ethical communication easier. We get

to speak in our own voices in forums in which direct, informal communica-
tion is valued. Social media give us means for discussing and resolving our
professional issues with easy access to others’ opinions and views. We get to
experiment in mixing our personal and professional identities. This can
lead to a heightened sense of awareness of our consistencies and inconsis-
tencies. At the same time, however, this breaking down of clear divisions
between our personal and professional communication raises dilemmas,
and digital media technologies sometimes make deception a little too easy.

Case Study
“Tweeting Under False Circumstances”
Many executives use social media like Twitter to share their personal voices
in support of their organizations, but public relations counselor Todd
Defren found himself facing an interesting problem when asked to serve as
someone else’s voice. Defren ran SHIFT Communications, a firm that spe-
cializes in digital and social media that has served clients including McDon-
ald’s, Salesforce.com, TechCrunch, H&R Block and Tyson Foods. Defren also
had earned a reputation as a pioneering and highly influential blogger with
a large number of readers of his PR Squared blog. He used that blog as a plat-
form for working through new types of dilemmas unique to social media.

18 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

 Let’s walk through one of Defren’s cases, “Tweeting Under False
­ ircumstances,” using Fitzpatrick’s process.33 (Quoted material is from
C
­Defren’s blog post.)

Define The Specific Ethical Issue/Conflict

A client asked Defren and his associates to tweet for him at a trade show
from the client’s Twitter account. The client was adept at Twitter and prom-
inent in his field. He had a significant number of loyal followers on his ac-
count who were used to hearing directly from him via that channel.

He posts regularly, sometimes several times a day. He “gets” Twitter; he

finds value in the dialogue and his followers appreciate that a well-placed
exec from a Big Company is engaged with them online.
Now, a big industry tradeshow is coming up. He’ll be very active there, as
a speaker and organizer. The executive wants his tweetstream to reflect his
activity at the show, and to highlight other happenings at the conference, as
well. He’s very concerned that he won’t be able to support this many to-do’s.

Identify Internal/External Factors

A big part of the appeal of Twitter as a form of social media is that followers
have access to interesting and influential people with whom they otherwise
would not be able to interact. The culture of social media is an external
factor that must be considered, and the executive’s commitment to authen-
ticity in this environment is an internal factor.

You can see how this request comes from a “good place.” This executive’s
commitment to online engagement is so fierce, he doesn’t want to abandon
it even for an important event. He knows his followers would understand
his absences, but he thinks there is going to be real value in tracking what’s
happening at the conference, and in responding to folks online throughout.

Identify Key Values

Loyalty, transparency, expertise and independence are among the key
values in this case. Not only did Defren have to weigh his loyalty to the
client, but he also had to consider the loyalty and trust that the client’s
Twitter followers may have had in the executive. This loyalty brings trans-
parency to the forefront because if those followers expected the executive
to write all his own tweets and if he was planning on changing that without
telling them, they may have been deceived. The behind-the-scenes change
would have meant a lack of transparency. The client meant no harm—his
request came from a good place, as Defren said—but part of what he was
paying Defren and his firm for was expertise in knowing the lay of the land
in social media and counseling on exactly this type of situation.

While it’s true he is asking us to misrepresent ourselves, he feels that it

would still be authentic because of his trust in us.

A Guide for Ethical Decision-Making 19

 Identify The Parties Who Will Be Affected
This is where those competing duties to various people come into play. This
case appears to be a doozy because Defren had a duty to pretty much every-
one in Seib and Fitzpatrick’s list: (1) himself, (2) his client, (3) the profes-
sion, (4) the media and (5) society.
• Duty to Self: As was pretty clear from his blog, which included detailed
analysis of ethical dilemmas like this one, Defren invested his own intel-
lect, hard work and time in his strategic communication practice. If he
botched this, it could have damaged his reputation and led to personal
disappointment. There also would have been financial consequences for
him personally.

• Duty to Client: Defren’s firm was hired to do a job. Yes, a big part of that
job was to communicate for the client, but he also owed the client solid
independent counseling based on his expertise and knowledge of social
media.

• Duty to the Profession: Botching this job with poor ethical decision-mak-
ing would have not only discredited Defren, it also would have reflected
poorly on the whole field of public relations. Unfortunately, examples of
misrepresentation and deception in public relations are not hard to find, as
these cases tend to get called out and told and re-told online. Mentioning
public relations and ethics together in the same sentence will lead to rolled
eyes and snarky responses in many circles. The only way to combat this is
with performance.

• Duty to the Media: The media in this case are mostly social media, Twit-
ter users in particular. Just as relationships with reporters, editors and
producers are critical to effective communication via magazines, newspa-
pers, radio and television, relationships with Twitter users are the essence
of effective tweeting. If Defren disappointed his client’s followers, he
would have not only undermined his client’s credibility and effectiveness,
but he would also have taken something away from the utility of the
medium as a whole as an option for effective public relations.

• Duty to Society: Social media have the potential to facilitate meaning-

ful democratic dialogue and healthy economies by affording publics the
opportunity to engage organizations in the honest exchange of ideas,
currency, products, services and social capital. Social media also can pro-
vide a haven for misinformation, deceit, mistrust, cynicism and gener-
ally shattered expectations. Defren wanted to contribute to the former
and not the latter.

20 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

Select Ethical Principles To Guide The Decision-Making Process
At this stage of the analysis it becomes fairly clear that openness, honesty,
trust, transparency and authenticity are at stake. Deontological ethics
are systems of decision-making that focus on duties or rules. To the degree
that the principle of duty is central to the decision on how to act in this case
based on moral obligations to each of the parties, you could say that it
guides our thinking. Of course, other principles apply too, and we will look
at some of those in cases in the chapters that follow.

Make A Decision And Justify It

So what did Defren do?

So we suggested a compromise. . . . Yes, we would tweet from his account,

but with the following conditions:
Prior to the event, he must tweet, “During the show some of my
tweeting will be supplemented by our extended team.”
A reminder to that effect would go out, regularly, throughout the con-
ference, i.e., every 10th tweet would remind followers that someone be-
sides the executive might be “at the controls” of his Twitter account.
When character spaces permitted, we’d add a #team hashtag to
denote that the tweet was not published by the exec—but honestly, this
attribution fell away more often than not; we largely relied on the “every
10th tweet” approach to cover our ethical backsides.

In the end, the solution seemed easy, but this was largely due to Defren’s
expertise and careful ethical thinking. He was able to serve the client well
with a compromise that didn’t require compromising his ethics or causing
harm to his business, his profession or society. Defren and his client experi-
enced no “pushback” from the tweets. Interestingly, Defren still had some
ethical concerns and questions (about whether some people would still be
duped despite the every-10th-tweet approach), and was courageous enough
to post the whole case as well as his follow-up concerns in a very public blog
entry inviting feedback. His post drew more than 150 comments, and the
vast majority of them were constructive and supportive. The very act of airing
his case and concerns for open discussion honored the early spirit of social
media while also reinforcing Defren’s commitment to ethical practice—in Deontological ethics
System of decision-making that
the sense of the word practice that means that we are all always working to focuses on the moral principles of
improve in this area. duty and rules.

A Guide for Ethical Decision-Making 21

 Voices from the Field
Kathy Fitzpatrick

KATHY FITZPATRICK is a professor in the School of operating environment for professionals who want to
Communication at American University. She is a uphold ethical standards. Also, if an organization is
member of the Arthur W. Page Society, whose mem- promoting a cause or idea with which a practitioner
bers are corporate, agency and academic leaders in disagrees, this creates internal dissonance that can
the field of public relations. She served as head of result in a lot of stress. Thus, new practitioners must
the Educators Academy of PRSA, is a former decide what types of organizations they are willing to
­president of the Dallas Chapter of PRSA, and was a represent and what they will do for them.
member of the task force that developed the current
PRSA Code of Ethics. What kinds of ethical dilemmas come up with
social media?
In general, do you think public relations is Issues related to honesty and transparency top the
moving toward higher ethical standards? list here. For example, it’s easy to be deceptive
Yes, I believe that higher ethical standards in public re- online. If you work for a hotel and your boss asks
lations are more commonplace, partly due to the glo- you to post a positive review of your accommoda-
balization of society and changes in technology that tions on travel websites, what do you do? If you are
require a higher level of openness and transparency in tweeting about a new product or service offered by
organizational communications. Also, there is increased your company, do you identify yourself as an em-
emphasis on ethical standards among industry groups. ployee of the company?
With its new code of ethics in 2000, PRSA took a big
step toward becoming the ethics standard-bearer in the In what ways have new media contexts rein-
United States. I believe the code—and promotion of the forced or challenged classic principles?
code—has heightened awareness of ethical standards The fundamentals of ethical public relations practice
in the field. Many public relations firms also have devel- have not changed. They simply must be applied in
oped extensive codes of ethics and operating stan- new contexts and platforms.
dards for staff members. Globally, the International
Public Relations Association, the Global Alliance
How much can ethics be taught and learned
for Public Relations and Communication Management
in public relations, and how much does it just
and other leading associations stress ethical principles
depend on the person’s individual values?
At the end of the day, ethical decision-making is a
and practices as well.
personal matter with individual accountability.
What kinds of ethical issues are entry-level Whether you raise your hand at work to question a
public relations people likely to face? particular issue you see as unethical depends to a
Deceptive practices are a big issue. For example, a great extent on your personal and professional cour-
situation might occur in which a boss (whether in a age to do the right thing. Having said that, ethics
corporation, nonprofit or firm) asks an entry-level education can have a tremendous impact in helping
practitioner not to disclose certain information that students and practitioners recognize ethical issues
the practitioner believes should be revealed. Activi- and dilemmas, better understand the implications of
ties such as greenwashing—to make a company look unethical practices and develop guidelines and pro-
more socially responsible than it really is—come to cesses for resolving them. Graduates of public rela-
mind here as well. tions programs must be equipped with the special
In addition, conflicts may surface when a practi- expertise and skills required for successful practice
tioner’s own values and beliefs are incongruent with in public relations, but they also need an understand-
the culture of an organization. For example, a phi- ing of the professional standards and social obliga-
losophy of doing “anything to win” creates a tense tions of public relations professionals.

22 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

What is the most important guide that a with—informed decision-making on the part of pub-
public relations practitioner might use in lics affected by an organization’s decisions or ac-
trying to make ethical decisions? tions. This really is the bottom line when practicing
Public relations professionals should always consider public relations ethically in a democratic marketplace
whether they are contributing to—or interfering of ideas.

Codes of Ethics
Most organizations of communication professionals offer codes of ethics to ar-
ticulate their values and to guide their members. While it is debatable whether
or not public relations is technically a profession, codes of ethics certainly en-
courage professionalism. One major factor keeping public relations from being
recognized as a profession like law or medicine or architecture is licensure. You
do not need a license to practice public relations. Any quack can call himself or
herself a PR person. This is unfortunate, but the alternative, according to those
opposed to professional licensing, would be a violation of our right to free
speech. Imagine if you were not allowed to speak on matters of public concern
in an official capacity because you did not have a license.

Criticisms of Codes
Lack of enforceability is one criticism against codes of ethics. If a member
acts within the law, but outside of the code of ethics, revocation of the per-
son’s membership is the most the association can do in response. The good
news is that it doesn’t happen very often (in fact, it never happened in five
decades of PRSA’s original code34).
However, this leads to a second criticism of codes of ethics, which is
that they simply are not effective or even necessary as means of policing
behavior. Most members of these professional organizations practice public
relations with good intention, and those few who do run blatantly afoul of
the codes can probably take advantage of the subjective nature of interpre-
tation and the relatively weak mechanisms of enforcement to evade any
institutional consequences.
A third criticism is that codes of ethics can be vague and lack internal
consistency. By definition, ethical dilemmas involve competing choices.
Loyalty may run up against independence. Confidentiality may come at the
expense of transparency. When codes of ethics call for all of the above, the
member may be put in a pickle. PRSA updated its code in 2000, and one big
change from the prior code was that its emphasis on enforcement was elim-
inated, which leads to some of the positives of codes of ethics.

Advantages of Codes
First, codes of ethics help communicate the professional standards of an
association’s membership to both internal and external parties. Many of
you reading this book may not pursue public relations as a career. You may
go into advertising, marketing or journalism. Or you may become a dentist,

Codes of Ethics 23
 deep-sea diver or deputy sheriff. But if you read the codes of ethics or dis-
cuss them with anyone who knows them, you will come away with a much
better idea of what members of these organizations do and what values
Review and they embrace. For better or worse, everyone is exposed to public relations
in democracies like ours, and the more people understand what makes for
discuss good, ethical public relations the better.
organizations’ Second, codes offer carefully articulated and professionally agreed-upon
codes of ethics to guidelines for decision-making and action. For example, the PRSA Code of
better understand Ethics is designed “to be a useful guide for PRSA members as they carry out
the values that their ethical responsibilities” and “to anticipate and accommodate, by prece-
members embrace. dent, ethical challenges that may arise.”35 The PRSA values form a foundation
for ethical conduct (see https://www.prsa.org/about/ethics/prsa-code-of-
ethics). The PRSA Code of Ethics also outlines six provisions of conduct. In
Chapters 2–14 of this book, each of these provisions will be discussed in the
context of at least one case of ethics.
Third, there are practical and reputational advantages to knowing and
working with established codes of ethics. Professional communication associ-
ations such as the Universal Accreditation Board (UAB) and the International
Association of Business Communicators (IABC) offer voluntary accreditation,
which allows practitioners to distinguish themselves among others in the field
with a professional designation. UAB grants the designation of “Accredited
in Public Relations” (APR), and the professional credential for IABC is
“­ Accredited Business Communicator” (ABC). Criteria include demon-
strated professional experience, and evidence of knowledge, skills and abili-
ties, including ethics. For APR, ethics and law make up 13 percent of the exam.

Professional Associations
The UAB includes several affiliates including PRSA, the Agricultural Rela-
tions Council, Asociación de Relacionistas Profesionales de Puerto Rico, Flor-
ida Public Relations Association, National School Public Relations
­Association, Religion Communicators Council and the Maine Public R ­ elations
Association. Dozens of established organizations with codes of ethics serve
members all over the world, including the African Public ­Relations Associa-
tion, the Public Relations Consultants’ Association of Malaysia (PRCA Ma-
Accredited in public laysia), the Public Relations Institute of Ireland (PRII) and the Mexican
relations (APR) Association of Public Relations Professionals/Asociación Mexicana de Profe-
Credential awarded by PRSA and sionales de Relaciones Públicas (PRORP). Membership (even without seeking
other UAB affiliates to those who
have demonstrated competency in accreditation) usually requires formally acknowledging and agreeing to abide
the knowledge, skills and abilities by the standards set forth in such codes. Interestingly, the main values iden-
required to practice public relations tified in the codes share more commonalities than differences across cul-
effectively.
tures, including common moral principles such as fairness and honesty.
Accredited business For comparison to the PRSA Code of Ethics, the International Public
communicator (ABC) Relations Association (IPRA) Code of Conduct (https://www.ipra.org/­
­
Credential awarded by IABC to rec-
ognize communicators who have member-services/code-of-conduct/) represents a consolidation of three prior
reached a globally accepted stan- international codes (the 1961 Code of Venice, the 1965 Code of Athens and
dard of knowledge and proficiency the 2007 Code of Brussels). You’ll notice many consistencies between the
in their chosen field.
IPRA code and the PRSA code, but it is also interesting to note the IPRA focus

24 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

on human rights and  dignity. The IPRA code also includes some language
specific to online media and issues of trust, credibility and privacy.
Regardless of whether you call it a field, a practice or a profession, public
relations can be defined best by both words and actions. While there is no de-
nying the existence of poor public relations and shady practice, professional
organizations stand to help bring our body of knowledge together with ethical
and effective practice for the benefit of students, practitioners and society.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
If you tell people you’re studying • Good public relations is based much more on
public relations, they may not know what an organization does than on what it says.
what you mean. Here are a few tips • To effectively listen in public relations, partici-
pate in and monitor online communities in
from the chapter to help you think
addition to using traditional research.
about what public relations people
• Respond constructively and politely to critics
do, just in case anyone asks! online, the same way you would if they were at
your service counter or reception desk.
• To define public relations, consider • Review and discuss organizations’ codes of
­organizations, publics and the relations ethics to better understand the values that
between them. members embrace.

SUMMARY
1.1 Define public relations in terms of organi- 1.2 Explain how public relations can serve a
zations, publics and the relationships be- management function through key princi-
tween them. ples and values for ethical conduct.
According to a PRSA task force, “Public rela- Arthur Page’s principles for public relations
tions is a strategic communication process that management (e.g., tell the truth; prove it with
builds mutually beneficial relationships be- action) are as relevant today as they were in
tween organizations and their publics.” his time. Practicing public relations with au-
When public relations is practiced as a thenticity means managing communication and
management function, practitioners proactively promotion in ways that are consistent with how
communicate with an organization’s publics, your whole organization is managed.
carefully consider what feedback means for the 1.3 Understand the importance of ethics in
organization, develop strategy and work with public relations.
the organization’s leadership to implement and Ethical public relations practitioners can work
evaluate both actions and communication. with a clearer conscience, but they also can

SUMMARY 25
 work with a clearer sense of how to handle dif- offer good guidance for practicing ethical deci-
ficult situations with reporters, clients, colleagues sion-making offline and online.
and various publics. In turn, ethical public rela-
1.5 Identify international professional asso-
tions practitioners are more valuable to the or-
ciations and become familiar with codes
ganizations that depend on them. Value to
of ethics.
organizations results in greater job opportunities.
PRSA and IPRA are two major professional or-
1.4 Apply systematic ethical decision-making ganizations offering codes of ethics. Codes of
for public relations. ethics articulate common values that have been
Step-by-step guides such as Fitzpatrick’s “Ethi- vetted by professionals. See online resources
cal Decision-Making Guide,” cases like Defren’s for many more codes of ethics offered by other
client tweeting example, and codes of ethics all professional organizations.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. CASE STUDY Ask two or three people outside of presented it, the actual promo video, social
your classes and outside of public relations to media comments, and how media covered the
name the first thing that comes to mind when you case. Why didn’t humor backfire in this case?
say “public relations.” Ask them what they remem- 4. Some people describe public relations as the
ber about the Papa John’s case (or another case if conscience of an organization. Do you think
a better one comes to mind). Do their answers that is a good way to define public relations?
align more with dramatic high-profile actions of Why or why not?
people like John Schnatter or more with the “text-
book” definitions discussed in this chapter? 5. CASE STUDY Todd Defren didn’t actually name
the CEO in his case, but you probably weren’t
2. Name an organization that you have worked for surprised to read that ghost tweeting happens.
or had direct experience with that does some Identify a specific CEO or celebrity on social
form of public relations. Would you say that media who you suspect does not write all of
public relations is part of that organization’s his or her own posts. Do you think this is ethi-
management function? Why or why not? cal or unethical? What’s the moral reasoning
3. CASE STUDY Crock-Pot’s response to the epi- for your answer?
sode of This Is Us in which they were featured 6. Search online for another communication-re-
was effective in large part because the company lated code of ethics such as one for journalism,
remained good-humored. But humor in public filmmaking, blogging or marketing. How are the
relations is risky. Research the Crock-Pot case values expressed in that code different from
online to find the case study as Edelman the values expressed in the PRSA code?

KEY TERMS
Accredited business communicator Ethics 16 Proactive 10
(ABC) 24 Feedback 10 Public relations 3
Accredited in public relations (APR) 24 Flaming 14 Publics 2
Authenticity 7 General public 2 Reactive 10
Conversational voice 14 Integrated communication 15 Social media influencer 7
Crowdsource 6 Listening 10 Spin 7
Deontological ethics 21 Management function 11 Transparency 8
Distributed public relations 15 Nongovernmental organization (NGO) 2 Two-way communication 10
Dominant coalition 17 Organization 2

26 CHAPTER 1   |   PRINCIPLED PUBLIC REL ATIONS

 C HAP TE R 2

Public Relations Models

Through the Ages

Promoting burgers on the menu of a restaurant

chain famous for its pancakes is a tall order.
How did IHOP’s publicity stack up?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

2.1 Analyze public ­relations 2.3 Identify common

models on one-way/two- ­ otivations for strategic
m
2.2 Integrate knowledge of ­communication in history.
way and asymmetrical/­
social history with knowledge
symmetrical dimensions using 2.4 Discuss the ethics of
of public relations.
examples and key figures transparency, objectivity and
from history. advocacy.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 4.1 COMMUNIC ATION/PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODELS AND THEORIES
4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD • 6.1 REL ATIONSHIP BUILDING • 6.2 REPUTATION MANAGEMENT
 I
n the opening pages of Managing Public Relations, right before defining
public relations as the management of communication between an or-
ganization and its publics, Grunig and Hunt reflect on the problems of
the times (early 1980s). They describe public relations as a “young
­profession” with “roots in press agentry and propaganda, activities that
society generally holds in low esteem.”1 They then chart a historical pro-
gression of public relations to frame the maturation of the profession by
outlining four models of public relations in history: (1) press agentry/
publicity, (2) public information, (3) two-way asymmetrical and (4) two-
way symmetrical.
While the formal treatment of public relations as a field of study and
practice may have been a 20th-century development, historians have traced
elements of public relations back through recorded history. Modern com-
munication historians make the case that public relations activities are as
old as religion, education, business and politics.

Public Relations Models in History

Generations of public relations students have learned about the field’s devel-
opment through the lens of Grunig and Hunt’s four models of public rela-
tions. However, these models also have been criticized for oversimplifying
public relations and its history. What public relations people do doesn’t fit
neatly into four boxes, some say. This is exactly why Grunig and Hunt used
the term models:

We’ve chosen the term “models” to describe the four types of public rela-
tions that we believe have evolved through history, in order to emphasize
that they are abstractions. In scientific usage, a model is a representation
of reality . . . if we construct models of public relations behavior by observ-
ing the most important components of that behavior, then we can make
some sense out of the many diverse communication activities we call
public relations.2

In the first two models, press agentry/publicity and public information,

the communication is primarily one-way. In the second two models,
­two-way asymmetrical and two-way symmetrical, the communication is
two-way (Figure 2.1).

Press Agentry/Publicity
Born in Madagascar in 1674, Joice Heth arrived in America in her youth and
was a slave to one Augustine Washington, father of George Washington.
Heth was the first one to put clothes on the future father of America, and she
basically raised the boy. In 1836, Heth was 161 years old and retained aston-
ishingly good health, singing hymns, laughing heartily and telling stories of
the boy Washington. Or so potential patrons were told in the billing of an

28 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 Model Direction of Definition Historic Modern
Communication Examples Examples

Publicity/press Communication is mostly P. T. Barnum’s Publicity stunts

agentry organization one-way, initiated by an exploitation of like IHOP’s
organization with little Joice Heth for “IHOb” name
concern for accuracy or controversy and change stunt
publics
completeness attention

Public Communication is mostly Ivy Lee’s work Work of

information one-way, initiated by an for railroads government
organization publics organization to inform public
publics with truthful and information
accurate information officers for
organizations
like FEMA

Two-way Communication is two-way Bernays’ Analytics-

asymmetrical but unbalanced, with the “Torches of driven,
organization organization using Freedom” and personalized
research/feedback in an bacon-and-eggs persuasion
effort to persuade publics “study” campaigns
publics to change attitudes or
behaviors

Two-way Communication is mostly Earl Newsom Public utilities’

symmetrical balanced, with the counseling Ford community-
organization publics organization as likely to on auto safety based problem
change attitudes or solving
behavior as its publics

Figure 2.1 Four models of public relations.

attraction that began the press agentry career of showman extraordinaire

P. T. Barnum.3
That not everyone bought the story about Joice Heth did not bother
Barnum. On the contrary, he relished the attention that controversy
brought.

At the outset of my career, I saw that everything depended on getting the

people to think, and talk, and become curious and excited over and about
the “rare spectacle.” Accordingly, posters, transparencies, advertisements,
newspaper paragraphs—all calculated to extort attention—were em-
ployed, regardless of expense. My exhibition rooms in New York, Boston,
Philadelphia, Albany, and in other large and small cities, were continually
thronged and much money was made.4

Public Relations Models in History 29

 Case Study
A Tall Order: Gaining Attention and Publicity
in the Marketplace of Ideas
With an average of 500 million tweets5 and more than 50 million Facebook
status updates6 posted every day, social media make standing out among
the competition a taller order than a double stack of pancakes. But on
June  4, 2018, IHOP, the International House of Pancakes, served this
short note that hit the spot: “For 60 pancakin’ years, we’ve been IHOP.
Now, we’re flippin’ our name to IHOb. Find out what it could b on 6.11.18.
#IHOb.”7 The speculation began immediately. What did the “b” stand for?
“It’s gotta be bacon. Nothing is better than pancakes . . . Except BACON!”
replied one Twitter user.8
“It’s international house of breakfast isn’t it?” asked another.
IHOP/IHOb kept it close to the vest for the next week, aside from a
steady stream of puns playing on the flipped letter (e.g., “The bossibilities
are endless, Katie”; “Not so fast, Marissa! It could b anything.”). Main-
stream media took notice too. News outlets from NBC Nightly News to USA
Today to Yahoo News picked up the story, drawing even more people into the
discussion. CNN Money’s Paul La Monica wondered, “Is this just a short-
term marketing gimmick? . . . It's also hard to imagine why the company
would want to mess with a name that's so well-known and beloved.”
Then a week later, on June 11, the company issued a news release with
the headline “IHOP® CHANGES NAME TO IHOb AND REVEALS THE “B”
IS FOR BURGERS.”9
As it played out, the tens of thousands of people who engaged with IHOP
in the name-change guessing game were just the beginning of the story. Next
came the social media outrage, word-of-mouth attention, and even some
shade thrown by corporate competitors. Washington Post food reporter Becky
Krystal mused that “IHOP’s name change is what happens when brands ex-
ploit the Internet outrage cycle.”10 Others saw an opportunity for humor.
When one Twitter user poked at Wendy’s, “so @Wendys u just gonna let @IHOb
sell burgers on your block? thought you were the og?,” @Wendy’s rebuffed, “Not
News release really afraid of the burgers from a place that decided pancakes were too hard.”11
A statement of news produced and For more than a month, IHOP took advantage of the attention to pro-
distributed on behalf of an organi-
zation to make information public.
mote its new burgers across all channels. In mid-July, IHOP’s president,
Traditionally news releases (aka Darren Rebelez, sat for an interview with CNN’s La Monica and confirmed
press releases) have been issued to that IHOP never really changed its name.
news media with the intent of publi-
cizing the information to the news
organization’s readers, listeners or We knew that if we were really going to get into the burger business
viewers. in a meaningful way, then we were going to have to do something bold

30 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 and something creative. We came up with the idea of
flipping the p to a b and it really grabbed everyone’s
attention. . . . We did get some blowback, but then
when we told people, ‘look, this is really more
tongue-in-cheek, we’re really just trying to launch
this new lineup of ultimate steakburgers,’ they took
a deep breath and said, ‘wow that’s really
brilliant.’ 12

As with P. T. Barnum’s antics more than 180 years

prior, the question of whether the whole controversy
was really a gimmick only added to the attention. Did
they really mean to do that? Or was this just their way
of backing out of a bad decision to change the name?
It was no accident. To borrow words from P. T.
Barnum, IHOP’s tactics were “calculated to extort at-
tention.” Rebelez said that IHOP had tested the con-
cept with a sample of IHOP customers before
launching the campaign, and that “the reaction that
we saw play out on social media is exactly what we
saw in those focus groups.” People first reacted emo-
tionally, rejecting the idea, but then thought it was
brilliant when they figured it out.13 Moreover, Re-
belez reported that the stunt generated some 20,000 When IHOP announced it was going to change its name to
news articles and at one point ranked second on Twit- IHOb, the gimmick created a lot of buzz.
ter as a trending topic, trailing only Donald Trump’s What are the risks and rewards of this type of stunt?
summit with North Korea’s Kim Jong Un. Rebelez
didn’t comment on whether burger sales had actually increased, but IHOP’s
parent company, Dine Brands, reported earnings that quarter that sur-
passed estimates by more than 9 percent.14

Barnum will forever be associated with the press agentry/publicity

model.
Departing from Grunig and Hunt’s four models, University of Amster-
dam Professor Emeritus Betteke van Ruler studied communication man-
agement internationally and identified several typologies. Typologies help
us classify things into general categories based on their common character-
istics. Archaeologists use typologies to classify artifacts. Van Ruler devel- Press agentry/publicity model
oped typologies to classify types of public relations practitioners. One of Model of public relations in which
those typologies is the town crier. Like the press agent/publicist, van Rul- communication is mostly one-way,
er’s town crier is mostly seeking to be heard in the marketplace with little initiated by an organization with
little concern for accuracy or com-
­concern for listening to others outside of his organization. There’s nothing pleteness in order to gain the atten-
wrong with working to gain attention in a crowded marketplace, but there tion of publics.

Public Relations Models in History 31

 is a point of diminishing returns in simply turning up
the volume without stopping to listen to others. Pro-
paganda, ­ attention getting and less-than-accurate
information (if not downright lies) are hallmarks of
the press agentry model, which is as alive in this mil-
lennium as it was then.

Public Information
Long before Bill Gates and Mark Zuckerberg dropped
out of Harvard, Ivy Ledbetter Lee left graduate
school at Harvard in the late 19th century, largely
for financial reasons. Whereas Gates and Zucker-
berg eventually changed the nature of personal
media as we know them with Microsoft and Face-
book, Lee started the nation’s third public relations
agency and went on to become the man many refer
to today as the founder of public relations.
Before his stint at Harvard, Lee had graduated
cum laude from ­Princeton in 1898 and had worked as
a stringer for the Associated Press, the Philadelphia
Press and the Chicago Record.15 And prior to starting
the public relations agency Parker & Lee in late 1904
with George Parker,16 he worked for The New York
Journal, The New York Times and New York World.17
Parker & Lee’s credo heralded a journalistic back-
ground: “Accuracy, ­Authenticity, and Interest,”18 and
it very much distinguished Lee’s brand of public rela-
tions from Barnum’s press agentry.
Broadsides and posters were a key part of 19th-century While the Parker & Lee agency only lasted a
­publicity tactics.
few years, Ivy Lee went on to represent some of the
What ethical issues does the Joice Heth case raise?
biggest names of the day in corporate A ­ merica, in-
cluding the Pennsylvania Railroad and the Rocke-
fellers. While Lee’s legacy is complex—he also
counseled I. G. Farben, the German dye trust, on how to improve rela-
tions with Americans after the Nazis took control of the trust—his
name is deeply associated with the public i­ nformation model of public
relations in which communication is mostly one-way, initiated by an
organization to inform publics with truthful and accurate information.
When he sent materials to the press, Ivy Lee was known to include his
“Declaration of Principles,” which stated:
Public information model
Model of public relations in which This is not a secret press bureau. All our work is done in the open. We aim
communication is mostly one-way, to supply news. . . . Our matter is accurate. Further details on any subject
initiated by an organization to
inform publics with truthful and treated will be supplied promptly, and any editor will be assisted most
accurate information. cheerfully in verifying directly any statement of fact. . . . In brief, our plan

32 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 is frankly, and openly, on behalf of business concerns and public institu-
tions, to supply the press and public of the United States prompt and ac-
curate information concerning subjects which it is of value and interest to
the public to know about.19

Transparency is a value we hear much of in the age of social media.

Although it is debatable to what degree Lee was walking the walk, he was
talking the talk of transparency a good century before the internet. As
Clive Thompson of Wired put it, “Transparency is a judo move. Your
­customers are going to poke around in your business anyway, and your
workers are going to blab about internal info—so why not make it work
for you by turning everyone into a partner in the process and inviting
them to do so?”20
In the early 1900s, railroad accidents were not uncommon, and rail-
road companies would generally do what they could to keep the bad news
under wraps. But when the Pennsylvania Railroad had a wreck near Gap,
Pennsylvania, Ivy Lee did a little informational judo:
Ivy Lee began his career as a jour-
Instinctively the railroad management put its news suppression machin- nalist, and he carried journalistic
ery into motion. Just as quickly, Lee reversed it. Reporters were invited to values into his work for corporate
travel to the scene of the accident at the railroad’s expense. Lee promptly clients.
set up facilities for reporters and photographers.21 How was Lee’s work in public
relations different from
journalism?
The resulting coverage was better than usual, and the Pennsylvania
Railroad was later compared favorably to railroads that refused to adopt
such an open-access policy.
Today, most public relations departments within organizations spend Organizations
at least part of their time serving the public information function. Even must get messages
when organizations are not seeking to gain extra attention, they still often out accurately and
need to get messages out accurately and reliably. In many cases, public reliably, even
communication is actually required by law. For example, publicly held cor- when they are not
porations, which are organizations that have offered shares for trading in seeking to gain
stock exchanges or other public markets, are obligated to file certain re- extra attention.
ports and to make public certain information that may affect investors’
decisions. The regulatory agency governing such activity in the United
States is the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), and the informa-
tion that could affect investors’ decisions is called material information, Material information
which we cover in more detail in Chapter 11 dealing with legal issues. Any information that could affect
investment decisions related to a
Annual reports and quarterly profit/loss statements are examples of mate- particular security such as stock in
rial information that must be released in a timely, accurate and fair a publicly traded company.
manner. So if Papa John’s or Dine Brands have a bad quarter and fail to Public information officer (PIO)
meet their earnings goals, they still have to report that information in a A public relations person, com-
way that ensures that anyone interested in buying or selling shares is prop- monly working in a government
erly informed as a result. position, whose job focuses on the
dissemination of information to ap-
Public information is also a common practice in government work. In propriate publics in an accurate and
fact, the job title of public information officer (PIO) is most commonly timely manner.

Public Relations Models in History 33

 Rather than working to obstruct reporters, Ivy Lee encouraged them to cover accidents.
Why would a public relations practitioner want to communicate openly about an
­organization’s crises?

associated with government jobs. The Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA), which is part of the U.S. Department of Homeland Secu-
rity, offers a public information office awareness course as part of its Emer-
gency Management Institute. The first module in the web-based course
describes the role of their public information officers:

They tell the public about services and programs that can affect their lives,
like information about staying healthy, fire safety, and changes in commu-
nity college tuition. They also tell people how they can prepare for a disas-
ter, and protect themselves when disaster strikes. PIOs get their message
out by communicating directly with the public, working through the tradi-
tional news media and through new media.22

Notice that the role focuses on one-way communication: PIOs “tell

the  public about,” “tell people how” and “get their message out.” Public
­information and publicity/press agentry are both one-way models of com-
munication, but the essence of the public information is quite different in
character from press agentry in that the goal is much more focused on pro-
viding accurate information than attention-getting. Public affairs officer
(PAO) is a more common title in military jobs. Military PAOs can be uni-
formed or civilian.

34 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

Case Study
Edward Bernays’ “Torches of Freedom”
Picture this. On the crowded streets of one of the world’s busiest cities, a
group of influential young people does something carefully planned but
also unexpected by the crowds around them. Behind-the-scenes organizers
have worked social networks and even mainstream media to maximize cov-
erage, and the perfectly choreographed event draws the attention of on-
lookers. Some are shocked. Some are delighted.
No, this isn’t a reference to “Worldwide Pillowfight Day” flash mobs or-
ganized annually for fun and entertainment in dozens of cities around the
world. Nor is it part of the One Billion Rising movement, which started on
February 14, 2012, as a call to stop violence against women and children and
is held every Valentine’s Day across international locations.
Instead, the event described was the “Torches of Freedom” march; the
influencers were New York debutantes; and the site was an Easter parade on
Fifth Avenue in New York. The date, however, was 1930 and the man behind
the scenes was Edward Bernays. Bernays competes with Ivy Lee for the legacy
of being known as the father of public relations. Oh, and about those “torches
of freedom,” they were cigarettes marketed to women.

Flash mob
When a group of people plans and
executes a surprise public event or
performance that is usually orga-
Long before carefully orchestrated events like this one from the One Billion Rising movement in the nized via electronic media and often
Philippines of February 14, 2018, were termed “flash mobs,” Edward Bernays organized the unanticipated by those who are not
Torches of Freedom event as part of a sophisticated persuasive campaign. participants.

Public Relations Models in History 35

 Bernays coordinated the Torches of Freedom event on behalf of his
client George Washington Hill, president of the American Tobacco Com-
pany. Here is how Bernays recalls the project in his memoir, Biography of
an Idea:

Hill called me in. “How can we get women to smoke on the street? They’re
smoking indoors. But, damn it, if they spend half the time outdoors and
we can get ‘em to smoke outdoors, we’ll damn near double our female
market. Do something. Act!”
“There’s a taboo against such smoking,” I said. “Let me consult an
expert, Dr. A. A. Brill, the psychoanalyst. He might give me the psycho-
logical basis for a woman’s desire to smoke, and maybe this will help me.”
“What will it cost?”
“I suppose just a consultation fee.”
“Shoot,” said Hill.
[Bernays was no stranger to psychoanalysis. His uncle was Sigmund
Freud.]
Brill explained to me: “Some women regard cigarettes as symbols of
freedom,” he told me. “Smoking is a sublimation of oral eroticism; holding
a cigarette in the mouth excites the oral zone. It is perfectly normal for
women to want to smoke cigarettes. . . . But today the emancipation of
women has suppressed many of their feminine desires. . . . Feminine
traits are masked. Cigarettes, which are equated with men, become
torches of freedom.”
In this last statement I found a way to help break the taboo against
women smoking in public. Why not a parade of women lighting torches of
freedom—smoking cigarettes?23

Bernays called friends at Vogue magazine to get a list of debutantes. Then

he had his secretary, Bertha Hunt, sign and send a personalized telegram to
each one. Think direct-messaging, 1930s style:

In the interests of equality of the sexes and to fight another sex taboo I
and other young women will light another torch of freedom by smoking
cigarettes while strolling on Fifth Avenue Easter Sunday. We are doing
this to combat the silly prejudice that the cigarette is suitable for the
home, the restaurant, the taxicab, the theater lobby, but never no never
for the sidewalk. Women smokers and their escorts will stroll from
Forty-Eighth Street to Fifty-Fourth Street on Fifth Avenue between
Eleven-Thirty and One O’Clock.24

It worked. Bernays reported that the event made front-page news in

both photos and text and opened editorial debates in the weeks that fol-
lowed in publications from coast to coast. As evidence of his success he
cited newspaper reports in Massachusetts, Michigan, California and West
Virginia that women were smoking on the streets.* “Age-old customs,
I learned, could be broken down by a dramatic appeal, disseminated by the
36 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES
network of media.”25 While Bernays’ strategy was mostly intuitive and his
reasoning was mostly theoretical, the case illustrates the power of public
relations tactics as powerful tools for persuasion.

*Bernays’ claims about the impact of national publicity resulting from the Torches of Freedom
event were later called into question by historians.26

Two-Way Asymmetrical Communication

Bernays is also credited (or blamed, depending on your perspective) with get- Professionals
ting Americans to consume more bacon for breakfast. Bernays researched
breakfast diets of his fellow Americans in the early 20th century and found
today have access
that for the most part Americans ate light breakfasts of “coffee, maybe a roll,
to more scientific
and orange juice.”27 So he consulted with his doctor about the benefits of a research and
heavier breakfast and, lo and behold, he found that “a heavy breakfast was online data to help
sounder from the standpoint of health than a light breakfast because the body them understand
loses energy during the night and needs it during the day.” He then asked that publics and to
doctor to write to thousands of other doctors to confirm the benefits of a gauge the success
hearty breakfast. When about 4,500 of the 5,000 doctors to whom they wrote of public relations
concurred with the conclusion, Bernays publicized the finding nationally. efforts.
Interestingly, the resulting news coverage not only headlined the ben-
efits of a hearty breakfast as broadly endorsed by thousands of doctors, but
also “many of [the newspapers] stated that bacon and eggs should be em-
bodied with the breakfast, and as a result sales of bacon went up.” How did
Bernays know that bacon sales went up? Bartlett Arkell, founder and presi-
dent of the Beech-Nut Packing Company, wrote to him and told him as
much. Arkell would know because bacon was one of Beech-Nut’s primary
products. And Beech-Nut was one of Bernays’ clients.
What distinguishes Bernays’ work from other publicity stunts is the use
of research to understand publics, develop strategy and even to evaluate the
results. Bernays applied the social science of the times. He saw the role of
the public relations counselor as interpreting publics to clients as well as
interpreting clients to publics. He saw public relations as a two-way street.
Today’s public relations professionals have access to more scientific re-
search and ridiculous amounts of online data to help them understand pub-
lics and to gauge the success of their efforts. Surveys, email responses,
Twitter comments, usability studies and focus groups are examples of ways
organizations get to know their publics these days, as are less obtrusive
sources of data that you as a consumer/internet user may provide without
even knowing it. Just check your web browser’s cookies.
The torches-of-freedom stunt and bacon-and-eggs “study” had all the
trappings of press agentry and publicity, but behind the scenes was evi-
Edward Bernays used research and
dence of a clever two-way model of communication designed to sell more persuasive tactics to sell bacon.
cigarettes and bacon by leveraging an understanding of desires, diets and
Was this any more or less ethical
deference to authority. The communication may have been two-way in than his use of research and
that sense, but it was also clearly not balanced. As Grunig and Hunt put it, persuasion to sell cigarettes?

Public Relations Models in History 37

 both Bernays and Lee “stressed the importance of communicating the
public’s point of view to management,” but in actual practice, “both did
much more to explain management’s view to the public.”28 This two-way
asymmetrical model of communication describes much of the work that
modern public relations professionals practice as they advocate and work
to persuade publics on behalf of organizations. Bernays may be criticized
for promoting tobacco as liberating and bacon as healthy, but his idea of
using two-way communication and research to persuade publics can be
(and is just as likely to be) applied by organizations with quite different
perspectives, such as the American Cancer Society or the American Heart
Association.
Bernays later regretted promoting tobacco, a sentiment he expressed
plainly in his memoirs, claiming that the dangers of tobacco were not un-
derstood at the time. Historians, and Bernays himself, also made it clear
that his work was produced in partnership with his wife Doris Fleischman,
who retained her last name throughout her career. They worked together
for 58 years from their marriage in 1922 until her death in 1980. Bernays
lived until 1995 when he died at the age of 103.
Bernays is associated with the unbalanced two-way asymmetrical
Doris Fleischman and Edward
model in the same way that Ivy Lee has been associated with the public in-
­Bernays worked together for formation model and P. T. Barnum has been associated with the publicity/
58 years from the time they were press agentry model. Each has been painted with broad strokes here mostly
married until her death.
for the purposes of providing colorful illustrations of models of public rela-
How might this sort of relation- tions. It’s worth noting that Edward Bernays himself is largely responsible
ship have influenced their work?
for framing the history of public relations as a mostly 20th-century pro-
gression from press agentry to a sophisticated two-way management func-
tion that helps corporations understand public interests. Among the
benefits of Bernays’ longevity in life and career was that he had decades to
write and promote his take on the history of the field he helped define in his
earlier years.

Two-Way Symmetrical Communication

Symmetry is balance. In a two-way symmetrical model of communication,
organizations are just as likely to change as their publics. Historical examples
are out there, but are not as easy to come by as splashy stories of press agen-
Asymmetrical model try and persuasion. In the epilogue to his nearly 800-page authoritative
Model of public relations in which volume on the history of public relations, The Unseen Power: Public Relations,
communication is two-way but un-
balanced, with the organization
A History, Scott Cutlip suggests that Earl Newsom’s work on behalf of Ford
using research/feedback in an effort Motor Company may fit the bill for an example of two-way symmetrical com-
to persuade publics to change at- munication.29 As principal of his own firm, Earl Newsom and Company,
titudes or behaviors.
Newsom counseled some of America’s largest and most powerful corpora-
Symmetrical model tions of the mid-20th century such as Standard Oil, Merrill Lynch, Trans-
Model of public relations in which World Airlines, CBS and Ford Motor Company. According to Cutlip, Newsom
two-way communication is mostly did not consider himself an “agent” for clients, responsible for publicity and
balanced, with the organization as
likely to change attitudes or behav- promotion. Rather, Newsom saw himself as a counselor first and foremost,
ior as its publics. advising clients on management issues of public interest.

38 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 In the mid-1950s, Ford Motor Company, along with the rest of Ameri-
ca’s auto industry, was taking heat for automobile safety, or lack thereof.
Newsom counseled Ford to launch a safety campaign. The campaign, how-
ever, was much more than a publicity stunt or sales drive. It included a
Ford-sponsored national safety forum attended by safety researchers, auto
industry engineers and law enforcement officials. Henry Ford II announced
a $200,000 grant to Cornell University for the specific purpose of research-
ing highway safety and injury prevention. The campaign also included short
movies illustrating the research and development of dashboard crash pad-
ding, safety door latches and more safely designed steering wheels. While
much of Ford’s reputation for safety unraveled in the decades that followed,
the effort to use research and two-way communication between an organi-
zation (Ford) and its key publics (researchers, safety experts, engineers and
ultimately automobile owners) to the mutual benefit of both the organiza-
tion and its publics illustrated the idea of two-way symmetrical communi-
cation. To the extent that Ford changed its operations and vehicle design in
the interest of its publics, the relationship was more symmetrical than if
they had just kept their research and development closed to outside influ-
ence and feedback and used the campaign only to promote later sales.
Arthur Page, whose principles for ethical management of public relations
are outlined in Chapter 1, is also seen as an example of an upstanding practi-
tioner with a symmetrical worldview. He saw winning public approval, confi-
dence and trust as essential to successful management. In his words, “All
business begins with the public permission and exists by public approval.”30
Yet, if there is a name associated with the two-way symmetrical model of
public relations, it is not a public relations man but a theorist, or actually two
theorists. James and Larissa Grunig are emeritus professors at the University
of Maryland. Together with many colleagues, the Grunigs developed and exe-
cuted a decades-long program of research
on excellence in public relations. Among
the main ideas to emerge from these
studies was that “using the two-way
symmetrical or a combination of the
two-way symmetrical and two-way
asymmetrical model (called the mixed-
motive model) almost always could in-
crease the contribution of public relations
to organizational effectiveness.”31 This
line of research and theory, which started
in the 1970s and 1980s, continues today.
Although we may not find any one
contemporary organization or practi-
Cornell Aeronautical Labs, Liberty Mutual Insurance and Ford Motor Company
tioner to serve as a model of pure and partnered to develop the 1957 Cornell-Liberty Safety Car as one of the first auto
continuous symmetry in public rela- concepts developed from crash testing.
tions, we do see plenty of examples of Would you characterize the relationship between Ford and its publics as
engaging public relations in which the symmetrical?

Public Relations Models in History 39

 engagement is fueled by moments of good, balanced communication be-
tween two or more interested parties. Many of these examples come from
nonprofits and public utilities.
Public utilities have unique relationships with their publics. Whereas
consumers may exercise some power in dealing with many corporations by
way of their purchasing decisions, competition for market share is less of a
factor than governmental regulation and community responsiveness in how
public utilities are managed.
As a consumer you don’t get to choose your electric company or water
treatment facility the way you choose your brand of light bulb or kitchen
water filter. Sure, you may feel rather powerless when you get your electric
bill and find out that your rates are going up, but before those rates go up,
they must be approved by some sort of regulatory agency or board. And if
your electric company proposes a new power plant in your community, you
and your neighbors may be quite motivated to find out how that regulation
works and voice your position on the issue.
There are many different models for regulating utilities depending on
the location, government structure and nature of the service being provided,
but the basic idea is that in exchange for getting to operate without normal
market competition, public utilities should be able to show that they are
serving public interests in good faith. This situation sets the stage for public
utilities to come to the table of two-way symmetrical communication with
their publics fairly often.
Robbie Alm served for more than a decade as a vice president of Hawaii’s
largest public utility, Hawaiian Electric Co. (HECO), first as vice president of
public ­affairs and later as executive vice
president. In those roles he directly coun-
seled the president and CEO on controver-
sial matters such as the construction of
new transmission stations, power plants,
wind farms and a generating station on
Oahu that was billed as the world’s largest
combustion turbine fueled by 100 percent
biodiesel.32
Alm practiced what he calls commu-
nity-based problem-solving, and it wasn’t
all rainbows and trade winds. Proposing
giant windmills on the serene, small-town
island of Lanai to generate power for
neighboring Oahu, running power lines
across scenic mountain ridges, or building
massive power plants anywhere will lead
The upper Wa’ahila ridge of Manoa Valley is still mostly free of power lines
to some major controversy. “I think we’re
after key publics in the community voiced opposition to the idea. terrible listeners as a society,” he said,
Why are utility companies often inclined to practice two-way symmetrical speaking from experience with so many
communication? hotly contested issues. “You can have a

40 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

desired outcome, and that can be taken into account, but you have to let the
community guide the process in order to see it through.”
Public approval shouldn’t be a foregone conclusion. That would be all
asymmetrical. In fact, those power lines across the Wa’ahila ridge behind
the University of Hawaii at Manoa never were built, and the hillsides of
Lanai are still without windmills. Other projects, however, have proceeded
with public consent, and Alm earned respect in Hawaii for the symmetry
and humility in his style. “If you really try to hold on to your positions no
matter what, they’re almost guaranteed to slip away,” he says, “but if you’re
really doing the right things, people feel that and they’ll work with you.”33
While still working at HECO, Alm joined an independent, nonprofit-funded
program called Collaborative Leaders Network (CLN), where he is pursuing
his philosophy in working with political, corporate, nonprofit and commu-
nity leaders in Hawaii on strategies to solve problems of mutual concern.

A Broader Social History of Public

Relations
Historical portraits of Barnum, Bernays and even Lee are colored with a tint
of infamy. But Barnum served as a mayor of Bridgeport, Connecticut, and
founded Bridgeport Hospital. Bernays applied his expertise to promote the
NAACP, Thomas Edison’s invention of electric lighting, and the field of public
relations itself. Ivy Lee worked for the American Red Cross. Indeed, a differ-
ent sample of cases and clients sets a different tone for the history of public
relations. The tactics that each man helped develop can, like any other instru-
ment of communication, be used for good or evil.
Moreover, these men clearly were not the only ones innovating in public
relations. Stories of women and people of color may be harder to find in
public relations history books and articles of the 20th century, but public
relations pioneers like Joseph V. Baker broke through many professional
barriers. Baker was the first African American public relations professional
to gain national prominence for winning blue chip accounts with national
Practitioners of color were under-
clients like DuPont, U.S. Steel, Chrysler, Gillette, and Procter & Gamble. He represented in many 20th-century
also was the first president of the Philadelphia chapter of PRSA and the first accounts of public relations history.
African American to earn accreditation from PRSA.34 What made Joseph V. Baker
Like Ivy Lee, Baker moved into railroad public relations from journal- (1908–1993) a public relations
pioneer?
ism. But Baker’s career went well beyond the public information model.
Public relations scholar Marilyn Kern-Foxworth noted that national corpo-
rations and politicians hired his firm for the “comprehensive research on
the black consumer market that it provided.” 35 When interviewed for a
story in The New York Times in 1966 titled “Racial Image Challenges Big
Business,” Baker said, “The higher you go in these corporations, the less
knowledge you find. So public relations men have to be knowledgeable and
they have to have the guts to transmit cold facts to their clients.”36 Two-way
models of public relations require public relations practitioners to interpret

A Broader Social History of Public Relations 41

Effective public organizations to publics and to interpret publics to organizations. Baker
relations was around epitomized that practice.
Indeed, historians have debunked the “Big Bang Barnum” narrative as
long before the rise of a comprehensive accounting of the birth of public relations.37 And a broader,
20th-century more inclusive, social history of public relations reveals that effective public
business in relations was around long before the rise of 20th-century business in
America. America.
Historians Margot Opdyke Lamme at the University of Alabama and
Karen Miller Russell at the University of Georgia culled through decades of
literature on the history of public relations and found more than 70 arti-
cles, chapters and books that focused on history prior to the 20th century.38
Besides business, they found public relations to have a rich heritage in three
“deep veins” of history: religion; education, nonprofit and reform; and poli-
tics and government.

Religion
Lamme and Russell highlighted evidence of public relations as early as the
first century. Although I wouldn’t go so far as to say that St. Paul was a PR
guy, at least one public relations historian identifies Paul as “one of the most
influential communicators in history.” “In the contemporary language of
public relations, he played all its roles: writer-technician, liaison, manager
and strategist,” wrote Robert E. Brown of Salem State University with an ad-
mitted sense of anachronism in making the case.39 In addition to authoring
much of the New Testament, St. Paul deftly segmented his publics (Jews and
early Christians), tailored his rhetoric for his audiences, visited churches, and
was effective enough in spreading his message to change the course of reli-
gion and world history.
Religious leaders and organizations remain adept at both traditional and
emerging public relations tactics. The Religion Communicators Council (RCC),
which was chartered in 1929 and promotes “faith perspectives in public dis-
course,” claims to be the oldest public relations professional organization in
the United States.40 Current RCC members include public relations practitio-
ners representing Bahá’í, Christian, Hindu, Jewish and Muslim faiths.
St. Paul has been referred to as one Examples of religions using social media are everywhere. Rabbi Josh
of the most influential communica- Yuter was celebrated by the National Jewish Outreach Program as a top-ten
tors in history.
Jewish influencer for his use of social media: “Yuter is not only a pulpit
Was St. Paul practicing public rabbi. He’s a popular blogger, tweeter, and podcaster (his Jewish-themed
relations?
podcasts were downloaded more than 20,000 times last year.)”41 Even the
pope has a Twitter page: @Pontifex.

Education
College commencements are a time of great pomp and circumstance. Gradu-
ation ceremonies are also annual fundraising campaign kickoffs. As univer-
sity foundation officials stand at podiums across the globe in caps and gowns
each year and plead with new graduates to remember their alma maters as
they move on and start earning larger paychecks, these school officials hope

42 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

that commencement acts as the start of a beautiful friendship.
While we may not know exactly when this practice started, Har-
vard College is known to have begun fundraising campaigns as
early as 1641 when college representatives were sent to England
to emphasize how the college was educating American Indians as
part of a pitch for donations.42 In the 1700s Princeton and Colum-
bia (at the time named King’s College) both used news releases to
publicize their commencement ceremonies.43 Modern Princeton
students also earn publicity, though the channels and tone have
changed.
When Codey Babineaux of Lafayette, La., opened his digital
acceptance notice from Princeton University, he recorded it and
posted it on Twitter, and it was celebrated millions of times
over—with more than 4.68 million views.44
Interviewed by The New York Times for a story about how
universities are shifting communication strategies to connect
with new generations of students, Babineaux said he appreci-
ated the video orientation that Princeton staff and students pro-
duced for his incoming class of 2022—a “Princetified” cover of
Taylor Swift’s “22”—­because it was “hilarious” and “didn’t try
too hard.”45 He said he also had watched older videos, including
commencement ceremonies, and thought “that will be on my In-
stagram page in four years.”

Politics and Government

Religious organizations remain among the most
Lamme and Russell found examples of public-relations-type ac- spirited in public relations.
tivity dating back to Alexander the Great in the fourth century
Why do you think that is?
B.C. Tutored by Aristotle (speaking of rhet-
oric) as a boy, Alexander went on to become
not only a great warrior but also a great
war reporter, or at least he saw to it that
others sent stories of his exploits in battle
back to Macedonian courts. Early Ameri-
can h ­istory is also chock-full of classic
public relations strategies and tactics such
as sloganeering (“Give me liberty or give
me death!”), pseudo-­events organized pri­
marily for media coverage (Boston Tea
Party), and opinion-editorial writing (The
Federalist Papers).46
Of course, the arena for American
politics is almost as raucous in the digital
era. Democratic presidential candidate
Colleges and universities have been practicing public relations for hundreds of
Howard Dean, known for his enthusiastic years.
stump-speech screaming in the 2004 elec- How does your school communicate with you, and how might that change
tion, also has been called the godfather of in years to come?

A Broader Social History of Public Relations 43

 modern social media campaigning. Dean’s
campaign used the i­nternet  to  raise
money like no one had ever done before
at that level of politics, racking up loads
of small online donations that added up
to compete with the numbers generated
by more traditional large donations.47
Dean didn’t win the election, but he reset
the stage for political campaign financ-
ing. Many analysts see this shift in strat-
egy as a major factor in Barack Obama’s
two subsequent election ­victories in 2008
and 2012.
Then, in 2016, Donald Trump’s politi-
cal rallies, both during and after his elec-
tion, drew historic amounts of media
attention as he and his events made head-
Pseudo-events are organized primarily for media coverage.
lines at unprecedented rates. The Trump
Was the Boston Tea Party a public relations stunt?
campaign’s success in making so much
news can largely be attributed to Trump’s
Pseudo-event ability to garner “earned media,” a topic discussed in more detail in Chapter
An event organized primarily for the
purpose of generating media
7. As observed by The New York Times’ Nicholas Confessore and Karen
coverage. Yourish:

Like all candidates, he benefits from what is known as earned media:

news and commentary about his campaign on television, in newspapers
and magazines, and on social media. Earned media typically dwarfs paid
media in a campaign. The big difference between Mr. Trump and other
candidates is that he is far better than any other candidate—maybe than
any candidate ever—at earning media.

Major Motivations for Public Relations

Lamme and Russell’s broader view of public relations history reveals sev-
eral major motivations for public relations throughout the ages. These in-
clude recruitment, legitimacy, agitation and advocacy, in addition to profit.

Recruitment
St. Paul recruited for the Christian Church. The Sons of Liberty recruited
fellow colonists for their revolutionary activities like the Boston Tea Party.
Today, public relations practitioners are involved in the recruitment of
­volunteers for nonprofits, new members for political organizations, new
hires for corporations, and, of course, new students for colleges and
universities.
While the timeless tactics of face-to-face visits, meetings and events
are still the backbone of many recruiting efforts, today’s recruiters are

44 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

just as likely to use social networking sites and other forms of social Today’s recruiters
media to carry out their work. In partnership with research firm Future are just as likely
Workplace, human resources (HR) technology company Career Arc sur-
veyed 616 HR professionals and 438 job seekers in 2017 and found that
to use social
91 percent of employers in the sample reported using social media in re-
networking sites
cruiting. On the other side of the job market, Career Arc found that job and other forms of
seekers also pay close attention to online review sites in deciding where to social media to
apply. A majority (55 percent) of job seekers who had reported reading a carry out their work
negative review of an employer responded that they decided not to apply as they are more
at that company.48 traditional tactics.
In a study of university officials, San Diego State University Professor
Kaye Sweetser and I found that those communicators working in admis-
sions and recruiting were among the most enthusiastic adopters of social
media for public relations work. As one participant in the study put it,
there’s a “competitive advantage” in using social media “to attract and
maintain a younger demographic, which is adept and attuned to social
media.” Another said, “If [students] are there and that is where they natu-
rally are, then you have to go to [that] market. . . . We need to be there.”49
Legitimacy
Öffentlichkeitsarbeit means “work for the public sphere” in German.50 Schol-
ars have found Öffentlichkeitsarbeit to date back as far as the 10th century
when Austrian monarchs and statesmen disseminated coins, pictures and
pamphlets to legitimize their positions.51 Lamme and Russell also high-
lighted studies showing how early Christian churches sought legitimacy, and
later how members of the church were used to enhance the legitimacy of
others’ efforts.
In the 18th century when James Oglethorpe, who founded the ­A merican
colony of Georgia, was looking to promote the settlement of ­Savannah, he
leveraged the endorsement of the Archbishop of Canterbury. “Oglethorpe
and his associates were well aware of the value of the staged event to attract
public attention—the pseudo-event is sine qua non of today’s promotion,”
wrote Scott Cutlip in one such historical recounting. Oglethorpe traveled to
England to “rally for support” and brought an Indian chief and some of his
warriors with him. To boost legitimacy, Oglethorpe’s itinerary included a
staged meeting with the Archbishop of Canterbury. The visit of Oglethorpe
and the Indians generated lots of publicity, and Oglethorpe’s travel party
upon his return to Georgia included two shiploads of new colonists.
In the 20th century, communication researchers identified a function
of mass media that they called status conferral. Paul Lazarsfeld and
Robert Merton wrote in 1948 that “the mass media bestow prestige and
enhance the authority of individuals and groups by legitimizing their
status.”52 For this reason, many public relations practitioners would con-
sider it a crowning achievement to get their client or organization (or them- Status conferral
selves) featured on the Today show, in Time magazine or on the front page When media pay attention to indi-
viduals and groups and therefore
of their major metropolitan newspaper. That type of coverage, provided it’s enhance their authority or bestow
positive, means instant legitimacy. prestige on them.

Major Motivations for Public Relations 45

 Today, Google, Yahoo, Bing and other major news
and search sites confer legitimacy by way of algorithms
that take into account what users are searching for and
linking to. In a sense, they crowdsource search results.
Rather than a small group of editors acting as gatekeep-
ers for what gets covered, decisions about what gets the
top billing in organic search results depend on auto-
mated calculations. Organic search results are those
that are not paid for as advertising or sponsored links.
Google confers status.
An entire field of practice known as search engine opti-
Why do you think Google recognition matters so much? mization (SEO) has sprouted, and public relations prac-
titioners are among the most interested in sharpening
their skills. The goal of SEO is to make your links rank as highly as possible
Major news and
search sites confer in the results when someone does a keyword search for your client’s name,
products or services. Having a client show up on the first page of Google
legitimacy by results for their business’s keywords is, for many, as much of a professional
way of algorithms win as making the cover of a magazine or newspaper.
that take into Internet power players have come to confer legitimacy in other ways
account what users too. In November 2012, over the objections of Israel and the United
are searching for States, the United Nations General Assembly voted to recognize the state
and linking to. of Palestine, upgrading its U.N. membership from “observer entity” to
“nonmember observer state.” Legitimacy was implied. But that legiti-
macy was bolstered significantly five months later in May 2013 when
Google changed the name on www.google.ps from “Palestinian territo-
ries” to simply “Palestine.” As noted in a follow-up story by NPR’s Emily
Harris, “Google didn’t announce the name change, but it didn’t have to.
In a place where small gestures can carry great symbolism, Palestinians
noticed right away.”53 This also symbolized the rise to global power of
Google itself.
In 2019, Statista.com reported that Facebook had 2.38 billion active
monthly users, which is a billion more than the entire population of
China.54 In 2018, researchers estimated that Google processed more than
3.5 billion searches a day, almost half as many searches as the estimated
world population of 7.6 billion people at that time. As legitimate world enti-
ties in their own right, global internet companies influence status conferral
Organic search results and legitimization like no media before them.
Search engine results that are gen-
erated because of their relevance to
the search terms entered by users Agitation
and not resulting directly from paid Getting people fired up has long been a motivation of strategic communica-
placement as advertising.
tors. For example, scholars have studied how Napoleon used the press to
Search engine optimization cultivate hatred of England and how the Female Moral Reform Society in
(SEO) America in the 19th century went as far as to purchase a newspaper and
Process of improving the position of
a specific website in the organic build its circulation as part of the organization’s organized efforts to eradi-
search results of search engines. cate sexually transmitted diseases and prostitution.55

46 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 Organized agitation has evolved into
new forms with the rise of the internet.
In October 2017, The New York Times and
The New Yorker published reports expos-
ing allegations from dozens of women
who accused high-powered Hollywood
film producer Harvey Weinstein of rape,
sexual assault and sexual abuse over a
period of more than three decades. Those
mass media reports drew a tremendous
amount of attention to issues of sexual
assault and harassment, particularly in
the United States film and entertain-
ment industries. But the agitation
quickly elevated to the level of a full-
blown worldwide social movement after
one of the accusers, actor Alyssa Milano,
posted a simple tweet: “If all the women
who have been sexually harassed or as-
saulted wrote ‘Me too’ as a status, we
might give people a sense of the magni-
Alyssa Milano’s tweet echoed around the world.
tude of the problem.” Tens of thousands
of people replied directly to Milano’s What factors made #MeToo such a huge movement?
tweet, including celebrities and every-
day Twitter users with disturbing accounts of abuse in their own lives.
Within days, the MeToo hashtag was being used by millions across
Twitter, Instagram and Facebook. Facebook reported to media that within
24 hours, 4.7 million users had engaged in the #MeToo conversation, with
more than 12 million posts, comments and reactions.56 Milano is recog-
nized for starting the MeToo hashtag, but the actual social movement was
originated by Tarana Burke, founder of Just Be Inc., “a youth organization
focused on the health, well being and wholeness of young women of color.”57
While that mission is nothing but positive, Burke wrote that the movement
started “in the deepest, darkest place in my soul.” Burke recalled working
primarily with children of color and hearing heartbreaking stories of abuse
and neglect when she met a girl named Heaven, who confided her horrible
experiences:

I could not find the strength to say out loud the words that were ringing
in my head over and over again as she tried to tell me what she had
­endured. . . . I watched her walk away from me as she tried to recapture
her secrets and tuck them back into their hiding place. I watched her
put her mask back on and go back into the world like she was all alone
and I couldn’t even bring myself to whisper . . . me too. 58

Major Motivations for Public Relations 47

Advocacy From that very private moment to Burke’s work to start the move-
Public promotion of a cause, idea or
policy.
ment, to Milano’s tweet, to the many women (and men) who first shared
their #MeToo’s online, to the millions who helped spread the message, the
Propaganda movement gained momentum well beyond any publicity stunt or
The spread of information used to
promote or support a particular ­marketing ploy. Why? Because the movement resonated on a deep, human
point of view. In modern use, the level—a level where agitation has its most profound effects. With the help
term usually refers to false, mislead- of many committed campaigners, #MeToo still echoes as a rallying cry
ing or exaggerated information.
against sexual abuse and harassment and has emboldened many victims
to stand up to some of the most powerful men in their lives—and in some
cases the world.

Advocacy
On the flip side of agitation is advocacy, which is the very first profes-
sional value listed in the PRSA Code of Ethics. Whereas agitation has
been used in history in opposition efforts, advocacy in the history of
public relations has meant promoting persons, organizations and n ­ ations.
As an example of one of the longest-running promotional campaigns in
history, Lamme and Russell highlight the Catholic Church’s “1,000-year
public relations campaign.” Featuring St. James as a patron saint to
Spain, it promoted both the church and Spanish nationalism in the 9th
and 10th centuries. 59 The very term propaganda derives from the work
of the Catholic Church to propagate faith. Prior to the world wars of the
20th century, the word did not carry the negative connotation it
has today.
Advocacy and promotion are easy to spot. Colored ribbons are prime
examples. Pink ribbons for breast cancer awareness, yellow ribbons to
Promoting a cause support troops, red to support the fight against AIDS and HIV, even
also means ­periwinkle to support research on stomach and esophageal cancers. Each
supporting a ribbon is a symbol of a cause with organizations working on behalf of the
mission, which cause. Of course, mere awareness is only part of the process of advocacy.
requires strategy Promoting a cause also means supporting a mission, which requires
beyond mere ­strategy beyond mere awareness. Successful propagation of the faith may
awareness. be evidenced in church membership numbers, attendance and institu-
tional partnerships. Fighting cancer requires money for research, physi-
cian involvement, preventive behavior and early detection of treatable
conditions.

Profit
Of course, generating revenue has been a major motivator for public rela-
tions throughout the ages, and not just for big corporations. Even “nonprof-
its” such as churches, governments, foundations, schools, nongovernmental
organizations and foundations have sought to raise money as seen in the
examples discussed in this chapter. That said, one of the largest roles for
public relations has been and always will be working in conjunction with

48 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

advertising and marketing to promote the sale of products, services and
ideas. Chapter 3 will cover the differences and, perhaps more important,
the integration of public relations with related functions such as marketing
and advertising.

All Cancers Leukemia

Lavender Orange
Appendix Cancer Liver Cancer
Amber Emerald Green
Bladder Cancer Lung Cancer
Marigold/Blue/Purple White
Brain Cancer Lymphoma
Grey Lime
Breast Cancer Melanoma
Pink Black
Carcinoid Cancer Multiple Myeloma
Zebra Stripe Burgundy
Cervical Cancer Ovarian Cancer
Teal/White Teal
Childhood Cancer Pancreatic Cancer
Gold Purple
Colon Cancer Prostate Cancer
Dark Blue Light Blue
Esophageal Cancer Sarcoma/Bone Cancer
Periwinkle Yellow
Gallbladder/Bile Duct Stomach Cancer
Cancer Kelly Green Periwinkle
Head & Neck Cancer Testicular Cancer
Burgundy/Ivory Orchid
Hodgkin’s Lymphoma Thyroid Cancer
Violet Teal/Pink/Blue
Kidney Cancer Uterine Cancer
Orange Peach
Leiomyosarcoma Honors Caregivers
Purple Plum

Colored ribbons are prime examples of advocacy and promotion.

How many of these colors would you recognize? What are the benefits of this type of
awareness?

Major Motivations for Public Relations 49

 Voices from the Field
Karen Miller Russell

University of Georgia Professor Karen Miller Russell can pinpoint the reasons behind success or failure.
studies and teaches media history with an emphasis Second, although times have changed, basic prin-
on public relations. Dr. Russell served as editor of ciples of public relations remain the same. You may
the Journal of Public Relations Research from 2010 to be communicating on a different platform, but you’re
2015 and is author of The Voice of Business: Hill and still trying to share information, manage a reputation,
Knowlton and Postwar Public Relations as well as nu- advocate and build relationships, just as people have
merous articles for communication and public rela- been doing over the ages. Third, studying history
tions journals. A former public relations writer for the provides context for understanding what’s happen-
Wisconsin Department of Transportation, public rela- ing today. For example, I studied business re-
tions specialist for the American Camping Associa- sponses to the 1950s Civil Rights Movement with
tion and former photography and publicity assistant co-author Margot Opdycke Lamme, and we learned
for Common Wealth Development, Dr. Russell is also that although U.S. corporate executives often sin-
interested in social media, globalization and corpo- cerely wanted to help bring about social change,
rate social responsibility initiatives. their commitment to it slackened when public pres-
sure died down. Seeing how that happened and
Many textbooks have presented well-
what it meant to both organizations and activists can
known historical events like the Boston
help us understand what’s happening in race rela-
Tea Party as examples of early public
tions today.
­relations, even though no one at the
time would have thought to call it PR.
How has America’s history shaped differences
Do you have concerns about that as a
between U.S. public relations and public rela-
historian?
tions in other countries? How has the U.S.
The Boston Tea Party and other pre-20th-century
“imported” or “exported” public relations as
events may not have been “public relations” as we
a practice?
know it today, but they definitely belong in PR his-
Natalia Salcedo, a Spanish historian, argues that the
tory. Many scholars have assumed that PR started in
development of public relations varies in different
the United States around the turn of the 20th cen-
countries because of the history and culture of
tury, but I’d argue that it started long before that in
each nation. It makes sense that public relations in
politics, religion and reform movements. These
Eastern European countries that were behind the
groups developed the strategies and tactics that
Iron Curtain during the Cold War would be quite
eventually became institutionalized in corporate
different from public relations in North America and
public relations practice, and that’s a legitimate sub-
Western Europe, to take just one example. But
ject for study.
there has also been a great deal of cross-pollination
The UAB and other accrediting bodies include within companies operating multinationally or
knowledge of history as part of their criteria among politicians and diplomats watching what
for accreditation. How does that kind of their counterparts are doing in other countries. The
knowledge benefit practitioners beyond help- United States certainly exported some aspects of
ing them get the credential? PR practices after World War II, but no doubt Ameri-
There are three good reasons for studying PR his- can executives also learned from working in Asia,
tory. First, we can always learn from seeing what Europe and South America during the same time
worked and didn’t work in the past, especially if you period.

50 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

If you could sit down with Edward Bernays to be a professional woman during a time when that
and Doris Fleischman for an interview right was discouraged. I have a feeling that she played a
now, what would you ask them? much larger role than we realize in the success of
I actually met Edward Bernays once and briefly chat- their firm.
ted with him about the research I was conducting on
the New York agency Hill and Knowlton. What a What’s the most important lesson from public
character! I would love to meet Doris Fleischman, relations history that a student can take into
though, and I would ask her to talk about her role in the job market?
their agency, campaigns she developed for the Be ethical: the truth always comes out eventually.
NAACP and other organizations and what it was like

Ethics: Transparency, Objectivity

and Advocacy
Disclosure and dissemination of information is a cornerstone of public rela-
tions ethics. Media ethicist Patrick Lee Plaisance argues that transparency is
ethical not because of its strategic outcomes (e.g., reputation for doing the right
thing), but because it is essential to human dignity.60 He cites philosopher Im-
manuel Kant in building a case that the best reason to be transparent is respect
for other people. By making available all relevant information, we respect
others’ autonomy in informed decision-making. Grunig and Hunt painted Ivy
Lee as an exemplar of the public information model of public relations: “Lee
viewed the public as made up of rational human beings who, if they are given
complete and accurate information, would make the right decisions.”61
As a former journalist, like many of today’s public relations practitio-
ners, Lee embraced the general idea of objectivity. I say “general idea” here
because objectivity is a philosophically elusive concept. Oxford Dictionar-
ies define the adjective “objective” as “not influenced by personal feelings or
opinions in considering and representing facts.”62 But journalists, or any
other human beings for that matter, struggle with total removal of feelings
and opinions in selecting, interpreting and reporting facts. You won’t find
objectivity specifically stated in the Society of Professional Journalists
(SPJ) Code of Ethics, but that doesn’t mean they have abandoned the idea of
pursuing truth. “Journalism does not pursue truth in an absolute or philo-
sophical sense, but it can—and must—pursue it in a practical sense,” ac-
cording to the Pew Research Center’s principles of journalism.63
Whereas Lee identified with journalists (and many journalists identi-
fied with Lee), Edward Bernays made it a point to define public relations as
much more than a journalistic function. Bernays embraced advocacy, and
in doing so unabashedly distinguished public relations from journalism.
Today, there is little debate about advocacy’s place in public relations as op- Objectivity
State of being free from the
posed to journalism.
­influence of personal feelings or
Advocacy is a value in the PRSA Code of Ethics: “We serve the public opinions in considering and
interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent. We ­representing facts.

Ethics: Transparency, Objectivity and Advocacy 51

 provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid in-
formed public debate.”64
Advocacy is a no-no in the SPJ Code of Ethics, where journalists are
advised to “distinguish between advocacy and news reporting.” “Analysis
and commentary should be labeled and not misrepresent fact or context.
Distinguish news from advertising and shun hybrids that blur the lines be-
tween the two.”65
The case has even been made that Edward Bernays did more to advance
the ethical evolution of public relations than Ivy Lee because Bernays
­embraced advocacy and encouraged writing it into a code of ethics rather
than trying to act as a journalist while on the payroll of a non-news organiza-
tion. Genevieve McBride wrote in the Journal of Mass Media Ethics in 1989
that public relations’ struggle toward professionalism would benefit from a
view of history that embraces Bernays’ “disassociation from the journalistic
perspective” rather than Lee’s “dysfunctional standard of objectivity.”66
Whether you practice public information with a journalistic set of
values or advocacy with a penchant for persuasion, the principle of trans-
parency is critical. In a democracy, it is OK to advocate, as long as you are
transparent about what you’re doing, meaning that you respect others’ au-
tonomy in informed decision-making.
The principle of Transparency also offers a useful lens for studying public relations his-
transparency is tory. In what ways was Bernays’ work for Beech-Nut ethical? Unethical?
critical whether How about Ivy Lee’s work with Nazis in Germany? Should Lee be let off the
you practice public hook because he was transparent? Lee could (and did) argue that his work
information with in counseling Germans in the late 1930s was consistent with his respect for
a journalistic set rational human decision-making. He said he was working to improve
of values or with mutual understanding between Americans and Germans. In a congressio-
advocacy. nal hearing in 1934, Lee testified that he counseled German propaganda
minister Joseph Goebbels and other German leaders that “they would
never in the world get the American people reconciled to their treatment of
the Jews.”67 The same hearing revealed that Lee was receiving $25,000 a
year from the German dye trust for his public relations counsel. Assuming
Lee was upfront about his business arrangement, was his work ethical?

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI

While public relations tactics have some time-tested truths, along with
been around since the dawn of civi- a slightly new perspective:
lization, our body of knowledge
about the field has come a long way • Organizations must get messages out accurately
and reliably, even when they are not seeking to
in the past few decades. Here are
gain extra attention.

52 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC REL ATIONS MODEL S THROUGH THE AGES

 • Professionals today have access to more scien- • Major news and search sites confer legitimacy
tific research and online data to help them by way of algorithms that take into account
understand publics and to gauge the success of what users are searching for and linking to.
public relations efforts.
• Promoting a cause also means supporting a
• Effective public relations was around long mission, which requires strategy beyond mere
before the rise of 20th-century business in awareness.
America.
• The principle of transparency is critical whether
• Today’s recruiters are just as likely to use social you practice public information with a journal-
networking sites and other forms of social istic set of values or with advocacy.
media to carry out their work as they are to use
more traditional tactics.

SUMMARY
2.1 Analyze public relations models on one- and publics have communicated, persuaded
way/two-way and asymmetrical/symmetri- and adapted to each other over time. From St.
cal dimensions using examples and key Paul promoting the New Testament to modern
figures from history. bloggers posting Islamic infographics, and from
One-way models of public relations are all Alexander the Great’s self-reporting war ex-
about getting information out and, in the case ploits to Donald Trump’s political rallies, all of
of press agentry, getting attention. The public our major institutions have been and continue
information model is one-way too, but it is to be influenced by public relations.
more concerned with accuracy. Two-way
2.3 Identify common motivations for strategic
models range from asymmetrical, in which or-
communication in history.
ganizations use research and feedback to per-
While the term public relations may not have
suade publics, to symmetrical, in which
existed in common use prior to the 20th cen-
organizations and publics exhibit more mutual
tury, its functions and tactics have been ap-
communication and change. Barnum, Lee and
plied in pursuit of recruitment, legitimacy,
Bernays are often associated with press agen-
agitation, advocacy and profit throughout
try, public information and scientific persua-
human history.
sion, respectively. But a fuller history
recognizes the contributions of many other in- 2.4 Discuss the ethics of transparency, objec-
novative communicators and strategists. Twen- tivity and advocacy.
tieth-century public relations also owes its Edward Bernays and Ivy Lee can be compared.
development to figures like Doris Fleischman, Lee pursued journalistic integrity, but he still
Arthur Page and Earl Newsom. worked on the payroll of specific organizations
to which he was loyal. Bernays embraced ad-
2.2 Integrate knowledge of social history with
vocacy. While both public relations and journal-
knowledge of public relations.
ism value transparency as a value, public
Business, religion, education, politics and gov-
relations values advocacy more and journalism
ernment are intertwined with public relations
values objectivity more.
throughout history inasmuch as organizations

SUMMARY 53
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. How would P. T. Barnum use social media? 5. Some say that real-life public relations is better
Provide some specific examples. described with a mixed-motive model in which
2. CASE STUDY There’s no doubt that IHOP gen- one-way and asymmetrical communication are
erated a lot of buzz with their name-change used by the same organizations that are also
stunt. Aside from attention, what kind of ben- practicing symmetrical communication. De-
efits do you think resulted? (Feel free to re- scribe a relationship that you have as an indi-
search the case online.) What were the vidual that could be seen as mixed-motive.
limitations? What were the risks? 6. Find an example of a blogger or social media
3. Both Ivy Lee and Edward Bernays have been influencer doing journalism, and describe how
called the “father of public relations.” Does that is different from public relations.
either one of them deserve that title? Why or 7. Asymmetrical public relations is much more
why not? common in everyday practice than symmetrical.
4. CASE STUDY In what ways is the Torches of Does that mean most of the field is inherently
Freedom case a “good example” of public rela- unethical? Why or why not?
tions? In what ways is it a “bad example”?

KEY TERMS
Advocacy 48 Objectivity 51 Public information model 32
Asymmetrical model 38 Organic search results 46 Public information officer (PIO) 33
Flash mob 35 Press agentry/publicity model 30 Search engine optimization (SEO) 46
Material information 33 Propaganda 48 Status conferral 45
News release 31 Pseudo-event 42 Symmetrical model 38

54 CHAPTER 2   |   PUBLIC RELATIONS MODELS THROUGH THE AGES

 C HAP TE R 3

Convergence and Integrated

Communication

Red Bull’s media content serves public relations functions by

promoting more than just energy drink products. Is Red Bull
an energy drink company that produces media content, or a
media company that produces energy drinks?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

3.1 Analyze how different

3.3 Discuss how functions of organizations and publics
forms of convergence affect
advertising and marketing beyond advertising and
public relations.
may be integrated with public marketing.
3.2 Define advertising and relations.
3.5 Discuss the role of public
marketing, and discuss how
3.4 Explain how public relations in the free flow of
those functions may diverge
­relations adds value to information in society.
from public relations.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.6 AUDIENCE IDENTIFIC ATION • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 4.3 KNOWLEDGE OF THE FIELD
5.6 ORGANIZ ATIONAL SKILLS • 6.5 NET WORKS
 A
Black box fallacy dmit it. One of the very first things you do in the morning is check
False notion that predicts that most
human communication needs will
your media device. If not, then you are a better person than I. I watch
eventually be satisfied with a single the apps update. I check my social network sites to see what clever
device. memes my friends are propagating. I check media-business news and see
how the latest round of mergers and acquisitions affects the products and
services I use. Whether I realize it or not through the blur of my just-opened
eyes, the world delivered to me by my bundled talk, text and data plan has
continued to converge and re-converge as I have slept. Your new s­ martphone
can undoubtedly handle many more functions than your last smartphone.
There’s a good chance many of your favorite TV shows, movies, music and
news sources are owned by the same big company. Your cultural interests
increasingly overlap with people from all over the planet. This is the world
you, your organization and your publics inhabit. And, it’s ever more techno-
logically, culturally and economically converged every time you upload,
download, like, snap, submit, share or agree to yet another end-user license
agreement.
Communication firms are merging and converging with one another in
the global marketplace of ideas, while professional communicators con-
tinue to weigh the pros and cons of integrating public relations with adver-
tising and marketing. Making sense of all this convergence and integration
and what it means for public relations requires an understanding of the
multiple dimensions of convergence, an appreciation for the workings of
integrated communication, and a respect for classic principles of public re-
lations that apply steadily as times and technologies change.

Convergence
Convergence is a concept that can be difficult to understand, in part because
it has different meanings in different contexts. USC Professor Henry Jenkins
recommends thinking about multiple processes of convergence.1 Conver-
gence can be a technological process, but convergence also describes cultural,
economic and professional processes.

Technological Convergence
We may be seduced by the idea that one day all of our media needs will be met
with one elegant device. Jenkins calls it the black box fallacy. “Sooner or
later, the argument goes, all media content is going to flow through a single
black box into our living rooms (or, in the mobile scenario, through black
boxes we carry around with us everywhere we go),”2 but, as he points out, it
just doesn’t work out that way.
For me it was the iPhone 3GS. I was one stoked customer walking out of
the Apple store in the summer of 2009 with my brand new device. In my hand
I held a phone, a compass, a GPS, a camera, a calculator, a news reader, a video
recorder, a voice recorder, an audio player, a TV and an app store that would
let me turn the thing into my own portal to Twitter, Facebook, LinkedIn or

56 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 any other social network service I wanted.
My mediated life was going to be simple
and uncluttered. Or not. As the years go by,
my family and I seem to be losing the war
against technoclutter. Old tablets, phones,
earbuds, cameras, charging wires, game
consoles, Bluetooth devices, routers, print-
ers, monitors and remote controls litter our
home, car and office.
Make no mistake. Technological
­convergence is real. Technological con-
vergence brings together formerly sepa-
rate technical capabilities. As multiple
forms of media content get digitized, op-
portunities for mixing and mashing them
increase. “When words, images and sounds
are transformed into digital information,
Black box fallacy: Multipurpose devices have not simplified life as much as
we expand the potential relationships be- some have hoped.
tween them and enable them to flow across Why do you think that is?
platforms,” wrote Jenkins.3 ­Augmented
reality (AR) extends the reach of digital
information by overlaying technology on top of live video imagery. AR con-
verges GPS with camera and virtual reality technology. We see technological
convergence everywhere—on our smartphones, car dashboards, kids’

Technological convergence (aka

digital convergence)
When information of various forms
such as sound, text, images and
data are digitized, affording commu-
nication across common media.

Augmented reality
Technology that overlays digital
Augmented reality is a form of technological convergence.
information onto media representa-
What types of AR applications might be useful in public relations? tions of the real world.

Convergence 57
Cultural convergence games, and even old-fashioned TV. In fact, one of the first uses of AR for
When various forms of culture are
exchanged, combined, converted
mass media was the digital yellow first-down line that appeared on football
and adapted. On a global scale, this fields in TV broadcasts during the late 1990s.
phenomenon has accelerated with But human uses, needs and desires for media vary widely from person
the growth of digital media.
to person. There’s no single solution for everyone. And there’s no single
media solution for any one person across every situation. This is why that
magical black box doesn’t exist, and it also is why public relations people
must understand other dimensions of convergence beyond the technologi-
Public relations cal ones.
people must
understand other Cultural Convergence
dimensions of Just as technological convergence presents an apparent paradox (media are
convergence combining at the very same time that media technologies are proliferating),
beyond the so too does cultural convergence. On one hand, we are witnessing vast cul-
technological ones. tural hegemony. Hegemony—now here’s a term usually reserved for the most
critical approaches to public relations.
Stemming from Marxism, cultural hegemony occurs when a ruling class
imposes its social, political or economic ideals on subordinate groups in
­society at the expense of cultural diversity. Public relations people are rarely
portrayed as the good guys in these scenarios. “Americanization” or
­
­“McDonaldization” are examples, with “an increasing convergence on spe-
cific forms of artistic, culinary, or musical culture—usually, but not exclu-
sively, moving from the United States, via newly global media, to the rest of
the world,” writes Yale Law Professor David Singh Grewal.4 On the other
hand, clearly, “cultural borrowing” increas-
ingly works in other directions. McDonald’s
restaurants in India serve chicken and fish
as well as curry-infused options.
To the degree that successful public
relations entails changes in human atti-
tudes, knowledge and behavior, public re-
lations people must work toward an
enlightened understanding of their orga-
nizations’ roles and their own personal
roles in cultural exchanges. Jenkins de-
scribes ­cultural convergence as “both a
top-down corporate-driven process and a
bottom-up consumer-driven process.”5
Public relations people work where the
two meet. They must understand and
communicate from the standpoint of their
organization’s cultural values while un-
Cultural convergence works in two directions for McDonald’s, which exports
derstanding and interpreting their pub-
mainstream American culture but also adopts local tastes. lics’ cultures back to the organization as
Is this a balanced exchange? What are some ramifications of this type of well. Participating ­actively and transpar-
cultural convergence? ently in public  forums—constructively

58 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

­engaging participatory culture —is an important part of managing rela-
tionships, particularly in media environments characterized by cultural
convergence.

Economic Convergence
Ketchum is a huge public relations agency with offices and affiliates in 70
countries.6 Ketchum represents consumer-brand clients ranging from
­Wendy’s to Ikea to Gillette to Doritos. Ketchum and its subsidiaries also have
served government agencies like the IRS and the Department of Education in
the United States and international clients including the government of
Russia.
If Ketchum is huge, Omnicom is huger. Omnicom acquired Ketchum as
a subsidiary in 1996.7 Omnicom is a global advertising, marketing and
communication services conglomerate that owns firms providing services
in advertising, strategic media planning, digital marketing, direct market-
ing and, of course, public relations. Omnicom serves 5,000 clients in more
than 100 countries.8 The vastness of this network entails not just public
relations, but advertising, marketing, lobbying and emerging digital and
social media services as well. This is economic convergence.
As with technological and cultural convergence, economic convergence
presents a contradiction. At the same time that agencies are diversifying
services, building networks and opening global offices to serve geographi-
cally unique clients and publics in almost every corner of every continent,
the overall number of major corporate players is dwindling. The Ketchum
family tree is just one example that illustrates the size and scope of eco-
nomic convergence in strategic communication. Omnicom, along with
global conglomerates Publicis Groupe, WPP, and Interpublic, top the list of
holding firms ranked by revenues from public relations operations.9
If you watched the Super Bowl (or rather, the Super Bowl commercials)
in 2018, you might remember the award-winning Tide ad titled “It’s a
Tide Ad.” The spot, which starred actor David Harbour, presented a weird
mashup of typical Super Bowl–type ad vignettes (a bottle of beer sliding
down a bar, a car racing along an open road, hipsters drinking soda on the
beach, a handsome model giving himself a close shave in the mirror, etc.).
Participatory culture
All of the vignettes also showcased spotlessly clean wardrobes. In an inter-
A culture in which private citizens
view with Adweek, Harbour described the ad as “wildly self-aware”: and publics are as likely to produce
and share as they are to consume;
The fact that you have this character who’s sort of this Rod Serling of The commonly applied in mediated con-
texts in which consumers produce
Twilight Zone of advertising, sort of coming in and being like, “Wow, and publish information online.
maybe every ad is like a Tide ad,” and then he pops up in all of these differ-
ent ads to kind of reveal to you that what you think you’re watching is not Economic convergence
When various media organizations
actually what you’re watching. . . .10 and functions are merged under a
single ownership structure. This
Adweek declared it the winner of Super Bowl 52. And at one point, form of media convergence is differ-
ent from the term economists use
#TideAd was the Number 2 trending topic on Twitter (behind the Super to describe trends in world
Bowl itself). The ad also became the topic for more than 640 stories in economies.

Convergence 59
 other media, and Tide’s parent company Procter & Gamble (P&G) reported
double digit sales growth for Tide Ultra Oxi after the game.11 The creative
composition of the ad was weirdly effective, and so was the mix of compa-
nies behind the ad.
Ad agency Saatchi & Saatchi claimed the awards, but behind the scenes
P&G had assembled a joint creative team from several agencies to produce
the spot. P&G pays more for household product advertising than any other
company in the world and uses that leverage to push for even more conver-
gence among its agencies. P&G’s chief brand officer, Marc Pritchard, liked
what he saw happen with the Tide ad. “What we found [was that], when you
have a Super Bowl or Olympics deadline, you have high degrees of speed and
focus and make things happen,” Pritchard told The Wall Street Journal. “What
we want to really do is institutionalize that approach.”12 To cut costs and
­increase efficiency, for example, P&G has formed a stand-alone agency that
includes employees from several different ad agencies including Saatchi &
Saatchi.

“It’s a Tide Ad” scored a big win with this Super Bowl spot created and produced by a team from
several different agencies working for Procter & Gamble.
How does economic convergence affect you as a consumer? How might economic conver-
gence affect you in your career?

60 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 Economic convergence in media means big companies are building Professional convergence
When various functions of profes-
global networks that provide top-notch expertise to clients ranging from sional communication such as pub-
specialized and localized organizations to mainstream companies reach- licity, advertising, online services
ing the widest possible audiences and publics. At the same time, the and marketing are combined to
improve strategy.
number of voices in the marketplace, when defined by corporate interests,
is shrinking. For Super Bowl advertising, much of the marketplace is for
commodities like beer, automobiles and detergent. For public relations,
which operates more in the marketplace of ideas than in the marketplace
of commodities, the stakes may even be higher. We may not lose sleep after
learning that competing brands of sodas and chips are represented by
agencies owned by the same parent companies. But what if the clients are
different national governments? How do you feel about a single communi-
cation firm representing both tobacco companies and healthcare organiza-
tions? How do you feel about the NFL partnering with a nonprofit
organization to air anti-abuse ads during the Super Bowl? Economic con-
vergence at the corporate level requires extra attention to public relations’
role in society at large.

Professional Convergence
We can add professional convergence to the dimensions of convergence
that matter most in public relations. One of the benefits of converged, mul-
tiservice agencies is that they can integrate communication functions stra-
tegically. Publicity and advertising can be used to support the marketing of
consumer products. Marketing tactics can
be used to support public relations. Public
affairs and government relations benefit
from good public relations with an organi-
zation’s stakeholders. Healthy employee
­relations help customer service and sales.
And so on, and so on.
The architects of multibillion-dollar
mergers are not the only ones who must
understand how all the functions go to-
gether. Each person working for each
client must also understand how the func-
tions integrate in order to manage, com-
municate and counsel most effectively.
From the intern to the account executive
to the CEO, agencies operate best when
everyone has a good sense of how their job
fits into the larger mission and service to
any particular client. Someone who places
a hashtag in a paid TV advertisement Revlon promoted #LOVEISON with this video display in New York’s Times
should know what is going to happen Square.
when TV viewers jump platforms from What types of employees and media people have to collaborate to make
their TVs to other screens. When the a campaign like this work?

Convergence 61
 communication goes online, the company representatives monitoring the
hashtag conversation should be in tune with the management of the orga-
nization hosting the exchange. The account executive, the media buyer, the
advertising creative, the social media strategist, the online host and the
executives of the organization itself all need to work in concert.
Integration raises one more apparent paradox of convergence. Success-
If you place a ful integration of functions of communication requires an understanding
hashtag in a TV of, and respect for, the unique goals and contributions of each. This doesn’t
ad, you should just apply to the big players on the world stage. Integration is equally im-
know what will portant for in-house communications teams and for small organizations
happen when TV employing only a single communication specialist. In fact, if you are work-
viewers jump ing alone communicating for a small business or nonprofit, you have no
platforms from choice but to think through how all your communication and management
their TVs to other functions gel together for a common purpose. Good public relations means
screens. recognizing both the differences and commonalities of advertising, mar-
keting and public relations.

Divergence
Using the term paradox to describe convergence sheds light on apparent
contradictions, but philosophically it is not really that hard to reconcile
ideas like professional diversity and integration. Divergence and conver-
gence go hand in hand. The best chefs know the unique flavors of their indi-
vidual ingredients well before they mix them together to serve the perfect

Symphony orchestras offer a metaphor for integrated communication.

How is a conductor's role different from that of a town crier?

62 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

dish. Chemists understand elements, compounds and mixtures. Music di- Before diving
rectors know how each instrument plays in their ensembles. Betteke van headfirst into
Ruler, whose “town crier” typology of a public relations practitioner was
introduced in Chapter 2, also identified a “conductor” type of public rela-
integration,
tions person. The conductor is tasked with orchestrating different commu- understand how
nication activities in much the same way as one leads a symphony. Before public relations
diving headfirst into integration, understand what exactly is being inte- differs from
grated and how public relations is fundamentally different in its goals from advertising and
advertising and marketing. marketing in its
goals.
Advertising
Despite the explosion of innovation and change in media industries in
recent decades, most media business models still rely on advertising dollars
as a primary source of revenue. In traditional mass media, advertising is
the paid media space that sponsors use to persuade audiences. The media
space in broadcast media is measured based on time—for example, a
30-second radio or TV ad. Sponsors generally pay more for prime-time and
wide-audience programming events like the Super Bowl, and less for time
in local programming at off-peak times with smaller audiences. In print
media, the space is often sold based on column inches. If you look at a
printed newspaper or magazine, you’ll see that each page has space for a
certain number of columns across and a certain number of inches in length
up and down. If an organization wants to buy ad space that is three col-
umns wide and six inches long, the buyers would pay for 18 column inches.
Or buyers may pay for the space based on the portion of the pages used. You
can look through magazines to find one-third-page ads, half-page ads, two-
page spreads, and so on.
Advertisement pricing formulas include not just the amount of time or
space but also the estimated audience size, the demographics and influence
of that audience, contract arrangements between the organization and the
media outlet and the context for placement and timing of the ad. For ex-
ample, in 2018, the global circulation of the U.S. print edition of The Wall
Street Journal was estimated at 1,099,545 copies. The standard rate for a
1/7-page (18 column inches) black-and-white ad was $39,600, while a full-
page (126 column inches) color ad cost $327,103. That’s about $2,596 per
column inch. Meanwhile a 1/6 page local ad in The Daily Tar Heel student-
run newspaper at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, with a
circulation of 10,000 copies, was priced at $250. It makes a lot more sense
Advertising
for the local yogurt shop to advertise in The Daily Tar Heel. However, for a Media space purchased by spon-
private jet charter company, it may make more sense to advertise in The sors to persuade audiences; or the
Wall Street Journal. practice of planning and producing
One metric for calculating advertising value is cost per thousand this service.

(CPM) (the M in CPM is the Roman numeral for 1,000). A three-column- Cost per thousand (CPM)
inch ad in the student newspaper costing $42.60 to reach a circulation of A measure of advertising reach that
represents the cost of an advertise-
14,000 would yield a CPM of $42.60/14 = 3.04, or $3.04 per thousand ment relative to the estimated size
readers. Public relations people sometimes use these calculations to figure of the audience.

Divergence 63
Advertising value equivalency an equivalent value for publicity when an organization is covered in the
(AVE)
A calculation of the value of news
unpaid column inches of news and editorial content. This metric, known
or editorial coverage based on the as advertising value equivalency (AVE), has been widely discredited as
cost of the equivalent amount of a measure of effective public relations. Proper evaluation of public rela-
advertising space or time.
tions requires much more careful thinking about the effects of communi-
cation than simply figuring what media coverage would have cost if you
had paid for it. The AVE issue will be discussed further in Chapter 8 on
evaluation.
While newspapers and magazines make some money from subscrip-
tions and single-copy sales, the majority of their revenue comes from ad-
vertising in the form of print advertising and online advertising paid for by
marketers. (Some publications like student newspapers are free and depend
almost entirely on advertising for their budgets.) Online advertising reve-
nues are growing, while print advertising revenues are dropping.
For the price they pay, marketers get to choose the placement of their
messages and design the message as they see fit for their purposes (within
reason). Marketers hire advertising firms to strategically plan the precise
words they want in the copy. The firms select fonts and colors that will work
best. They choose the models and frame the pictures. In audio and video,
they carefully design and produce the material to their own exact

Banner ads and pre-roll ads are criticized for being annoying and ineffective.
What kind of evidence would it take to convince you that these ads have value?

64 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

standards. In short, marketers buy not only media space, but the ability to
control the content of that space.
Online, advertisers can buy banner ads, which display ads on a portion
of web pages. Another option is pre-roll advertising, which is a commer-
cial ad displayed for a few seconds as online video before the desired video
is shown.
The CPM metric is commonly used with banner ads. Calculated based
on the cost per thousand web page viewers, CPM is most similar to tradi-
tional advertising metrics for value. Of course, there are a lot more data
that can be tracked online than with traditional mass media. Click-
through rate is the percentage of users who view an ad and actually click
on it. If a thousand people view a banner ad on a web page, and 15 of them
click on the banner, the click-through rate is 1.5 percent.
Newer media enterprises rely on advertising for revenue too. Yahoo,
Bing and Google sell sponsored results that appear when users search for
certain keywords. So if you search for “yogurt,” you’ll find yogurt ads and
links prominently displayed at the top of your results. Search advertising
is a good deal for advertisers because they reach people who are searching Banner ads
for specific keywords related to their business, and the pricing is tied more Advertisements on web pages de-
closely to the behavioral results of the ad (e.g., clicking) than to the number signed to encourage users to click
of people assumed to be in the audience exposed to the ad. Even beyond to reach an advertiser’s site.

clicking on the initial links, Google Analytics and similar services help Pre-roll advertising
track user behavior as they move from initial exposure to some target be- A commercial ad is displayed as
online video before the desired
havior such as making an online purchase or setting up an appointment to
video is shown.
talk to a sales representative. Analytics is a term used to describe research-
ing online data to identify meaningful patterns. Click-through rate
Percentage of users who view an ad
Media space also can be sold in the form of pop-up ads on mobile apps, on the web and click on it to reach
promoted tweets on Twitter, banners towed behind airplanes, product an advertiser’s site. Analytics help
placements in TV shows or movies, videos in Facebook news feeds, real bill- track behavior as users move from
initial exposure to some target be-
boards on the highway, virtual billboards on the highway in your video havior, such as making an online
game, the hoods of NASCAR race cars, or the decks of skateboards, snow- purchase.
boards and surfboards.
Search advertising
Organizations buy advertising to reach audiences, most commonly to Paid placement of advertising on
persuade people to buy products or services. Effective advertising sparks a search-engine results pages. Ads
desire in people. It piques interests and persuades. People who buy an orga- are placed to appear in response to
certain keyword queries.
nization’s products and services are certainly an important public with
whom to build and maintain relationships. Analytics
But beyond seeking profit, advertising can also be used to recruit employ- Researching online data to identify
meaningful patterns. In strategic
ees and members, advocate and agitate for causes, and legitimize organiza- communication, analytics often
tions and their missions. As such, advertising is an important tool for public focus on how web traffic leads to
relations. Likewise, public relations efforts can work to support advertising. behavioral results such as sharing
information or making online
purchases.
Marketing
Marketing
Of course, advertising is a tool for marketing too. The American Marketing
Business of creating, promoting,
Association defines marketing as “the activity, set of institutions, and pro- delivering and selling products and
cesses for creating, communicating, delivering, and exchanging offerings services.

Divergence 65
 that have value for customers, clients, partners,
and society at large.”13 In a classic text first pub-
lished in 1960, Professor E. Jerome McCarthy in-
troduced a handy way to learn the basics of what
he called the marketing mix.14 McCarthy’s four P’s
include product, price, place and promotion.

PRODUCT
The product is the thing to be sold. Very often it is
a tangible item like a car or a serving of yogurt or
an electric toothbrush. Or the “product” can be a
less tangible item like downloadable computer
software or a service like a mobile voice, text and
data plan. Ideas and behaviors such as preventing
skin cancer or registering to vote can also be mar-
keted. Marketers are involved with the develop-
ment and branding of products and product
families, and they analyze product life cycles. A
new product will be marketed differently from a
“mature” product. Kwikset, the lock company,
marketed its Bluetooth-enabled “Kevo” dead-
bolt—“Users can simply touch the deadbolt while
the authorized smartphone remains in their purse
or pocket to unlock the door”—differently from a
mature product like one of their standard key-op-
erated deadbolts. As a consumer, I found out about
the new Kevo device because it was listed as a
“Product of the Year” on the Electronic House web-
Three-time ASP Women’s World Tour Champion Carissa Moore deliv- site, which “serves discriminating consumers who
ers a dynamic medium for paid sponsorship. enjoy the elegance, simplicity and fun afforded by
How many ads do you see? integrated home technology.”15 Whether or not I
can afford a $200 door lock is another issue!

PRICE
Price is obviously an important consideration, as it determines the revenue
a company receives from sales, and therefore the company’s profits. Pricing
is sophisticated business. A product must be priced somewhere in line with
customers’ perceived value and affordability. If a product is priced too low,
the company will not make a profit, and moreover, the product may be per-
ceived as “cheap” in the negative sense of the word. Higher pricing may give
Market skimming
the product some prestige, but if the product is not affordable, no one will
Marketing strategy that starts with buy it.
higher prices for early adopters of Understand that this is a gross oversimplification of pricing strategies.
unique products and services and Many, many other factors come into play. For example, one pricing strategy
then lowers prices later to sell to a
broader base of consumers when is called market skimming, in which consumer products are priced higher
competitors enter the market. at first when eager early adopters are willing to pay a premium for a new

66 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

and unique product, but then priced lower later to
appeal to broader, thriftier markets once the product
is more mature in its life cycle and when similar com-
petitors have likely entered the market. If Kwikset
uses this strategy, they eventually may bring down the
price of a Kevo into a more affordable range, especially
as more lock companies start competing for business
with similar products. Understanding pricing strategy
requires knowledge of psychology and economics
among other social sciences. Like public relations,
marketing involves research and theory to understand
people and how they communicate with organizations
and respond to their offerings.

PLACE
If you think of markets as places where buyers and
sellers meet, you get a good sense of why distribution
is such an important part of the marketing mix. You
still can’t download a pineapple or a pair of running
shoes. Marketers have to figure out the best way to get
products like these to their consumers. Produce has to
be canned, frozen or kept fresh during harvesting,
packing and shipping. Many stores and their shoppers
now demand organic and locally grown foods, which
means the logistics of packing and shipping interact
with the appeal of the product itself. Food items are
also marketed to restaurants and not just end consum-
ers. Runners can order running shoes on Zappos.com,
and they can return them for free, but many still prefer
to go to an actual bricks-and-mortar store to try the
shoes on and get personal advice from store staff With digital media, the point of sale is often the same as the
medium used to consume the media, such as music or
before making a purchase. ­audiobooks purchased on a smartphone.
That said, the internet has opened many new
How have digital media changed the way music, videos
markets, and dramatically transformed others. and books are marketed?
Where do you buy music (if you buy music at all)?
Probably not at a record store. At one time most music
was purchased in the form of tapes and disks, and people went to record
stores to buy albums. Now most music is purchased digitally. This has
changed the entire economic system of the music industry, and it has
changed how music is marketed too. Rather than focusing on how many
CDs to burn and how to get the right number of those disks to the right
stores where they will sell and to the right DJs who might play them on
the radio, modern music marketers pay closer attention to online down-
loads, playlist apps and subscription streaming services. With digital Marketing mix
Combination of product, price,
media, the point of sale is most often online through sites like Amazon, place and promotion strategies in
iTunes or eBay. support of profitable exchange.

Divergence 67
Publicity In marketing, like public relations, selecting the right channels is an
Unpaid media coverage, or the
practice of deliberately planning
important skill. Marketers choose channels of distribution to support their
and producing information and sales efforts. For media products like music, movies, books and news, the
­activities to attract this coverage. channels for delivery and the channels for communication are often one
and the same. You may use an e-book reader such as a Kindle or iPad to find
your next novel, purchase it and read it.

PROMOTION
If channels of distribution are the key to place in the marketing mix, chan-
nels of communication are the key to promotion. Ask a marketer what he
thinks of public relations, and he will probably say he loves it as long as
public relations people are not competing for control of his budget. From a
marketer’s perspective, public relations, like advertising, is a great tool for
promotion.
Through the sales-focused lens of the marketing mix, public relations is
sometimes reduced to tactics such as publicity. As a tool for both market-
ing and public relations, publicity can be defined broadly as activity de-
signed to draw media attention. Publicity can be compared to advertising
in three major ways: cost, control and credibility.
In terms of cost, advertisers pay to guarantee media space, while
­publicity entails unpaid media coverage. Publicity happens when an organi-
zation, person, product or service is covered as part of a news story,

According to an analysis conducted by SMG Delta, an agency that tracks television advertising,
Donald Trump spent less money on paid advertising than his biggest competitors in the 2016 U.S.
presidential campaign primaries, but he received far more "free" media publicity.
Why was Trump so successful in gaining publicity? And what other costs may have been
associated with obtaining the coverage?

68 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

editorial, feature article, interview or any other news format in broad-
cast, print or online media. In this sense, publicity is “free,” but there are
many other costs in gaining good publicity including staff salaries,
­production of multimedia content, planning and hosting special events,
and managing an organization in a way that makes it newsworthy in the
first place.
Advertisers get to control the message that they present in the media
space that they buy. Promoters using publicity cede that control to editors,
TV producers, journalists, analysts, bloggers and any other third parties
who bring news to audiences and publics.
Promoters promote. Advocates advocate. Salespeople sell. That’s what
they are supposed to do. Independent journalists, on the other hand, are
expected to consider other perspectives on the story. If you send a tech
writer a sample of your new smartphone-enabled door lock with a news
release about the product launch, she may rave about it in her column or
on her blog. Or she may test it against competing devices and report that
your product stinks in comparison. Or—and this is probably the most
common response to attempts at publicity—she may just ignore you alto-
gether. This is all part of media relations, which will be discussed more in
Chapter 4.
Because advertisers pay to communicate the message, they may appear
to have less credibility. One reason for giving up control of the message is
that good publicity benefits from third-party credibility. If you (first
party) are trying to persuade a potential customer (second party) to buy
your product, the independent reporting of a third party may help your
case. Of course you think your product is great, and if you buy ad space
you’re going to use it to say so. Consumers understand that. But when inde-
pendent sources—such as tweeters, magazine columnists or newspaper
­reporters—present your product in a positive light as part of a tweet,
column or news story, their opinions might carry more weight for the very
reason that they don’t come from the same party who is trying to profit
from p­ roduct sales.
Third-party credibility is not necessarily a law of nature. Research has
shown that publicity isn’t always more persuasive than advertising, but the
general idea stands that publicity brings something to the mix that adver-
tising doesn’t. Even though publicity is not free, there are times when it is
certainly more economical in reaching customers than advertising, and
good publicity has the added benefit of being delivered by a source indepen-
dent of your organization. Third-party credibility
Marketers also use word-of-mouth promotion. The Word of Mouth Assumption that information deliv-
Marketing Association (WOMMA) keeps its definition simple: “any busi- ered from an independent source is
seen as more objective and believ-
ness action that earns a customer recommendation.”16 The third-party idea able than information from a source
applies here too, except with word of mouth the third party is more likely to with a vested interest in persuasion.
be someone the customer knows and trusts on a more personal level. When
Word-of-mouth promotion
you get information on a product or a brand from your friends chatting in Passing of information and recom-
class or posting on Instagram, that’s word of mouth. When you turn around mendations from person to person.

Divergence 69
 and share that information with others, you become the third party.
WOMMA advocates word-of-mouth marketing that is:

1. Credible: Marketing messages flow from businesses to customers

and from customers to other customers and are honest and
authentic.
2. Respectful: Businesses are transparent and earn consumer trust
regarding privacy matters.
3. Social: WOM marketers encourage and engage in conversations
Word-of-mouth about their products by actively listening and responding online
marketing should and offline.
be credible, 4. Measurable: WOM programs are well-defined, monitored and eval-
respectful, social, uated in gauging success.
measurable and 5. Repeatable: A business repeats its WOM success over and over
repeatable. again to the point where it becomes a “truly talkable brand.”17

Integration
Professional communicators must understand the differences among com-
munication functions. As media systems converge, however, the lines be-
tween public relations, advertising and marketing—as everyone else sees
them—blur.
Is the Lowe’s pinboard on Pinterest a tool for marketing or public rela-
tions? When American Eagle’s lingerie and apparel brand Aerie launched
their “The Real You Is Sexy” campaign to promote positive body images and
encouraged users to post to Instagram or Twitter using #aeriereal to be fea-
tured on the brand’s sites, was that public relations or marketing?18 What
about paying a social media influencer to feature your logo in her photos
across social media accounts? Or the LEGO YouTube channel—do you
­consider that a tool for public relations or marketing?
These may be important questions for the sponsoring organizations as
they budget for specific departments (see Chapter 7 for a discussion of types
of media). But from a consumer’s perspective, a brand should speak with
one consistent voice. As consumers, we may understand that an organiza-
tion is responsible for the communication, but we usually don’t spend much
time thinking about whether the communication is coming from an adver-
tising or marketing or public relations department, or even from other con-
sumers. This consistency and seamlessness in the minds of consumers and
publics is a key outcome of effective integrated communication.

Integrated Marketing Communication

As a customer, you probably have a pretty clear idea how you feel about, say,
your local grocery store. This feeling, or attitude, is based on your points of
contact with the store, its products and its brand. Sure, you’re influenced by

70 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

your previous shopping trips there, but also the coupons they mail you, ad-
vertisements you’ve seen on TV, the prices they charge, conversations with
friends who worked there, a donation they made to your club, events they
have sponsored, the way they let little leaguers sell candy bars out front,
whether or not they buy produce from local farmers, their new app for your
smartphone, and their membership card program. Whether or not you shop
at the store depends on your beliefs and attitudes about the store, and in your
mind that “clear idea” of how you feel is based on countless factors. As a cus-
tomer, you don’t lose sleep over what was public relations, marketing or ad-
vertising. But for the people promoting the store and its sales, a major
challenge is to coordinate all of these points of communication as smoothly
and effectively as possible.
In generating sales revenue, integrated marketing communication
is key. At times public relations tactics may be applied in support of adver-
tising, marketing or sales promotion. At other times, the tools of advertis-
ing and marketing may be used as tools for public relations. In either case,
effective convergence of organizational communication and management
functions means smooth integration from the perspective of the organiza-
tion’s publics.
In the early 1990s, at the dawn of this digital age of participatory
media, Bob Lauterborn called for a shift of thinking about the functions of
advertising, marketing and related communication functions. Lauterborn,
a former advertising executive for industry giants like General Electric
and International Paper Co., was an early proponent of integration. He
recognized how the shifting landscape of media was changing the nature
of communication between organizations and their customers: “In the
days of ‘Father Knows Best,’ it all seemed so simple. The advertiser devel-
oped a product, priced it to make a profit, placed it on the retail shelf and
promoted it to a pliant, even eager consumer.”19 With the rise of digital
media, consumer options for interaction with organizations increased.
Communicators needed to think differently about the people with whom
they were attempting to communicate. Those pushing for integrated com-
munication advocated an outside-in approach that started with people
rather than products. In response to the four P’s, Lauterborn introduced
the four C’s.

CONSUMER
Consumer wants and needs should replace “product.” “You can’t sell what-
ever you can make any more. You can only sell what someone specifically
wants to buy. The feeding frenzy is over; the fish are out of school,” Lauter-
born wrote in Advertising Age in 1990. The rise of mass media in human
Integrated marketing
history accompanied the rise of mass production and consumption. As in- communication
novations of the Industrial Revolution made it easier for manufacturers to Strategic coordination of communi-
produce massive quantities of products (picture automobile assembly lines cation functions such as marketing,
advertising and publicity to achieve
or truckloads of cases of identical cans of beer) mass media provided a consistent concept in consumers’
appropriate channels for promoting those goods (picture high-speed
­ minds.

Integration 71
 Mass production led to mass promotion via mass media during the Industrial Revolution.
How has the relationship between organizations and the consumers they market to
changed?

newspaper presses or Super Bowl–sized TV audiences). Henry Ford’s famous

quote sums up the relationship between the mass producer and his publics:
“Any customer can have a car painted any colour that he wants so long as it
is black.”20
Of course mass production and mass communication still define much
of our world, but what Lauterborn and others noticed about the role of con-
sumers changing in the 1980s and 1990s has only accelerated in this
millennium.

COST
Cost to satisfy wants and needs should replace “price.” Beyond just dollars
and cents that people pay for goods and services are many other costs.
What are they giving up to make the purchase? How much time does it
take? Psychological factors come into play too. Lauterborn mentioned the
costs of conscience and guilt. The dialogue of the satirical TV series Portlan-
dia presents the polar opposite of Henry Ford’s example in modern-era
markets:
Waitress: If you have any questions about the menu, please let me
know.
Female diner: I guess I do have a question about the chicken. If you
can just tell us a little more about it?
Waitress: The chicken is a heritage breed, woodland-raised chicken
that’s been fed a diet of sheep’s milk, soy and hazelnuts.
Male diner: And this is local?
Waitress: Yes, absolutely.

72 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 Male diner: I’m going to ask you just one more time, and it’s local?
Waitress: It is.
Female diner: Is that USDA Organic, or Oregon Organic, or Portland
Organic?
Waitress: It’s just all-across-the-board organic.
Male diner: The hazelnuts, these are local?
Female diner: And how big is the area where the chickens are able
to roam free? . . .
The questioning continues until the waitress leaves and comes back
with the chicken’s papers. (“His name was Colin.”)21 The humor in this
sketch comes from its kernel of truth about the increasing level of respon-
siveness to and understanding of consumer wants and needs required to
compete in modern consumer-centered marketplaces.

CONVENIENCE
Convenience to buy should replace “place.” Our concept of marketplaces has
followed a similar historical cycle to media and manufacturing. The farm-to-
table movement is a throwback to times before the Industrial Revolution.
Back then, if you didn’t raise your own chickens or grow your own vegetables,
you probably interacted with the farmer who did. People bought shoes from
cobblers and not mall outlets. The Industrial Revolution added convenience
in some ways, but most of that convenience was driven from the supply side.
Supermarkets and big-box stores stand as evidence of that. Nonetheless,
there are limits to what you as a consumer can find by going to a bricks-and-
mortar Walmart, Gap or Target store, and driving there to see what’s availa-
ble seems more and more inconvenient. “People don’t have to go anyplace
anymore,” said Lauterborn, describing the era of catalogs, credit cards and
phone orders in 1990 that would soon become the era of Zappos and Zillow,
eBay and Etsy.

COMMUNICATION
Communication should replace “promotion.” Perhaps this is the most pro-
found change suggested. In The Cluetrain Manifesto: The End of Business as
Usual, internet visionaries Doc Searls and David Weinberger painted a nostal-
gic picture of early markets as real places “filled with people, not abstractions
or statistical aggregates” that were alive with interpersonal conversations.
Those conversations, they argued, were interrupted by the industrial era.
Searls and Weinberger welcomed a return to richer, less promotional, interac-
tion between people afforded by the internet and social media, “where mar-
kets are getting more connected and more powerfully vocal every day.”22
With the growth of social media, other hybrids of journalism and marketing-
related functions have arisen.

Hybrid Functions
It is no secret that one of the most common career paths for public rela-
tions people leads through a newsroom of some sort—a career track that

Integration 73
Content marketing dates back to Ivy Lee (Chapter 2). Some of the most skilled and influential
Development and sharing of media
content to appeal to consumers as
people working in public relations have worked as journalists, and many
part of an indirect marketing strat- college programs in public relations share academic space and curricula
egy in which consumers are drawn with journalism. Experience working with and training alongside jour-
primarily to media content instead
of directly to the product being
nalists helps tremendously with the media-relations aspect of public
marketed. relations.
You know those harsh deadlines and ridiculous penalties for factual
Inbound marketing
Marketing strategy that focuses on errors in your writing assignments in school? Those really do help train you
tactics for attracting customers with for the “real world” of public relations. If you take a news writing class or
useful, entertaining or valuable in- work at your college newspaper or intern at a TV news station, you are also
formation that customers find on
blogs, search results and other
making contacts and building working relationships with people in the
forms of online and social media. media who may help you throughout your career. Learning the news busi-
ness and its core values and ethics gives you a tacit sense of where the line
between journalism and public relations is drawn. Yet, even if you never
work in the news media—and many of the best public relations people have
not—understanding newsworthiness and practicing storytelling are im-
portant for success in your job in public relations.
The most effective public relations people have always been good story-
tellers. Good stories, told well, make complex organizations and ideas un-
derstandable. That kind of communication helps build and maintain
relationships between organizations and publics. Advertisers and market-
ers have always endeavored to tell stories too, but their channels have been
constrained to scarce paid space, and their focus has traditionally been tied
to sales and customer loyalty. The concurrent trends of integrated commu-
nication strategy and increased channels for communication have set the
stage for some interesting hybrids.
In content marketing, organizations develop media content to at-
tract audiences and interact with publics. The content may be narrative sto-
ries, videos, photo memes, blogs, statistics or infographics, but the idea is
to make it interesting and engaging enough that people will seek it, con-
sume it, and share it for its own information or entertainment value rather
than see it as an interruption to some other media experience. People are
bombarded with unrequested advertising and marketing messages all day
every day, and they work hard to avoid and ignore them with DVR fast-
forwarding, spam filters and ad blockers. Content marketing is a counter-
tactic, but not an adversarial one. Instead of being pushier, content
marketers work to draw people to them on their own accord; this is also
called inbound marketing. According to the Content Marketing Institute,
“The essence of this content strategy is the belief that if we, as businesses,
deliver consistent, ongoing valuable information to buyers, they ultimately
reward us with their business and loyalty.”23
By most definitions, the goal of content marketing is still pretty much
straight marketing. The “targets” are still labeled customers, buyers and audi-
ences, but the fact that content marketing involves organizational storytell-
ing and communication engagement that likely reverberates well beyond
sales makes it an important point of integration in an organization’s

74 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

communication efforts. Red Bull is a prime example. As Mashable tech
writer James O’Brien put it, “Red Bull is a publishing empire that also hap-
pens to sell a beverage.”24

Case Study
Red Bull’s Content Marketing Strategy
I’m trying to update a case study here, and once again Red Bull is making it
really hard for me to stay focused. When I opened www.redbull.com, I soon
found myself watching Polish ski-mountaineer Andrzej Bargiel make his-
tory by completing the first ever ski descent of K2, the world’s second high-
est mountain.
I can’t tell the video entertainment from the advertising from the mar-
keting from the public relations. They’ve got fantastic photography, incredi-
ble videos, sharply written feature stories and inspiring blogs by extreme
athletes. Not only do they have the obligatory Facebook, Twitter, Pinterest
and Reddit buttons, but the content is actually something I might want to
share with my friends on these networks (or in my book-writing, as with the
picture of surfer Carissa Moore). From a strategy standpoint, though, the
most interesting part is that there is no mention whatsoever of the Red Bull
beverage product unless I seek it out. In the upper-right corner of the web
page there’s a small link to “Products.” If I click on that, I’m taken to https://
energydrink-us.redbull.com/, and that page includes information on the
actual drinks. That’s content marketing.

Red Bull’s website is a prime example of content marketing strategy.

How does the website help sell their energy drink? Is that the website's main purpose?

Integration 75
Brand journalism
Application of journalistic skills to The term brand journalism describes a similar strategy, but as the
produce news content for an orga- name indicates, the primary focus is on journalistic skills. Critics of
nization to communicate directly ­content marketing are concerned that the practice will lead to backlash as
with its publics without going
through a third-party news the mad dash to provide content in support of sales will lead to poorer
organization. quality content and strategy. According to Christopher Penn of SHIFT
Communications, “As content marketers struggle to keep up with the
­demands of creating content all the time that’s high quality, increasingly
they’ll look to professionals who can maintain that pace without breaking
a sweat—journalists.”25
Chrysler Group LLC followed this strategy when it hired Ed Garsten, a
veteran journalist with 20 years at CNN as correspondent, bureau chief,
anchor and producer, and experience as a national auto writer at the Associ-
ated Press and as General Motors’ beat writer for The Detroit News. As head of
Chrysler Digital Media, Garsten led a team that handled the Chrysler media
website, broadcast communications, social media and video production.
“Most of us on the 8-person team have had actual television news and/or
production experience giving us the background and skills to launch an in-
house video operation for Chrysler Communications,” blogged Garsten in
describing the operation.26 While Garsten and his team clearly brought jour-
nalistic talent to the job, the broader strategy is still one of marketing and
public relations.

Sometimes ads are purchased to do more than sell goods or services.

How do these advertisements serve a public relations function?

76 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

How Public Relations Is Different
at Its Core
In Chapter 1, we defined public relations as the management of relationships
between an organization and its publics. In Chapter 2, we saw how public re-
lations differs from journalism in that public relations people ethically advo-
cate on behalf of their organizations, while journalists seek to report without
bias favoring any one particular organization. In this chapter, we find that
advertising and marketing overlap considerably with public relations. Many
of the same tools and skills apply to all three endeavors, and all three work to
promote an organization and its products, services and ideas. However, public
relations differs from advertising and marketing in at least three ways: in its
promotion of whole organizations, in its communication with all publics and
in its purpose to build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships (see
Table 3.1).

Organization (Beyond Offerings)

Marketing and advertising are primarily concerned with promoting an or-
ganization’s offerings, and most often those offerings are products and ser-
vices that the organization sells or exchanges to remain profitable. While
When an ad serves
public relations also often promotes an organization’s offerings, more impor- an institutional
tantly public relations promotes the organization as a whole. There are exceptions goal beyond sales
to this general rule such as institutional advertising, which is paid advertis- and marketing, it
ing space that promotes an organization more than any of its specific prod- is acting as a tool
ucts or services. However, when an ad serves an institutional goal beyond for public
sales and marketing, it is acting as a tool for public relations. relations.
Publics (Beyond Audiences)
In this chapter’s discussion of advertising and marketing, you may have n
­ oticed
that the groups of people who are targeted for advertising and marketing are

TABLE 3.1 HOW PUBLIC RELATIONS DIFFERS FROM MARKETING AND ADVERTISING

FUNCTION PROMOTES . . . COMMUNICATES WITH . . . MAIN PURPOSE

Advertising Brands, products and Target audiences Persuasion

services

Marketing Sales Consumers, suppliers, Sales and profit

­retailers, etc.

Public Whole organization All publics Mutually beneficial relationships

Relations

How Public Relations Is Different at Its Core 77

Target audience referred to as audiences and not publics. The term target ­audience implies a
Group of people strategically identi-
fied for their propensity to consume
carefully identified group of people who are chosen in strategy development
an organization’s products, services for their propensity to buy an organization’s products, services or ideas. Mar-
or ideas. keters pay for advertising in the newspaper to reach readers who might buy
yogurt or lease private jets. They buy ads on FM radio, Pandora or Spotify to
reach listeners who may purchase software. They sell insurance to Facebook
users and medicine to TV news viewers. Readers, listeners, users and viewers
are all best described as audiences in this context because their primary rela-
tionship to the organization is one of financial exchange.
In advertising and marketing, organizations want to persuade audi-
ences to buy stuff. These groups also fit the definition of publics because
Building and customers and consumers certainly have an effect on organizations, and
organizations certainly have an effect on customers and consumers. How-
maintaining ever, public relations people are responsible for building and maintaining
relationships with relationships with publics even when there is no exchange of goods or ser-
publics is vices. Neighbors, legislators, employees, students, volunteers, competitors,
essential, even if voters, taxpayers, disaster victims, veterans, beachgoers and bicyclists may
they never buy all be publics for certain organizations in circumstances in which no finan-
from or sell cial exchange is involved. The term public implies a more balanced two-way
anything to your relationship than the term audience—one that is not predicated on the
organization. probability of a direct profit.

Relationships (Beyond Sales)

In advertising and marketing, relationships are a means to an end, and that
end is usually sales. In public relations, maintaining relationships is an end in
itself to the degree that an organization’s success or failure depends on
healthy working relationships with all sorts of publics beyond customers and
those in the product supply chain. Media relations is a good example. Public
relations people nurture relationships with journalists and editors in local,
national and global media. Yes, favorable publicity is a common goal, but the
scope and duration of the relationship is much greater than any one promo-
tional strategy. Because publicity in reputable news outlets cannot be bought
like advertising, public relations people have to work to understand journal-
ists and their interests in order to understand how to provide useful informa-
tion to journalists as they do their work. Public relations people also need to
build trust with the media.
Publicity isn’t always welcome. During crises, public relations people
The greater the work under great stress to preserve their organization’s interests and re-
solve problems, while reporters are out to report what the organization has
trust between done wrong. Their roles are at odds, yet they still rely on each other. Public
public relations relations practitioners need journalists to help them communicate with
people and their publics. Journalists need the public relations people to help them un-
journalists, the derstand what happened. The greater the amount of mutual trust, the
better each party better each party will be able to perform during tense times. As we’ll see in
will be able to later chapters, trust is one important dimension of relationships, and news
perform during media are just one type of public with whom public relations people must
tense times. maintain relationships.

78 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

Voices from the Field
Bill Imada

BILL IMADA is founder, chairman and chief collabora- How about smaller firms or in-house commu-
tion officer of the IW Group, a fully integrated market- nication operations? What kinds of chal-
ing communications firm that specializes in the lenges do they face in an age of
growing multicultural markets in the United States. convergence?
With more than 25 years of experience in marketing, Smaller firms must deal with rising labor costs, rap-
public relations, advertising and training, Imada and idly changing digital and social media platforms, and
his company continue to represent some of the top a more demanding workforce. Although smaller firms
brands, including American Airlines, The Coca-Cola offer greater flexibility and mobility, it has been dif-
Company, Godiva Chocolatiers, McDonald’s USA, ficult to match the salaries, benefits and extra perks
MetLife, Nissan North America, Pacific Gas & Electric a larger and better-financed firm can provide. Smaller
Company, Toyota, Walmart Stores, Walt Disney Imagi- firms also have to compete with other communica-
neering, Warner Bros. Pictures, Verizon and many tions and marketing firms, in-house agencies, nimble
others. The IW Group also represents a number of two-person boutiques, short-term contractors and
prominent governmental agencies and nonprofit student-inspired on-campus agencies that have
organizations. lower operational and overhead costs. As a result,
the smaller agencies have to offer their employees an
How do you feel about the merging of experience they cannot get at a larger firm: for ex-
­agencies into bigger and bigger ample, working with a more intimate team of col-
­conglomerates? Are clients being served leagues on different accounts covering a wider array
better? of industries, ensuring a closer and more direct
Mergers and acquisitions have occurred for decades, working relationship with agency clients, and offering
and we will continue to see agencies of all sizes con- the opportunity for co-workers to create strong emo-
solidate and reposition themselves regularly. IW tional bonds.
Group was approached more than a decade ago by
all of the major communications and marketing con- Do you see public relations as fundamen-
glomerates. I opted to go with True North, who tally different from marketing and
agreed to allow me to maintain a controlling interest advertising?
and to manage and operate the agency as a smaller, No. The lines blurred years ago. In today’s world,
niche-focused firm. Not long after I sold a minority advertising agencies have PR and marketing
stake in IW Group, Interpublic Group purchased True teams and vice versa. Advertising agency leaders,
North. To IPG’s credit, they continue to allow me to who once turned their noses up whenever public
run the agency independently. relations was discussed as a legitimate profession,
now realize they must have a public relations and
Are clients better served by bigger and more marketing strategy folded into everything they do.
complicated conglomerates? And, more and more clients expect agencies to do
Yes and no. For large, multinational companies, PR, marketing and advertising. IW Group was estab-
having one entity manage, direct and fulfill their lished 25 years ago as a PR-focused agency. We re-
needs in regions around the world can be more ef- alized after two years that we needed to diversify
ficient and effective. Yet, many of these global firms our business. Today, if we were to silo PR at our
don’t always deliver on good customer service, and agency, it would only represent 15 percent of our
offices tend to run autonomously, which may discour- business portfolio.
age collaboration.

continues

How Public Relations Is Different at Its Core 79

 continued

Do you see cultural convergence (when vari- diversity of heart and mind, spirit, regional immer-
ous forms of culture are exchanged, com- sion, viewpoints, sexual orientation, socio-economic
bined, converted and adapted) as a positive conditions and so much more. I also like to talk about
in global societies? What’s public relations’ “changing the conversation.” We have a tendency to
role in cultural convergence? use idioms and sayings to guide our thinking, such
Cultural convergence to me is like saying, “We need as: “We shouldn’t reinvent the wheel,” or “We should
to level the playing field.” The playing field will never think outside of the box.” But, sayings like these tend
be level; at least not in my lifetime. Every person on to inhibit our ability to grow, innovate and push the
this planet will retain some aspect of his or her cul- boundaries that we are forced to live in at work and
tural heritage regardless of what happens in the in many of our communities. It is critical for students
world. Our agency is multicultural and includes and faculty to really push intellectual curiosity, in-
people of different races, ethnicities, views and mind- cluding curiosity of people, places, experiences, ide-
sets. Although we initially focus on life’s many inter- ologies and more.
sections that bring us together (e.g., food, music,
entertainment, etc.), as PR and advertising profes- Any specific advice for the next generation of
sionals, we also see our individual and cultural public relations practitioners?
uniqueness as one of our core value propositions. “Taste the street.” A young woman, many years ago,
The growth of digital media hasn’t changed this; asked me what I thought about the name of her new
rather, it has placed an accent on them. Today, it is Vietnamese restaurant: “Taste of Saigon Street.”
cool to be unique. Saigon, once the capital of South Vietnam and today
known as Ho Chi Minh City, is very crowded, noisy
Brand journalism and content marketing—are and chaotic with the grit and grime of any city in the
they anything new? region. When I first heard this restaurant name, I
No. This has been going on for more than a decade. thought to myself: “No American diner would ever
An example of content marketing includes “advertori- want to eat a meal in a restaurant named after a dirty
als.” And we have been using forms of brand journal- thoroughfare in a place like Saigon.” When I shared
ism for years. In places such as Asia, there has this concern, the young woman said: “Mr. Imada, I
always been an imaginary line between journalism grew up on the streets of Saigon. I remember fondly
and branding. the smells, sounds, banter and life along the busy
streets of my home country. The street represents
If you were invited to speak to a public my values and my soul. I want to bring those flavors
­relations class, what would you most want to the people of America.” There are many ways to
to discuss? advance PR. Clearly, one way is to get a flavor for all
Diversifying diversity would be one. Diversity isn’t that is around us. Sometimes we miss that taste
just about race and gender; rather, it includes without even realizing it.

Ethics: Free Flow of Information

and Data Protection
In April 2018, I received a note from Instagram. “Please take a moment to
review some changes to our Terms and Data Policy. Let us know if you agree
to them to continue using Instagram.” Like millions of other users, I skimmed
the note and agreed to the terms.

80 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 The next day I received an email from Twitter: “We believe you should
always know what data we collect from you and how we use it. . . .” Twitter
said it was part of their “ongoing commitment to transparency” and en-
couraged me to review the updates to their privacy policy. Then a similar
notice showed up in my inbox from eBay, and then Ancestry.com. Before
long I found that I couldn’t open my email inbox without seeing one or more
of these notices, and it was the same thing with my apps and web accounts—
I was asked to accept updated terms or to review privacy settings for Face-
book, Google and seemingly every other online service that I logged on to.
So why the sudden push for transparency? The short answer is GDPR,
or the General Data Protection Regulation—a European Union (EU) regu-
lation that went into effect in May of 2018 to protect individuals’ privacy by
giving them more control of their personal data. The regulation also re-
quires companies to notify users and authorities in a timely manner any
time there has been a data breach. For companies with users in Europe,
compliance with the new regulation is a legal requirement. However, as a
practical matter, the changes these global companies made affected users
all over the world.
Companies are expected to obtain your consent before using your data,
and GDPR requires that this consent is informed, unambiguous and freely
given.27 So before Facebook runs facial recognition technology to link
photos of you to your identity, they must explain what they use this func-
tion for (letting you know when someone posts a photo of you, suggesting
tags, etc.). And before collecting “location history” data, Google notifies
users how this information will be used:

If you turn this setting on, Google will create a private map of where you
go with your signed-in devices, including how long and how often you visit,
and how you travel between places. This map is only visible to you. This
gives you improved map searches and commute routes, as well as helping
you to rediscover the places you’ve been and the routes you’ve travelled.28

Facial recognition and geolocation technologies on Facebook and

Google are excellent examples of technological convergence, but that tech-
nology can get scary when we consider the possibilities of economic

Technological and economic convergence enables companies to share user data in unique ways.
What kind of ethical issues does this raise for public relations professionals?

Ethics: Free Flow of Information and Data Protection 81

 convergence as companies buy, sell and trade our personal data. Think
about all the types of companies with which you share personal
­information—banks, cable and streaming media, credit card companies,
genealogy services, search engines, hospitals and doctors’ offices and online
shopping sites. A colleague of mine searched online for specific cancer in-
formation for a relative, and shortly thereafter she was served an ad that
invited her to shop for “Bile Duct Cancer at Amazon.” Yikes!
Just because a company complies with laws or regulations such as
GDPR doesn’t mean they are acting ethically in handling user data. As a
matter of law, organizations collecting data from citizens in the EU must
have either a legitimate legal reason or they must obtain user consent. As a
matter of ethics, organizations should be transparent with users about
which data they collect and exactly what they plan to do with that data.
One of the core principles of the PRSA Code of Ethics is Free Flow of Informa-
tion: “Protecting and advancing the free flow of accurate and truthful infor-
mation is essential to serving the public interest and contributing to
informed decision making in a democratic society.”29
Of course, the legal intent of GDPR was very much in line with the ethi-
cal principles of transparency and free-flowing information, but critics
have pointed out a number of ways that companies have shirked the intent
and even reached an end result of less transparency:

• Masking the fact that they never had the right to your data in the first place.
You may have never consented to give some companies your informa-
tion in the first place, but now they have your personal data and are
using it to contact you to obtain permission to continue citing GDPR.
Tiffany Li of Yale Law School’s Information Society Project commented
to Wired, “The companies reaching out are like a bad boyfriend: They
want you to stay, but they know they did something wrong.”30
• Offering an all-or-nothing option for continued use of the service. Facebook, for
example, presented users in the European Union with a pop-up window
when they logged in: “To continue using Facebook, you need to agree to
our updated Terms. If you don’t agree, you can’t continue to use Facebook.”
• Taking advantage of “consent fatigue.” Realizing that users are burdened
with multiple disclosures, many companies sent notices that nominally
complied with GDPR knowing that in reality most users wouldn’t really
read them through.

“Consent fatigue” presents a public relations dilemma. How can profes-

sional communicators comply with the law to fully disclose all the burdensome
details of how their organizations use people’s information without violating
their ethical obligation to obtain informed, unambiguous and free-willed user
consent? Nitasha Tiku’s Wired article suggests a couple of approaches:

1. Work as hard at designing your disclosures for clear communication as

your company works at perfecting its core products. If an organization
is technologically advanced and design-savvy enough to collect,

82 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 analyze and apply data to enhance users’ products and experi-
ences, public relations practitioners working there should be able
to get some help designing and delivering effective disclosures. Co-
operation of information technology, design and public relations
professionals is a great example of professional convergence.
2. Work with management to see to it that your company does not collect data
it doesn’t need. Besides the free flow of information, GDPR also was
written to discourage companies from collecting and hoarding data
they have no immediate plans to use.31 If you can’t make it clear to
consumers why you need the data in a way that they will agree to, your
organization probably shouldn’t be collecting the data in the first place.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
To fully understand public relations, • Before diving headfirst into integration, under-
you have to be able to zoom in on stand how public relations differs from adver-
tising and marketing in its goals.
specific strategies and tactics and
• Word-of-mouth marketing should be credible,
then zoom out to see the big pic-
respectful, social, measurable and repeatable.
ture of convergence and integration.
• When an ad serves an institutional goal beyond
Here are some snapshots from the sales and marketing, it is acting as a tool for
different focal points in this chapter: public relations.
• Building and maintaining relationships with
• Public relations people must understand other publics is essential, even if those publics
dimensions of convergence beyond the techno- never buy from or sell anything to your
logical ones. organization.

• If you place a hashtag in a TV ad, you should • The more trust between public relations people
know what will happen when TV viewers jump and journalists, the better each party will be
platforms from their TVs to other screens. able to perform during tense times.

IN CASE YOU MISSED IT 83

SUMMARY
3.1 Analyze how different forms of conver- 3.3 Discuss how functions of advertising and
gence affect public relations. marketing may be integrated with public
Rather than being a single trend, convergence relations.
is better thought of as a number of processes When integration is done right, advertising and
that can be defined separately, including tech- marketing support public relations, and vice
nological, cultural, economic and professional versa. In the minds of publics, an organiza-
convergence. Technological convergence af- tion’s management and communication efforts
fects the communication tools and tactics should be consistent.
public relations people use. Cultural conver-
3.4 Explain how public relations adds value
gence requires public relations people to un-
to organizations and publics beyond
derstand the interaction of organizational
­advertising and marketing.
cultures and public cultures in increasingly
Public relations is different from advertising
global contexts. As firms merge, economic con-
and marketing in that it focuses on the overall
vergence affects services on both a local and a
relationship between the whole organization
global level. Professional convergence is what
and many of its publics. Products are only part
happens when those services (and the jobs of
of what is promoted. Customers are only one
the people who provide them) are integrated.
public. Relationships are about much more
3.2 Define advertising and marketing, and than sales and profit.
discuss how those functions may diverge
3.5 Discuss the role of public relations in the
from public relations.
free flow of information in society.
Advertising is media space purchased by spon-
Public relations professionals have an ethical
sors to persuade audiences; or the practice of
responsibility to protect and encourage the free
planning and producing this service. Marketing
flow of accurate and truthful information be-
is the business of creating, promoting, deliver-
cause informed citizens are essential in a dem-
ing and selling products and services. Public
ocratic society. Public relations professionals
relations people should understand advertising
also must work to keep consumers informed on
and marketing as distinct communication tools
matters related to their organizations so that
with divergent goals before working to inte-
consumers can, for example, make informed
grate these strategic communication functions
decisions about how much personal data to
with public relations.
share with companies.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Do you have more or fewer media devices now “Greenpeace Argentina”). What evidence of
than you did two years ago? How has techno- cultural convergence do you see? Is the cul-
logical convergence changed your day-to-day tural sharing working in both directions?
media use? 3. Describe a paid advertisement you’ve recently
2. Search for a familiar brand’s website or social observed that does not seem to be selling a
media presence as it appears in another coun- particular product or service. Who is the ad
try (for example, “McDonald’s India,” “McDon- “marketing” to and why?
ald’s Facebook India,” “Red Bull Japan” or

84 CHAPTER 3   |   CONVERGENCE AND INTEGR ATED COMMUNICATION

 4. CASE STUDY Why does Red Bull invest so be in compliance with GDPR? Have you seen
much in content like that presented on Redbull. any evidence of the company using/selling your
com? What is the return on that investment? data for specific purposes (example: personally
targeted ads)? What’s the difference between
5. Would you rather work for a public relations
the company’s legal obligations and their ethical
agency/department or an integrated communi-
obligations in getting your consent and handling
cation agency/department? Explain your
your information?
preference.
6. Carefully review the terms of service for one of
your social media accounts. Do they appear to

KEY TERMS
Advertising 63 Cost per thousand (CPM) 63 Pre-roll advertising 65
Advertising value equivalency Cultural convergence 58 Professional convergence 61
(AVE) 64 Economic convergence 59 Publicity 68
Analytics 65 Inbound marketing 74 Search advertising 65
Augmented reality (AR) 57 Integrated marketing Target audience 78
Banner ads 65 communication 71 Technological convergence (aka digital
Black box fallacy 56 Market skimming 66 convergence) 57
Brand journalism 76 Marketing 65 Third-party credibility 69
Click-through rate 65 Marketing mix 67 Word-of-mouth promotion 69
Content marketing 74 Participatory culture 59

KEY TERMS 85
 C HAP TE R 4

Relationship Management

As Kermit the Frog sang, “It’s not easy being green.” How
does Coca-Cola balance its main business of selling soda with
efforts to promote healthy living?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

4.1 Describe public relations 4.4 Discuss how issues and

management in terms of rela- causes drive many of the
tionship maintenance strate- 4.3 Discuss how business and ­relationships that public
gies and relational outcomes. commerce drive many of the ­relations people manage.
4.2 Discuss how news and relationships that public 4.5 Evaluate corporate social
media attention drive many of ­relations people manage. responsibility as a strategy for
the relationships that public balancing the interests of
relations people manage. ­diverse publics.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.7 DIVERSIT Y • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 6.1 REL ATIONSHIP BUILDING
6.3 INTERNAL STAKEHOLDERS • 6.4 MEDIA REL ATIONS
C
ongratulations! You made it. You’re the vice president of public rela-
tions. You’re seated in a bright glass conference room, taking in a
sweeping view of the city skyline with your counterparts in legal, ac-
counting and marketing. You’ve earned a coveted seat at the proverbial
management table. But the mood darkens a bit when the CEO enters, takes
a seat with the sun at her back and says she needs to trim some expenses.
She then asks everyone to justify their budgets.
The general counsel (legal) explains how his unit is winning lawsuits
and keeping the organization in compliance with various laws to avoid
costly penalties. The chief financial officer (CFO) presents impressive budget
figures and forecasts. The chief marketing officer (CMO) draws a direct link
between his department and sales revenue.
It’s your turn. What do you say?
This is somewhat of a trick question because much of what you do in
public relations is done in collaboration with the others. Excellent public
relations helps resolve disputes before they become crises or end up in liti-
gation. The CFO relies on public relations for help communicating in a
timely and accurate manner with all financial stakeholders, including
shareholders, employees and analysts. And as we saw in Chapter 3, public
relations and marketing work together in support of sales and profit. But
what does public relations do in its own right? In public relations, you
manage the relationships that all of the other departments depend upon.
This is your time to shine.
This chapter builds on a broader definition of public relations as the
management of mutually beneficial relationships with publics. Relationships
built around news, commerce and contentious issues are all part of the
field, and this chapter discusses jobs in those areas of public relations. At
the highest levels of organizational management, however, relationships
with all of an organization’s stakeholders must be managed simultaneously
and in balance. Corporate social responsibility is one strategy for reaching
that balance, and this chapter includes illustrative cases from some of the
world’s largest companies. But regardless of the size or mission of your or-
ganization, the ethical, harmonious and simultaneous management of all
those relationships may be one of the toughest jobs there is.

Managing Relationships
If we want to understand organization-public relationships and explain
how those relationships are beneficial, we have to think about real people
and how they interact with one another. Starting in the 1980s, public rela-
tions educators and practitioners began to turn their focus from publicity
to relationships. In 1984, the same year that Grunig and Hunt published
Managing Public Relations, Professor Mary Ann Ferguson presented a key
paper calling for public relations scholars to focus on relationships as the
central idea for the field.

Managing Relationships 87
 In the decades that followed, organi-
zation-public relationships became a
more prominent topic for research and
for understanding public relations in
general. In 2000, Professors John Led-
ingham and Stephen Bruning published
Public Relations as Relationship Manage-
ment, a text that advocated turning away
from the idea of public relations as
mainly “a means of generating favorable
publicity” and embracing “the notion
that relationships ought to be at the core
of public relations scholarship.”1 The en-
suing shift in thinking rose concurrently
with the rise of new ways for publics to
communicate with organizations. Social
media emerged as alternatives to mass
media at the same time that we moved
from seeing public relations as an over-
whelmingly mass-mediated phenomenon
to a more conversational, relationship-
building one.
In heralding the rise of participatory
media, social media enthusiasts welcomed
a return to the more direct way of commu-
nicating that was common before industri-
alization and mass communication drove a
This illustration by Felipe Dávalos is of an Aztec marketplace. wedge between organizations and their
How might relationships in digital marketplaces be similar to publics. They refocused on the importance
­relationships in ancient marketplaces? of conversations in the marketplaces where
organizations and publics meet.
For some insights on how to understand relationships between organiza-
tions and publics, scholars turned to interpersonal communication research.
They sought to discover if what worked in relationships between spouses or
between doctors and patients, for instance, might help us better understand
the strategies that would succeed in organization-public relationships.

Taking Care of Relationships

Professors Dan Canary and Laura Stafford have studied interpersonal
Participatory media
Media in which publics actively ­relationships for decades. In the early 1990s they cataloged a number of suc-
participate in producing and sharing cessful relational maintenance strategies, which included the following:
content.
• Positivity: expressing favorable attitudes, and interacting with partners
Relational maintenance
strategies in a cheerful, uncritical manner.
Ways of building and sustaining
mutually beneficial relationships • Openness: self-disclosure and directly discussing the nature of the rela-
between organizations and publics. tionship including its problems, and willingness to listen.

88 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

• Assurances: covertly and overtly communicating the importance of the Exchange relationships
Relationships in which each party
relationship and a desire to continue with the relationship. gives benefits to the other with the
• Social networking: relying on the support of mutual friends and common expectation of receiving compa-
rable benefits in return.
affiliations.
• Sharing tasks: performing one’s responsibilities including routine tasks
and chores; in a marriage or partnership, this may include cooking,
cleaning and managing finances.
In research reports for the Institute for Public Relations, Professors
Linda Hon and James Grunig took these strategies and recommended a
shift to focus on public, rather than interpersonal, relationships.
• Openness would include disclosures about the nature of the o
­ rganization
and information of value to its publics.
• Assurances would include communica-
tion that emphasized the ­importance of
publics in the relationship.
• Social networking would involve an
e­ mphasis on common affiliations between
the organization and publics—on social
network sites, these links might take the
form of shared Twitter followers, LinkedIn
connections or mutual likes on Facebook.
• Sharing tasks would include things like
asking for public support or offering
support when appropriate—as when
an organization voices its backing for a
cause, encourages employees to volun-
teer or makes a donation.

Key Outcomes of Relationships

Depending on the specific goals and
­objectives of organization-public relation-
ships, mutually beneficial relationships
may come in many forms. The benefits
may come as the result of exchange
­relationships, as when a customer buys a
product or service. If the transaction goes
well, the company earns sales revenue and
the customer receives something of value
in return. In investor relations, a publicly
held corporation secures capital, and in-
vestors get a return by way of dividends or Small and large businesses often partner with nonprofit organizations to spon-
sor community events and causes like this 5K race.
increased value of the shares they own. In
contracts and legal actions, specific terms What types of organization-public relationships are evident here and who
benefits?
for exchanges are spelled out in detail.

Managing Relationships 89
Communal relationships According to Hon and Grunig, ­communal relationships are equally
Relationships in which each party
gives benefits to the other and a
important, if not more important, to public relations people in the long
primary motivation for each is the run. “In a communal relationship, both parties provide benefits to the
other’s benefit. other because they are concerned with the welfare of the other—even
when they get nothing in return.”2 Hon and Grunig highlighted four key
outcomes of good organization-public relationships:
• Control mutuality: although it may be unrealistic to expect steady and
perfect symmetry, each side should have some sense of control and be
comfortable with the balance of influence.
• Trust: Hon and Grunig identified three dimensions of trust: “integrity:
the belief that an organization is fair and just . . . ; dependability: the belief
that an organization will do what it says it will do . . . ; and competence: the
belief that an organization has the ability to do what it says it will do.”
• Satisfaction: in satisfying relationships both parties have positive expec-
tations and feel like those expectations are being met.

The better the • Commitment: is the relationship worth continuing? This question can be
asked as a matter of time and effort or in terms of the emotional invest-
long-term ment. How much does each party value the relationship relative to com-
relationships peting relationships?
between your
organization and Research has shown that these long-term relational benefits correlate
publics, the more with shorter-term communication effects like the achievement of specific
likely you are to strategic goals and objectives that may be on the table in a meeting with a
achieve your goals. CEO. That is, the better the long-term relationships you cultivate between
your organization and its publics, the more likely you are to be able to
achieve your daily, monthly and annual goals. Pursuing communal rela-
tionships may not on its own be enough to sustain most organizations in
their missions, but when excellent public relations builds and maintains
solid relationships in coordination with other organizational units doing
their jobs well, the whole organization thrives. Healthy long-term rela-
tionships can save organizations money by reducing costs of strikes, boy-
cotts, lawsuits and lost revenues from dissatisfied customers who take
their business elsewhere. On the positive side, strong relationships help
garner support from donors, legislators, consumers, employees, volunteers
and shareholders.
There are two ways to think about interpersonal relationships and or-
ganization-public relationships. First, we can think of the interpersonal
relationship as an analogy for the organization-public relationship. Rela-
tionships between organizations and publics are like relationships between
individuals. Both require effective communication and mutual understand-
ing. The same kinds of strategies work in both, and the outcomes sought are
similar too. These relationships can be observed by asking people about
their experiences with an organization as a whole.3
Second, we can think of interpersonal relationships as components of
organization-public relationships. The relationship between the two groups

90 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

St. Jude Children’s Research Hospital has some of the most loyal “followers” of any organization.
With which publics do they maintain relationships? What are some of the outcomes of these
relationships?

of people is made up of all the interpersonal interactions involved when

individuals in organizations communicate with individuals in publics. For
example, individuals may trust specific people in an organization with
whom they’ve interacted. They may be satisfied with the interpersonal ex-
changes and committed to continuing conversations as long as they feel a
sense of mutual control in the relationship.

Managing Relationships 91
 Professor Elizabeth Toth pointed out
early in the relationship-­management liter-
ature that interpersonal communication is
the foundation for analyzing organization-
public relationships. She recommended a
focus on relationships between public rela-
tions people and all of an organization’s
constituencies within various contexts.4
For example, the context of media relations
would call for looking at relationships with
journalists and editors; the context of inter-
nal communications would mean looking at
relationships with employees and mem-
bers; and the context of issues management
might mean thinking about communica-
Organizational-public relationships have many parallels to interpersonal tion with individual advocates and activists.
relationships.
Three major contexts for organization-pub-
How are your relationships with organizations on social media similar to
your relationships with friends on social media?
lic relationships are news-driven relation-
ships, commerce-driven relationships and
issues-driven relationships.

News-Driven Relationships
Sharing news has been and always will be an important part of public rela-
tions. Whether it is editing a company newsletter, blogging about your or-
ganization’s current events or working to get coverage in national or
international outlets, news is very much the currency of public relations
practice.

Media Relations
Media relations is literally the part of public relations that entails rela-
tionships with news media. When people speak of the news media, they are
generally referring to the journalists, bloggers, analysts, editors and pro-
ducers who report news. Relationships with these people are at the heart of
media relations. Sometimes news media come to an organization for infor-
mation, and other times the organization goes to the news media to get
stories out. Over the course of a career in public relations, you will likely
find yourself in both situations, often with the same people. The same
person whom you pray will attend your organization’s groundbreaking
today may call you a year from now when your new building has a gas leak.
Of 900 communications professionals surveyed by PR News for its 2018
Media relations salary report, 42 percent ranked media relations as one of the top three
Management of relationships be-
“must-have” skills that public relations people need in order to get ahead.
tween an organization and mem-
bers of the media who write, edit, (The other two were written communication and content creation.)5 Under-
produce and deliver news. standing modern media newsroom operations and the jobs of reporters,

92 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

editors, bloggers and TV producers is as much a key for career advancement
in public relations as it has ever been.

Pitching
Pitching is when public relations practitioners encourage the news media to
cover stories involving their organizations. To keep up with industry trends,
I subscribe to several email and trade publication lists for public relations.
Scarcely a week goes by when one of these sources doesn’t include some form
of advice on pitching—“Seven Ways to Think Like a Reporter,” “Five Reasons
Your Pitch Stinks,” “How to Pitch TV News Reporters,” “Pitching a Broadcast
Story? Think Visual,” “How NOT to Write a Pitch Letter” and “The Dos and
Don’ts of Pitching Journalists on Social Media” are just a few examples.
Pitching is one of the most common and challenging tasks that public rela-
tions practitioners face. A few themes emerge from these types of advice
columns.

KNOW NEWSWORTHINESS
Journalists have to make decisions every day about what qualifies as
news. Depending on the size of their news organization and its audience,
journalists may receive dozens if not hundreds of pitches for every one
news story they actually cover. Although much of the news you see in
newspapers, online and over the airwaves results from pitches made to
journalists, much of it also happens without pitching. A public informa-
tion officer for the National Park Service may spend a lot of time talking to
reporters covering a wildfire, or a sports information director for a univer-
sity may answer a sports reporter’s request to interview a head football
coach about a big win. A wildfire or a big win for the hometown team are
both newsworthy.
Whether journalists find the stories themselves or become aware of
them with the help of people working in public relations, n­ ewsworthiness
is the criterion they use to determine what is worth covering as news and
what is not. PBS’s Student Reporting Labs program for aspiring journalists
lists these five key elements of newsworthiness: timeliness, proximity,
conflict and controversy, human interest and relevance (see Table 4.1).6
Others include novelty, shock value, impact or magnitude and superla-
tives such as the first, largest, longest, oldest or most expensive of some
category.
Looking at stories in the news media and identifying what makes them
newsworthy is usually pretty easy. What’s trickier is understanding which
news from your organization is newsworthy from the perspective of journal-
ists and their audiences. If your CEO adopted three new puppies, it may be Pitching
When a public relations person
timely (happened yesterday), proximal (he is bringing them into the office), approaches a journalist or editor to
controversial (some office staff are allergic to dogs), interesting (they are suggest a story idea.
soooo cute!) and relevant (new policy—everyone can bring their pets to
Newsworthiness
work one day a week). By all means, put it in your employee newsletter or Standard used to determine what is
tweet about it for your personal networks. But does this “news” belong on worth covering in news media.

News-Driven Relationships 93
 TABLE 4.1 ELEMENTS OF NEWSWORTHINESS

TIMELINESS We care about “new” news more than “old” news.

PROXIMITY We are interested in stories and events that happen

when they are local or hit “closer to home.”

CONFLICT AND We are drawn to problems or differences within a

CONTROVERSY community.

HUMAN INTEREST We relish stories of people overcoming great chal-

lenges or rising to the occasion to achieve amazing
feats. We also pay attention when cute animals, funny
kids or gross facts affect our emotions.

RELEVANCE We depend on pertinent and applicable information to

help us make decisions.

tonight’s local TV news or in the daily newspaper? How about national

news?
The puppy story is a bit of a silly example, but look at the news releases
streaming on international services like PRNewswire.com or BusinessWire
.com and you’ll find examples that are arguably even less newsworthy. A
market research firm released a report about the demand for different
kinds of molding and trim in the building construction industry.7 A com-
pany won a teacher’s choice award for best battery-powered pencil sharp-
ener. And—I have to quote this one directly because I’m not sure what it
means—“a pure-play analytics solutions provider” announced “the comple-
tion of their latest data governance engagement on the e-commerce indus-
try.” All of these news releases were pushed out over international media
services in a one-hour time period on a Friday morning.
Of course context is important. If your CEO adopted the puppies as
part of the launch of a major new partnership with your local Humane So-
ciety, the story may be newsworthy in your community beyond your orga-
nization. Likewise, the molding and trim report or the pencil sharpener
award may be newsworthy to people who work in those industries. News-
worthiness is in the eye of the beholder. When you know a journalist and
her beat, and you have newsworthy information to present in good form
that is important to her readers (viewers, listeners, etc.), you will be set up
for a win-win—the mutual benefit of helping the journalist with her job
while benefiting your organization by getting its story out. But if you mis-
match your news with the journalist, at best you will be ignored and at
worst you will lose credibility and damage the relationship for the future.

94 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Years after NFL player Colin Kaepernick first kneeled during the national anthem to protest social
injustice, other players continued the practice. Miami Dolphins receivers Kenny Stills and Albert
Wilson took a knee during the playing of the national anthem before a preseason game in 2018
and were featured prominently in The Miami Herald.
Which elements of newsworthiness lead to media attention when NFL players take a knee
during the National Anthem?

EMPATHIZE WITH REPORTERS

Finding an appropriate outlet for any story means really understanding the
person to whom you are sending the news, and just as important, under-
standing his or her audience. A famous quote from Sun Tzu’s The Art of War
says, “To know your enemy, you must become your enemy.” At the risk of
framing the relationship between public relations practitioners and jour-
nalists as hostile (it shouldn’t be), we may apply the same general idea. To Before pitching to
know the news media, you must become the news media. reporters, read
Advice from the trade press tells us to consider journalists’ deadlines, their news stories,
to understand their business and to answer questions such as “Why do I
care?” and “Why now?” from their perspective. In other words, put your-
watch their
self in their shoes. Experience working in newsrooms certainly helps. But
programs and
even if you have never worked as a journalist, you can still empathize with follow their social
what it’s like to work on deadline and make an effort to understand the media accounts to
people to whom the journalist delivers the news. Read their news stories, better understand
watch their programs and follow their social media accounts; all of these their style and the
things will help you to better understand their style and the type of news type of news they
they cover. cover.

News-Driven Relationships 95
 MAKE YOURSELF USEFUL
Good journalists do a tremendous amount of research, and public relations
specialists are in a unique position to help with access to an organization’s
people and information. If you work for a school board, you may be one of the
most important sources for information for an education reporter. You may
be asked for information on test scores or teacher salaries even when those
are not the stories you are hoping to communicate. Knowing what informa-
tion you can share, and what information you are legally obligated to share,
will help you help journalists. Even when you have to decline to share infor-
mation, for example because it is private personnel data or student informa-
tion, being open about your constraints will help. Again, there may be no
immediate benefit to you or your organization when you work with a journal-
ist on a tough story, but building and maintaining a relationship will likely
pay off in the long run with fair coverage and greater receptiveness when you
do have positive news to share.
Another way to make yourself useful is to direct reporters to other
people within your organization who can help as sources. Don’t be offended
if journalists want to skip right over you as a source. Remember: Put

Online services like this one help initiate source-reporter relationships.

How might relationships started from “media catching” be different from relationships
started with pitching?

96 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

yourself in their shoes. If you were writing a news story about school dis-
trict test scores, would you rather interview a public relations representa-
tive or a school board member, principal or teacher?
Interviews and source-reporter relationships can also be initiated more
proactively. Many universities maintain experts databases that catalog
professors and researchers based on their areas of expertise and their will-
ingness to work with journalists on related stories. The internet has facili-
tated this on a global level with services like PR Newswire’s ProfNet or
Vocus’s HARO (Help a Reporter Out) that connect reporters with sources.
This practice has been called media catching.8 It reverses the t­ raditional
flow of pitching from sources to reporters. Instead of public relations people
pitching stories to journalists, journalists can post queries online to which
any registered user with relevant information or expertise can respond.
While relationships are key to media relations, depending on the nature
of your organization or clients, many if not most of your relationships with
journalists may be best characterized as exchange relationships. You ex-
change information or access for news coverage. Especially early in your
career, you may not have longstanding relationships with many of the jour-
nalists you pitch. Nonetheless, in situations where you haven’t worked with
a journalist before, knowing newsworthiness, empathizing and making
yourself useful will not only help your chances of story placement, it also
may set the stage for a longer-term professional relationship.

Commerce-Driven Relationships
As we saw in Chapter 3, many of the relationships in public relations are
driven by dollars. The most obvious examples are business-to-consumer
­relationships. Other important relationships driven primarily by commerce
include business-to-business relations, employee relations and investor
relations.

B2C Media catching

When journalists post queries online
B2C, or business to consumer, can describe software, types of organiza- inviting public relations people or
tions, or the relationships between organizations and publics. B2C software others with relevant information or
usually means e-commerce platforms in which an end user can initiate and expertise to respond. Public rela-
tions people “catch” these opportu-
complete a transaction online. If you buy an airline ticket from an airline nities rather than “pitching” story
website, order a pair of shorts from a retail store online or purchase software ideas to journalists.
to download, you are working with B2C applications. In the context of the
Story placement
rise of e-commerce as a major sector in world economies, B2C is used to de- The outcome of a successful pitch,
scribe companies that sell products or services directly to consumers online. when a story involving a public
Prior to the dot-com boom, people probably wouldn’t have thought to refer to relations practitioner’s organization
or client is covered in the news
their local bookstore as “B2C,” but when Amazon.com rose to success selling media.
books and other products directly to consumers via the internet, the business
Business to consumer (B2C)
model was seen as innovative. Amazon, along with countless other compa-
The relationship between a
nies that have entered the direct-to-consumer market online, is referred to as ­business and the end users or con-
a B2C company. sumers of its product or services.

Commerce-Driven Relationships 97
Business to business (B2B)
The relationship between a busi-
ness and other businesses.

Amazon’s fulfillment centers cater to millions of online customers.

How is your relationship with online retailers different from your relationship with retailers
when you shop in physical stores?

The term B2C also highlights the relationships between businesses and
their customers. The four C’s of integrated marketing communication (con-
sumer, cost, convenience and communication) highlight important dimen-
sions of those relationships. But, as any businessperson knows, financial
success depends on relationships with a number of different publics in ad-
dition to customers. By definition, public relations people have an impor-
tant role to play in maintaining relationships with any group of people on
whom the organization’s success or failure depends. In business these pub-
lics include other businesses, employees and investors.

B2B
B2B stands for business to business. Like B2C, B2B is often used to de-
scribe technologies such as the platforms that businesses use to perform
online transactions with each other. B2B also refers to the relationships
between businesspeople from different companies or organizations. For
example, when a business hires another business for a service such as
management consulting or accounting services, that’s a B2B relationship.
In the context of marketing, the supply chain from raw materials to manu-
facturers to wholesalers to retailers involves many B2B relationships
before products ever make it to consumers. If you purchase a new smart-
phone, think of all the transactions that are involved before the device
ever reaches the palm of your hand. Silicon is mined or extracted from
sand and purchased to make microchips. Microchips are assembled with

98 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

touch screens, microphones, optical devices and so on. The computer is
then programmed with software including multiple apps that enable mul-
tiple services and functions. For every one smartphone that is sold, there
are countless prior business transactions involving the raw materials,
buying and selling of component parts, assembly, delivery, intellectual
property and so on.
Besides the sheer volume of transactions involved, a major difference
between B2C and B2B is the nature of the buyers. B2B buyers shop as part
of their job. The individuals and committees that make decisions about
where to buy raw materials for manufacturing products or which package
delivery service to contract with are normally well-informed buyers. They
are hired, retained and promoted for their expertise in understanding the
market and for making rational, highly informed purchasing decisions
based on all the data available to them. They use computers and software
programs to help them, but, like journalists in media relations, they are
still people who make decisions in the context of interpersonal
relationships.
Public relations people play a role in B2B relationships using many of
the same tactics and channels of communication used for relationships with
other key publics. Next time you walk through an airport, pay attention to
the display ads and billboards. You’ll notice that it’s not just coffee and neck
pillows being promoted, but also IT systems and consulting services.
Likewise, you’ve probably seen ads for B2B companies on TV, online
and in magazines, particularly if you pay attention to the same news and
events as businesspeople. Naturally, The Wall Street Journal or Bloomberg
.com will carry B2B news and advertising, but businesspeople also watch
sports, go on vacations and attend music festivals, which is why you may
notice many events (e.g., the FedEx Cup) and venues (e.g., Oracle Arena)
bearing the name of B2B companies.
Consider IBM, which seeks to build and maintain B2B relationships by
offering tennis fans technology products and services. IBM serves as the
information technology supplier and consultant for the All England Club
that hosts the Wimbledon tennis championships. In 2018, IBM demon-
strated their artificial intelligence (AI) capabilities by automatically pro-
ducing video highlight packages within minutes after tennis matches
ended. The technology ranked the excitement of key moments by matching
crowd noise, key statistics from the game, and even players’ body language.
The resulting highlight videos were then shared almost instantly across
social media. Posts linked back to IBM, which provided more information
on how the technology could be used to help businesses. Viewers who made
their way to the main Wimbledon site and clicked on the IBM logo were di-
rected to a full page of IBM products “that deliver the Wimbledon experi-
ence” and a pop-up-window invitation to “Chat now with an IBM Sales
Representative who can assist you in finding the right products and ser-
vices to meet your needs.”9

Commerce-Driven Relationships 99
Internal publics
Groups of people with shared inter-
ests within an organization.

External publics
Groups of people with shared inter-
ests outside of an organization.
These groups either have an effect
on or are affected by the
organization.

IBM sponsors Wimbledon and uses the event as a showcase for products and services that it
wants to market to other businesses.
How are B2B relationships similar to B2C relationships?

Employee Relations
Internal publics are an important part of public relations. If we’re talking
about businesses and commerce-driven relationships, the internal publics
are employees. Perhaps nowhere else in public relations are the relational
outcomes of trust, satisfaction, commitment and control mutuality so appar-
ent. Trusting, satisfied, committed and empowered employees are sure to be
more productive and more attuned to and invested in the organization’s
­mission. Moreover, in a world where employees are often the first line of com-
Healthy relations munication with external publics, healthy internal relations are prerequi-
with internal sites for healthy external ones.
publics, such as Internal trust is essential to the operating climate of most businesses,
employees, are and that trust works both ways. When employees trust the organization
prerequisites for and the organization’s management trusts the employees, everyone bene-
healthy relations fits. On the employees’ side, most indices of “best places to work” include
with external trust as a central component. When Fortune partners with the Great Place
publics. to Work Institute to pick the 100 best companies to work for, two-thirds of

100 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

the score is based on the results of a trust index survey.10 On the business
side, Nan Russell writes in Psychology Today that organizational benefits of
workplace trust include the following:

• Greater profitability

• Higher return on shareholder investment

• Decreased turnover of top performers

• Increased employee engagement

• Heightened customer service

• Expanded staff well-being

• More collaboration and teamwork

• Higher productivity
• Enhanced creativity and innovation11

Establishing and maintaining trust isn’t always easy. In fact, it’s really
hard to foster a trusting workplace when the relationship isn’t already posi-
tive to begin with. Many variables come into play as part of the overarching
organizational culture. Some of these, such as the personalities of the
people involved, are outside of the scope and control of public relations, but
others, particularly communication and policy, may be areas in which
public relations people can offer some help.
Professor Rita Linjuan Men surveyed more than 400 employees of U.S.
companies across several industries to see which channels of internal com-
munication were most effective. She found that email and direct face-to-
face communication in traditional meetings and with direct managers
facilitated information exchange, listening and conversation. Social media,
including social network sites, blogs, instant messaging, wikis and stream-
ing audio and video channels were less commonly used, but they served to
improve the organizational climate by boosting employee engagement: “In
other words, the more often companies use social media to connect with
employees, the more engaged employees feel. When employees are engaged,
they feel empowered, involved, emotionally attached and dedicated to the
organization, and excited and proud about being a part of it.”12 Print media
such as newsletters, brochures, reports and posters, though still important
for disseminating information, had less of an effect on employee engage-
ment in Men’s study.
Because employees know their organizations from the inside out, the
principle that excellent public relations requires both communication and
action is essential to the practice of employee relations. A company’s public
relations office can communicate all it wants about the organization’s cul-
ture, the management’s commitment to employees, and unwavering pur-
suit of a noble mission, but for those communications to ring true internally,
employees must experience the culture and commitment firsthand.

Commerce-Driven Relationships 101

 “It’s easy to be someone’s friend when times are good,” writes evolution-
ary psychologist David Buss in discussing how humans have evolved to work
in groups. “It’s when you are really in trouble that you find out who your true
friends are.”13 Organizations that support their employees when the going
gets tough build stronger relationships. Medtronic is a good example.

Case Study
Putting Money Where Their Mission Is:
Medtronic Rebuilds After Hurricane Maria
With a market value well above $100 billion, Medtronic is one of the largest
medical technology companies in the world. They make devices like heart
monitors and insulin pumps that are critical for patients’ treatments and
therapies. Topping their mission statement is “To contribute to human wel-
fare by application of biomedical engineering in the research, design, man-
ufacture, and sale of instruments or appliances that alleviate pain, restore
health, and extend life.” The mission also includes a commitment to prod-
uct quality, fair profits, good corporate citizenship, and the recognition of
the personal worth of employees.14 That mission was challenged on
­September 20, 2017, as Hurricane Maria made landfall in Puerto Rico,
where about 5,000 Medtronic employees live and work.
The deadly hurricane turned into the worst natural disaster on record
to hit Puerto Rico, destroying entire neighborhoods, bringing down the
whole island’s power grid, and killing a dozen people immediately. Many
Medtronic employees lost their homes completely. All four of the company’s
manufacturing plants were incapacitated. An entire year later, much of the
island was still without power, highways and schools were still in shambles,
and government reports tallied the number of deaths in the aftermath at
more than 1,400.15
Remarkably, within only a couple of weeks after the storm hit,
Medtronic had all four of its facilities running at partial production levels.
And then, just six weeks after the storm hit, the facilities were again run-
ning at full capacity.16, 17 How was this even possible? Employee relations
made it happen.
Employees who returned to work in the days after the storm were greeted
with a simple sign at the gate that said, “Come help us.” Hundreds of workers
returned right away to help with the cleanup. Medtronic provided free meals
to all 5,000 of its employees, paid wages even while production was offline,
brought in more than a million bottles of water and thousands of boxes of
food, provided 40,000 gallons of free gasoline, and set up on-site laundromats
and day care for employees, along with other services such as banking and
help with FEMA applications.18

102 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

 During Hurricane Maria, one employee of Medtronic, Rafael Rodriguez,
huddled in the first floor of his home with his family as the winds tore the
roof from the top floor. In the months afterward, the family’s only shelter
was the floor of the second story. With no drinkable running water and no
electricity, Rodriguez worked on rebuilding his house in the evenings. But
during the day he went to work at Medtronic. “I come to work because people
around the world depend on the instruments we build,” he said. “I know my
family is safe. So why would I stay home when I could be helping others who
have probably suffered a different tragedy.”19 On the very same day that
Medtronic posted Rodriguez’s story on its website, Investor’s Business Daily
reported that Medtronic expected its earnings and revenue to take a big hit.20
But remember, earning profits is only part of Medtronic’s mission, and in
the wake of Hurricane Maria, profits took a back seat to “contributing to
human welfare” in real ways that employees felt firsthand. “I know the health
and security of us, the employees, is a top priority for Medtronic,” Rodriguez
said. “I feel very proud to be a part of Medtronic right now.”21

Investor Relations
If you use salary data as a measure of organizational importance, investor
relations (IR) is one of the most valued functions among job titles that
include the word “relations.” According to a survey of employees and analy-
sis of IR job advertisements on Indeed.com in 2018, the average salary was
$72,757.22 And according to Salary.com, U.S. IR managers in 2018 earned
an average of more than $128,000.23 Even though investor relations man-
agers are just as likely to come from backgrounds in business management,
accounting or finance as they are to come from communications or public
relations, investor relations is very much a public relations function. The
National Investor Relations Institute defines investor relations as “a strate-
gic management responsibility that integrates finance, communication,
marketing and securities law compliance to enable the most effective two-
way communication between a company, the financial community and
other constituencies, which ultimately contributes to a company’s securi-
ties achieving fair valuation.”24
Professor Alexander Laskin has researched investor relations as a sub-
function of public relations. When Laskin interviewed investor relations
managers, he found they overwhelmingly agreed that building relation-
ships with investors and analysts is one of the most important things they
do. Most cited the importance of good relationships in building trust that
the company can do what it says. This leads to financial publics giving the Investor relations
company and its management the benefit of the doubt during times when Management of relationships
they might otherwise second-guess their investments. In his panel study, ­between an organization and
­publics in the financial
Laskin developed the following statement on relationship building in in- ­community—for example, investors,
vestor relations, which the participants endorsed: analysts, regulators.

Commerce-Driven Relationships 103

 The logo for Rite Aid is displayed above a trading post on the floor of the New York Stock
­Exchange. In 2018, Rite Aid and the grocer Albertsons called off an agreement to become a single
company with the deal facing shaky prospects in a shareholder vote.
What role does public relations play in this type of financial business?

The rewards of this relationship can be significant. Value gaps tend to

­diminish because investors believe management can accomplish what it
says. Positive events and development earn higher stock gain rewards.
A flat or down quarter isn’t an automatic sell signal. . . . Patience is more
likely to be accorded.25

While financial information is tightly regulated, as discussed in

­ hapter 11, investor relations managers use many of the same channels of
C
communication as any other public relations person. These include face-to-
face meetings, conference calls, press conferences, news releases, bro-
While financial chures, periodic (e.g., quarterly or annual) reports, websites, blogs and
information is online video.
tightly regulated,
investor relations
managers use Issues-Driven Relationships
many of the same
channels of Social and environmental issues are big concerns for even the most profit-
communication as focused organizations. Relationships with customers, employees, investors
any other public and other businesses may be driven by money, but they are also driven by
relations person. where the organization stands on issues that affect human and natural re-
sources. Some organizations, however, exist for the very purpose of address-
ing social or environmental issues. They focus specifically on issues for the
sake of making a difference, with a much less direct link to any commercial
motive.

104 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Nonprofit Organizations
The Nature Conservancy’s mission is “to conserve the lands and waters on
which all life depends.” The American Heart Association exists “to build
healthier lives, free of cardiovascular diseases and stroke.” People for the
Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) concentrates “on the four areas in
which the largest numbers of animals suffer the most intensely for the long-
est periods of time: in the food industry, in the clothing trade, in laboratories,
and in the entertainment industry.” With mission statements like these, non-
profit organizations define themselves by a commitment to some sort of en-
vironmental or social benefit besides profit.
Of course, this doesn’t mean nonprofits don’t need to generate revenue.
They still need money to pursue their missions, but the relationships that
Volunteers and
they maintain with their publics are centered on the issues. Among the donors are among
most important publics for nonprofit organizations are volunteers and the most
donors. Both support the missions of nonprofits. Donors donate money, important publics
and volunteers donate time. for nonprofit
organizations.
VOLUNTEERS
Managing relationships with volunteers involves a mix of external and inter-
nal communications. Recruiting volunteers means reaching out into the com-
munity and other organizations to find and initiate relationships with people
who are likely to help your organization by volunteering time and effort.
When college public relations campaign classes take on nonprofit organiza-
tions as clients, a common initial goal for the campaigns is to recruit volun-
teers. Another common goal, which often
emerges after students do some initial re-
search, is retaining volunteers.

DONORS
Although nonprofits do make money from
fees for services and goods, government
grants, and other sources, they also depend
on donors for revenue. Issues-driven or-
ganizations must work just as hard as—if
not harder than—commerce-driven organi­
zations to meet their financial goals. That
said, those financial goals should not be
confused with the greater social benefits
the organizations exist to support. The
money is only a means to an end. Thus, the
most fruitful donor relationships are long-
term and based on mutual commitment to
A volunteer at a Berliner Stadtmission shelter for refugees in Germany gives
the organization’s mission. Both research out clothing donated by Japanese brand Uniqlo to help refugees from Syria
and practice bear out the idea that “fund- and Iraq.
raising is less about raising money and What sustains the relationships between the charity that runs this shelter,
more about building relationships.”26 PRSA its volunteers, its donors, and the migrants and refugees it serves?

Issues-Driven Relationships 105

 Fellow, former fundraising executive and professor of public relations ­Kathleen
Kelly recommends stewardship as a key practice for success in nonprofit public
relations m
­ anagement. Four elements of stewardship have been found to in-
fluence how donors perceive their relationships with nonprofit organizations.
Kelly’s four R’s are reciprocity, responsibility, reporting and relationship
­
nurturing.
• Reciprocity: When donors support an organization, the organization
should respond with appreciation. This may be as simple as a handwrit-
ten thank-you note or recognition in a member magazine. In cases where
someone has made a tax-deductible contribution, the organization can
reciprocate with a written thank-you and confirmation that will help the
donor file for a deduction.
• Responsibility: If you make a donation to aid disaster victims, or to help
feed local families in need, you want to be able to trust that the organi-
zation is using your donation for that specific purpose. Nonprofits have
a responsibility to do what they promise to do. However, all nonprofits
use at least a small part of their budgets for administrative functions, so
nonprofit executives need to work hard to make sure that donations are
managed properly. Public relations people can serve to make sure that
donors’ wishes are clearly understood, communicated and honored in the
management of funds.
• Reporting: Digital media have made it much easier for organizations to
share tax forms, financial plans, audit information and detailed information
about programs and services that demonstrate social accountability as well
as financial accountability.27 The best nonprofits are readily transparent.
• Relationship nurturing: This final “R” echoes the idea of communal rela-
tionships in which financial exchanges take a back seat to mutual respect
and recognition. One measure of relationship nurturing is how often do-
nors hear from an organization when they are not being asked for mon-
ey.28 As Kelly puts it, the best way to nurture a long-term relationship is
simple: “Accept the importance of previous donors and keep them at the
forefront of the organization’s consciousness.”29 Include donors on e-mail
lists. Network with them on social networking sites. Send them copies
of breaking news releases that are going to news media. Invite them to
events. All of these are ways to keep them in the loop and in the organi-
zational “consciousness.”

When Publics Are Organizations and

Organizations Are Publics
Issue
An issue is any important topic or problem that is open for debate, discus-
An important topic or problem that
is open for debate, discussion or sion or advocacy.30 If products, services, stocks and money are the stuff
advocacy. of exchange in regular marketplaces, issues are what fuel exchange in the

106 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

marketplace of ideas. When groups of people are organized on more
than  one side of an issue, the terms organization and public become
interchangeable.
Imagine working for one of the largest snack food companies in the
world and parent company to brands like Nabisco, Oreo and Ritz. You re-
ceive a letter with a simple request. Please free the cartoon animals on
your cracker box so that they do not appear to be stuck in cages. Knowing
that your Barnum’s Animals Cracker box is a brand packaging icon that
has lasted for more than 100 years, you might be tempted to smile and
discard the request. Now imagine that the letter comes from the largest
animal rights organization in the world, and that the request is worded
like this:

Given the egregious cruelty inherent in circuses that use animals and the
public’s swelling opposition to the exploitation of animals used for enter-
tainment, we urge Nabisco to update its packaging in order to show ani-
mals who are free to roam in their natural habitats.31

Nabisco’s parent company, Mondelēz International, actually received

this letter from PETA. With more than 6.5 million members and support-
ers, PETA is the largest animal rights organization in the world, and it con-
siders the food industry one of its most important publics.32 But is the
feeling mutual? Does a food giant like Mondelēz’s Nabisco consider an orga-
nization like PETA to be one if its key publics?
You bet they do.

A B

Nabisco’s parent company, Mondeleˉz International, redesigned its animal cracker box in response to a request from PETA.
Considering the relationship between Mondeleˉz and PETA in this story, which do you c­ onsider to be the “organization” and which
one is the “public”? Are those labels interchangeable?

Issues-Driven Relationships 107

 In response to PETA’s request, Nabisco in 2018 rolled out redesigned
packaging for its Barnum’s Animals. The new box shows animals happily
moving along with an open savannah in the background, freed from
­Barnum’s caged train cars.
While corporations like Mondelēz International often find themselves
in intractable conflict with activist organizations like PETA, in this case
they were able to recognize each other as legitimate publics. “We’re always
looking at how we do things to ensure we’re staying relevant for our con-
sumers,” said Kimberly Fontes, a spokeswoman for Mondelēz International
in a Washington Post story. “It seemed like the right time for the next evolu-
tion in the brand’s design.”
PETA’s social media manager Ashley Frohnert also was pleased that
Nabisco had “joined society in taking a stand for all the animals” that are
mistreated in circuses and entertainment. She reported that both organiza-
tions enjoyed social media recognition from the case as well. As PRNews’s
Seth Arenstein quipped, “It’s hard to know whether Nabisco or PETA got more
of a PR boost from this story.”33

ACTIVISTS
Larissa Grunig defines an activist public as “a group of two or more indi-
viduals who organize in order to influence another public or publics
through action that may include education, compromise, persuasion, pres-
sure tactics or force.”34 In issues management and crisis management, ac-
tivists are often defined from the perspective of one organization, but in
thinking about two-way relationships, organizations themselves may be
activists. Many nonprofits and NGOs are just as organized, sophisticated
and effective in their public relations strategies as the other organizations
with which they interact.
Take Chicago surfers, for example. Yes, real surfers—not the kind who
browse websites but the people who ride freshwater waves in Lake M ­ ichigan.
For the City of Chicago and the Chicago Park District, surfers did not con-
stitute a public to be concerned with until 2008, when a surfer was arrested
for surfing in Lake Michigan. At that point, surfing in Lake Michigan
became a recognized issue.
Then a public emerged. By 2009, “a group of local surfers, watermen,
and assorted activists, many of whom had never met,” had organized
enough to get the attention of city and park district officials.35 City officials
The Chicago chapter of Surfrider met with this new public and communicated with them in a two-way
Foundation was founded partly in ­process that resulted in the lifting of the surfing ban with some restric-
response to an issue in which a tions, which were outlined in a 2009 document titled “Non-Motorized
surfer was arrested for surfing in
Lake Michigan.
Water Sports Information and Safety Awareness,” published by the Chi-
cago Park District.36
When did this group become
more of an organization than a But instead of seeing their collective action as a one-time deal
public? and dissolving their affiliation once the matter was temporarily settled,

108 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

the group of surfers and activists
started the Chicago chapter of the
­Surfrider  ­Foundation. In doing so, the
public became a bona fide organization.
The organization remains active and en-
gaged with city government in ­C hicago.
In fact, in 2017 the Surfrider Foundation
and the City  of ­C hicago joined together
in a l­awsuit against U.S. Steel. They al-
leged that U.S.  Steel illegally dumped
nearly 300 pounds of highly toxic chro-
mium into a small waterway adjacent to
recreational beaches and surfing spots
on Lake Michigan. 37
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Organizations of all types practice advo-
cacy. For example, Allstate insurance com- Members of the Boston Children’s Hospital’s government relations team attend
pany advocates issues related to federal an event at the Massachusetts State House to meet with elected officials and
advocate for legislation.
insurance regulation. In this case, a for-
profit company is advocating a position on Are they acting as an organization, a public, or both?

an issue that directly affects its business

interests. For this purpose, A ­ llstate pays
for lobbying ­activity to ­influence legislation ($2,290,000 in 2017 according
to ­OpenSecrets.org38). This type of activity might also be called l­ egislative
relations or g ­ overnment relations ­because it i­nvolves relationships be-
tween the ­organization and the government entities that regulate the or-
ganization’s business environment. Lobbying
Chapter 11 covers some key regulatory agencies with which public Working to influence the decisions
relations practitioners should be familiar, and Chapter 2 discusses poli- of government officials on matters
of legislation.
tics and government as part of the heritage and contemporary practice
of public relations. One of the primary functions of government Legislative relations
public affairs is the dissemination of information to constituents (i.e., Management of relationships
­between an organization and
public information). Another key function is advocating for those ­lawmakers, staffers and others who
constituents. influence legislation.
In this chapter, and throughout the text, we see how the idea of build-
Government relations
ing and maintaining relationships applies in the public sector. A govern- Management of relationships
ment agency may be seen as either an organization or a public depending on ­between an organization and
your perspective. In the school board example for media relations, we saw ­government officials who formulate
and execute public policy.
the public school board as an organization with a public relations person
who was responsible for communicating with news media and other pub- Public affairs
lics. With the Chicago surfer example, we saw how the case could be framed Management of policy-focused
relationships between an organiza-
with Surfrider Foundation as the organization and the Chicago Park Dis- tion, public officials and their
trict as a public. constituents.

Issues-Driven Relationships 109

 Voices from the Field
Rob Clark

ROB CLARK serves as VP of Global Communications the status of our operations and what our colleagues
and Corporate Marketing for Medtronic, the world’s needed. As you would expect, our non–Puerto Rico
leading medical technology company. He leads cor- employees wanted to help and wanted information—
porate marketing, global public relations, employee all of which was difficult if literally not impossible to
communications, digital and social media, and philan- provide. We took some staff members (one who was
thropy communication teams worldwide. a former TV journalist) and flew them down there on
our plane the second day after the storm. We just
Medtronic’s work with employees in Puerto said, produce what you can . . . tell us stories on
Rico following Hurricane Maria must have what is happening there and what they need. So the
cost the company millions. What’s the return first priority was internal communications to our own
on that investment? people. We quickly realized that these same stories
The returns come in many forms. We spent approxi- told our customers, government officials and others
mately $70 million to restore operations there. From what we were experiencing and what we were doing
a purely financial standpoint, this was a “no brainer” to get back up and operational. So then we just
because we had extensive revenue tied to the prod- started posting them to our newsroom and social
ucts that come through Puerto Rico. From a cus- feeds. We didn’t overly promote them but used them
tomer and company mission perspective, also a “no to tell everyone our story.
brainer.” These products contribute to life-saving
medical procedures and therapies, and without them Which other publics besides employees and
our healthcare customers around the world could not media are important in your work?
do their jobs. From an employee perspective, also a We are a regulated industry and so government of-
“no brainer.” We have had operations on the island ficials and regulators are key audiences for us. In
for more than 30 years. These folks are not only our addition to governments being our regulators, they
employees but also our family. You would do this for are also our customers—in the form of public health
your family, and we did it for ours. systems, etc. This is a key audience for us. Investors
are another one.
When looking for information on Medtronic’s
involvement in aid efforts following Hurricane What advice do you have for public relations
Maria, I had to delve deeply into the company students who want to pursue careers in
website for details. The stories look to be health-related fields?
mostly written for and about employees and PR/comms people don’t often gravitate to science and
focus on the company’s impact in the local math, but you will need some form of base knowledge
area. What was the communication strategy? to be able to understand scientific and clinical data.
Your observation was correct. The main rationale for Much of healthcare and healthcare communications is
the creation of these stories was to tell our non– tied to this science, so take some classes in this area!
Puerto Rico employees what was happening there,

110 CHAPTER 4   |   RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

Ethics: Corporate Social Responsibility Corporate social responsibility
(CSR)

and Loyalty Companies’ commitment of re-

sources to benefit the welfare of
their workforce, local communities,
Corporate social responsibility (CSR) refers to a company’s commitment society at large and the
to allocate resources to benefit society and the environment. The contribu- environment.
tions may come in the form of financial donations, employee time or socially
beneficial business practices. While nonprofit organizations exist primarily
to make a positive difference in their communities and the natural environ-
ment, for-profit businesses and corporations exist primarily to make money. Ethically balancing
If they don’t make money, they eventually will not exist at all and cannot loyalties is one of
benefit anyone. the toughest jobs
Nobel Prize–winning economist Milton Friedman took this logic to an of public relations
extreme in a famous 1970 article published in The New York Times Magazine
titled “The Social Responsibility of Business Is to Increase Its Profits.”
managers.
Whether you agree with Friedman or not, he raises interesting ethical ques-
tions about how for-profit companies balance their need to make money
with their responsibilities as corporate citizens. At the heart of the matter
are competing loyalties. Companies may have loyalties to their communi-
ties and the natural environment, but they also must be loyal to their
shareholders and employees who rely on them to remain profitable. Ethi-
cally balancing loyalties in a company’s relationships with publics as di-
verse as environmentalists, government agencies, unions, employees and
stockholders is one of the toughest jobs of public relations managers.

Case Study
Coca-Cola and Corporate Social
Responsibility
Coca-Cola’s position atop the branding world hasn’t come easily, and its
future there isn’t guaranteed. In 2012, Coca-Cola was the number one
brand in the world, but by 2017 it had slipped to fourth place behind Apple,
Google and Microsoft on Interbrand’s list of best global brands.39
In recent years sugary drinks have been identified as culprits in the fight
against obesity. Now being the number one soda brand in the world carries
with it the risk of also being labeled as public enemy number one in the fight
against obesity, particularly in America. How can a company that relies on
sales of sugary drinks that lead to obesity, diabetes and tooth decay make a
compelling case that it also cares deeply about the health of consumers?
Former Elon University student and PRSSA president Heather Harder
won the Arthur W. Page Society case study competition with her analysis of
how Coca-Cola has managed its precarious position. She summarized the com-
pany’s strategy as one of corporate social responsibility. “By acknowledging the

Ethics: Corporate Social Responsibility and Loyalty 111

 obesity issue and spending millions of dollars on anti-obesity efforts, Coca-
Cola is demonstrating corporate social responsibility—if not in its products,
then at least in its community involvement.”40
In response to consumer health issues, Coca-Cola launched a campaign
called “Coming Together” that included a theme that “all calories count.” The
theme emphasized logic that consumers should balance the number of calo-
ries taken in with the number of calories they burn, and that ­calories from
Coke products are essentially the same as calories from any other source.
Coca-Cola used a variety of tactics to support the theme including:
Coca-Cola’s brand faces threats as
sugary drinks are seen as a public • videos aired on mainstream media (CNN, Fox, MSNBC)
health problem.
• a crowdsourced effort that invited consumers to email comingto-
How can a soda company
­promote its main product while [email protected] with personal stories
simultaneously working to be
socially responsible? • online video via http://www.coca-colacompany.com/coming-together/

• the announcement of several “commitments to fighting obesity” including:

• offering low- or no-calorie options in every market

• more prominently displaying calorie information on product labels
• funding physical activity programs worldwide
• adopting more responsible marketing practices that avoid targeting
children under the age of 12.41
The PRSA Code of Ethics features loyalty as a core value. “We are faithful
to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public inter-
est.” In this case, those working in public relations for Coca-Cola must bal-
ance their loyalty to their employer with their loyalty to many publics with
varying interests.
According to Harder, “The challenge is for Coca-Cola to find a way to be
taken seriously as a player in anti-obesity efforts while simultaneously in-
creasing sales and offering consumers the products they love.” Harder’s con-
clusion highlights the importance of relationships with several key publics in
defining the success of the CSR efforts.

CRITICS AND ACTIVISTS

Perhaps the most vocal opposition in this case is the Center for Science in the
Coca-Cola has begun to offer more
Public Interest (CSPI), a nonprofit organization that seeks “to educate the
low-calorie options including Coca-
Cola Life, which is made with public, advocate government policies that are consistent with scientific evi-
stevia, a plant-based sugar dence on health and environmental issues, and counter industry’s powerful
substitute. influence on public opinion and public policies.”42 The essence of CSPI’s criti-
To which publics is Coca-Cola cism was captured in the brevity of a single tweet: “Coca-Cola is desperately
loyal in this marketing effort?
trying to disassociate itself with #obesity. Too bad the core product causes it.”43

CONSUMERS
Let’s face it. People don’t drink Coke for their health these days. If you work
for Coca-Cola, you can be loyal to your consumers in a lot of ways with a lot
of different products, but it would be a stretch to imply that your signature

112 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

The Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI) criticizes Coca-Cola on Twitter.
How can Coca-Cola balance loyalty to its shareholders and employees with loyalty to the
consumers represented by organizations like CSPI?

cola equates to healthier food options. That said, research shows that con-
sumers pay attention to CSR. In 2015, Nielsen surveyed more than 30,000
consumers in 60 countries. Sixty-six percent of them said they would be
willing to pay more for goods and services from socially responsible compa-
nies, up from 50 percent in 2013.44 And, in 2017, Cone Communications
reported results from a similar survey in which they found that 87% of re-
spondents said they would purchase a product because a company advo-
cated for an issue they cared about.45

INVESTORS
To preserve excellent investor relations with its thousands of shareholders
around the world, Coca-Cola must maintain a profitable business model.
Can  you imagine what it would mean to shareholders—and even entire
­economies—if Coca-Cola just stopped selling soda because the product was
unhealthy? The golden mean is an ethical principle in Aristotelian, Bud-
dhist and Confucius philosophies which holds that the most ethical course
of action lies between extremes. A golden CSR strategy for Coca-Cola un-
doubtedly lies somewhere between shuttering its flagship product line to
allay the concerns of its critics and ignoring its critics altogether with an
uninhibited drive for profit. In fact, CSR may help with profitability, as is
evident in research s­ uggesting a link between charitable giving and corpo-
rate revenues.46

EMPLOYEES
Positive relationships with employees are an important part of the equa-
tion linking social responsibility with profitability. It is not hard to imagine
how companies with satisfied, committed, trusting and empowered em-
ployees (i.e., those with excellent relational outcomes) are more likely to
profit in business. CSR trends include programs that encourage employees Golden mean
Ethical doctrine holding that the
to participate in service such as pro bono work or paid release time to vol- best courses of action are found
unteer in their communities. between extremes.

Ethics: Corporate Social Responsibility and Loyalty 113

 POLICYMAKERS
Legislative relations also come into play, and Coca-Cola invests strategically in
its own advocacy. The company lists corporate taxation, environmental policy
and product-specific policies including taxes and regulation as areas for invest-
ment. Product-specific policy was made more salient when former New York
Mayor Michael Bloomberg proposed a ban on the sale of sugary drinks larger
than 16 ounces. In its relationship with regulators and legislators, Coca-Cola
“advocates for choice and opposes discriminatory tax policies that single out
certain beverages.”47 The New York City Board of Health fought for years to
impose the policy, but the New York State Court of Appeals ruled that the
­attempted big-soda ban exceeded the scope of the city’s regulatory authority.48

Managing an organization requires managing relationships with all

sorts of publics. Ethical issues arise when loyalty to any one public risks
damage to mutually beneficial relationships with others. Those who work in
public relations for Coca-Cola, like people in organizations of all sizes all
over the world, face ethical challenges in remaining faithful to those they
represent while honoring their obligation to serve the public interest. Cor-
porate social responsibility can be both a strategy for and an outcome of
careful relationship management in public relations.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI

Effective public relations means social media accounts to better understand

managing relationships between an their style and the type of news they cover.
organization and its publics. Social • Healthy relations with internal publics, such as
employees, are prerequisites for healthy rela-
skills and business skills both come
tions with external publics.
into play, as highlighted in some of
• While financial information is tightly regu-
the key takeaways from this chapter. lated, investor relations managers use many of
the same channels of communication as any
other public relations person.
• The better the long-term relationships between
your organization and publics, the more likely • Volunteers and donors are among the most 
you are to achieve your goals. important publics for nonprofit organizations.
• Before pitching to reporters, read their news • Ethically balancing loyalties is one of the tough-
stories, watch their programs and follow their est jobs of public relations managers.

114 CHAPTER 4   |   REL ATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

SUMMARY
4.1 Describe public relations management in mostly driven by commercial transactions. In
terms of relationship maintenance strate- addition to consumers, key publics in this
gies and relational outcomes. domain include financial publics (investors,
Managing relationships between organizations ­analysts, regulators, etc.), internal publics (em-
and publics for mutual benefit is at the heart of ployees, members, etc.) and an array of exter-
public relations. Many of the same relationship nal publics including other businesses.
strategies that work in personal relationships—
4.4 Discuss how issues and causes drive many
positivity, openness, assurances, social net-
of the relationships that public relations
working and sharing tasks—also work in
people manage.
maintaining relationships between organiza-
Public affairs, legislative relations and issues
tions and their publics. The outcomes are simi-
management are mostly issues-driven. An
lar too: trust, satisfaction, commitment and a
issue is any important topic or problem that is
sense of mutual control.
open for debate, discussion or advocacy.
4.2 Discuss how news and media attention Donors, volunteers, government officials, com-
drive many of the relationships that public munity leaders and activists, including those
relations people manage. who oppose the organization, are all key pub-
Public relations people build and maintain rela- lics for organizations as they deal with various
tionships with media (journalists, editors, pro- issues in the marketplace of ideas.
ducers, bloggers, etc.). Whether journalists find
4.5 Evaluate corporate social responsibility as
stories themselves or become aware of them
a strategy for balancing the interests of
with the help of people working in public rela-
diverse publics (stakeholder analysis).
tions, newsworthiness is the criterion used to
The Coca-Cola case illustrates how one company
determine what is covered as news and what
has attempted to balance the varying interests of
is not. Knowing newsworthiness, empathizing
investors, employees, consumers, activists, law-
with reporters and providing useful i­nformation
makers and global communities. The CSR strat-
are all ways that public relations professionals
egy involves committing resources to benefit
earn fair news coverage.
society and the environment while also seeking
4.3 Discuss how business and commerce drive profits. The question for analysis is how effective
many of the relationships that public the company is in building and maintaining simul-
­relations people manage. taneous relationships with a range of stakehold-
Investor relations, marketing communication, ers with very different interests.
customer relations and employee relations are

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Relationships can be complicated. Discuss a 2. Look at the ten most recent news releases on
love-hate relationship that you have with a par- https://www.prnewswire.com or https://www
ticular organization. What does that organiza- .businesswire.com/. Which one is the most
tion do well in the relationship? What does that newsworthy as a national or international story
organization do that causes frustration? What is and why? Which one is least newsworthy and
the role of public relations in that relationship? why?

SUMMARY 115
 3. Search for an advertised public relations job in 5. Identify a case from the news in which an ac-
investor relations or employee relations at an or- tivist group has challenged a company. In what
ganization where you’d like to work. In what ways ways are the activists a “public” and in what
does the job description match your expectations ways are they an “organization”? In what ways
for a “public relations” career? In what ways is it is the company a “public”?
different from what you may have expected? 6. CASE STUDY It was a hard-hitting tweet from
4. CASE STUDY Pretend you are working at @CSPI: “Coca-Cola is desperately trying to dis-
Medtronic after Hurricane Maria and the CEO associate itself with #obesity. Too bad the core
asks you to draft a letter to shareholders for him. product causes it.” If you were managing Coca-
He wants to explain why the company spent so Cola’s social media, would you respond on
much money on employee relations following the Twitter? If yes, write the tweet. If no, explain
storm. What key points will you emphasize? why not.

KEY TERMS
Business to business (B2B) 98 Government relations 109 Newsworthiness 93
Business to consumer (B2C) 97 Internal publics 100 Participatory media 88
Communal relationships 90 Investor relations 103 Pitching 93
Corporate social responsibility Issue 106 Public affairs 109
(CSR) 111 Legislative relations 109 Relational maintenance strategies 88
Exchange relationships 89 Lobbying 109 Story placement 97
External publics 100 Media catching 97
Golden mean 113 Media relations 92

116 CHAPTER 4   |   RELATIONSHIP MANAGEMENT

 C HAP TE R 5

Research

Are you active, aware or just meh on the issue of net neutrality?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

5.1 Explain the role of forma- 5.6 Differentiate between

tive and summative research 5.4 Discuss applications of formal and informal research
in the RPIE cycle. qualitative research. based on reliability and
5.2 Describe the contents of validity.
5.5 Compare costs and
a situation analysis. ­ enefits of secondary and
b 5.7 Evaluate utilitarianism as
5.3 Discuss applications of ­primary research. an ethical principle for public
quantitative research. relations research.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.1 RESEARCH CONCEPTS • 1.2 RESEARCH APPLIC ATIONS • 1.3 ANALY TIC AL SKILLS
1.4 STR ATEGIC THINKING • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR
 I
n politics, it is sometimes said that a new campaign starts
the day after Election Day. Although we hope that our
elected officials will focus more on getting their new job
Evaluation done than on getting reelected, there is quite a bit of truth
Research here for campaign strategists. An election is like a survey of
voters, and fresh election results yield all sorts of new data to
kick off planning for future campaigns.
Strategic planning is a cyclical process. Whether a college
student is planning one semester’s budget based on the prior
semester’s spending, a volleyball coach is reviewing last sea-
son’s performance to plan for the next season, or a campaign
Implementation strategist is analyzing the results of one campaign to plan for
Planning
the next one, the process is similar. Successful planning
begins, ends, and begins again, with research (Figure 5.1). In
between are planning (Chapter 6) and implementation
­(Chapter 7). This chapter explains how strategy starts with
Figure 5.1  The RPIE Cycle campaign begins, ends,
and begins again, with research. research. Public relations campaigns and programs with
­
What are some of the very first questions
research-based goals and objectives lend themselves to
­
­campaign planners should ask, and what kind of proper evaluation (Chapter 8). Proper evaluation helps you
research helps answer them? make a case for the value of your work. Being able to demon-
strate the value of your work gets you hired and promoted.

Research in the RPIE Cycle

For years, public relations students studying for exams and practitioners re-
viewing for accreditation interviews have referred to the four-step process of
researching, planning, implementing and evaluating programs. RPIE and ac-
ronyms that start with “R” have served as trusty mnemonic devices. RACE,1
ROPE2 and ROSIE3 are three common examples. RACE stands for research,
action, communication and evaluation. ROPE stands for research, objectives,
programming and evaluation. ROSIE includes research, objectives, strate-
gies, implementation and evaluation. Not only do they all start with an “R,”
but they all end with an “E” for evaluation, which is a type of research in and
Evaluation can of itself.
happen at any If we think of strategic public relations as a dynamic and cyclical pro-
point in a strategic cess, it makes sense that the evaluation of one action, program or campaign
program, not just feeds back into the next. In fact, evaluation can happen at any point in a
at the end. strategic program, not just at the end.

Formative Research
When research comes at the beginning of the planning process, or during the
implementation of a plan, it is known as formative research. The informa-
Formative research tion acquired during formative research helps you formulate your program or
Research conducted at the begin-
ning of the planning process, or campaign and its components, including goals, objectives, strategy and tac-
during the implementation of a plan. tics. On one hand, formative research, or formative evaluation, can be casual

118 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

and unscientific. If you call a few reporters
to pitch a news story idea and they all de-
cline abruptly, you may want to step back
and re-formulate your approach based on
that information before you call anyone
else. That’s informal formative evaluation.
However, informal trial and error on its
own does not constitute strategic public
relations.
On the other hand, formative research
and evaluation can be carefully planned
and sophisticated. Public relations profes-
sionals may begin campaigns or programs
with detailed web analytics, carefully col-
lected survey data on key publics or for-
mally designed interviews. They also may
continue to track those analytics, re-ad-
minister the surveys and interview people
for the duration of the campaign or pro-
gram, using the live feedback to make cor-
rections to strategy.

Summative Research
Summative research is when you’ve re­
ached an end or stopping point in your
Evaluation of one project can serve as insight for the next one.
campaign and you want to answer the ques-
tion, “Did it work?” One way to differenti- How does public relations research help turn hindsight into foresight?
ate between a campaign and an ongoing
program is that a campaign has a defined beginning and end. A political
­campaign ends with an election. A year-end fundraising campaign ends on
December 31. A product-launch campaign ends when the product is fully
available in the market, or at some specific date determined by the cam-
paign’s planners. In identifying an end-date for a campaign, planners make
themselves accountable for specific outcomes at a specific point in time. Yes,
those summative results can and should inform ongoing work and future
campaigns, but as final evaluations, they answer the question of whether and
to what extent the campaign achieved its goals (e.g., won the election, raised Analytics
the target amount of money or met sales projections for a new product). A field of data analysis used to
­describe, predict and improve how
When the “E” is placed at the end of an acronym like RACE or ROPE, it organizations communicate with
suggests summative evaluation. Remember, however, that research and publics; commonly refers to tracking
feedback are important throughout the entire process of public relations of website traffic and resulting
behavior.
work. This chapter focuses mostly on research as part of the planning p ­ rocess.
Chapter 8 delves into specific methods for measurement including evalua- Summative research
tion research designed to quantify results of campaigns. One method to Research conducted at the end of a
campaign or program to determine
begin planning is to organize research into three major areas: (1) situation, the extent that objectives and goals
(2) organization and (3) publics. were met.

Research in the RPIE Cycle 119

 Situation Analysis
Good public relations cases read like good
stories, and good stories rely on an inter-
esting setting. The setting provides the
context for the problem or opportunity
from which the public relations goals
arise. At the very beginning, the situation
may be only vaguely stated or implied (e.g.,
“We need to raise awareness”), but with re-
search the situation can be analyzed more
carefully to initiate strategic planning.
Public relations case studies and write-ups
for public relations case competitions such
as PRSA’s Silver Anvil awards normally in-
clude a situation analysis at the begin-
ning. Table 5.1 provides some examples of
AT&T mounted the “It Can Wait” campaigns to curb smartphone-distracted situation analysis starters from PRSA
driving. Silver Anvil winners.4
What kind of research could they do to know if the campaign efforts Each of the cases described in Table 5.1
worked? begins with a narrative presentation of the
situation. The impetus for a public rela-
tions effort is either a problem, an oppor-
tunity or some combination of the two. And, getting started means doing
research to first identify the problem or opportunity and then to understand
it well enough to create a narrative.
An effective situation analysis leads to a clear, concise problem or
­opportunity statement on which the client or organization and the team
representing them agree. In their text Strategic Communications Planning,
Brigham Young University’s Laurie Wilson and Joseph Ogden write that a
core problem statement can be written in a single sentence.5 Others recom-
mend a paragraph or two. Because it captures the essence of the situation
Situation analysis and determines the scope and value of your proposal, your core problem or
A report analyzing the internal and opportunity statement may well be one of the most carefully constructed
external environment of an organi- sentences or paragraphs you write in all of your work in public relations.
zation and its publics as it relates to
the start of a campaign or program.
Distilling a vague, complex and ambiguous context down to a brief state-
ment that everyone involved can agree upon requires careful analysis.
Problem or opportunity
statement
A concise written summary of the Situation Research
situation that explains the main One common approach for structuring the analysis is the SWOT analysis
reason for a public relations pro- (Figure 5.2). SWOT stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
gram or campaign.
threats.
SWOT Analysis Strengths are factors internal to your organization or client that will
Description and discussion of an help you reach your goals or fulfill your mission. If your client is the faculty
organization’s internal strengths and
weaknesses and its external oppor- of a local college, some strengths might be a range of faculty projects that
tunities and threats. benefit local communities or a record of faculty involvement in community

120 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

 TABLE 5.1 EXAMPLES OF SITUATION ANALYSIS STARTERS: PRSA SILVER ANVIL WINNERS

CAMPAIGN SITUATION

FLEISHMANHILLARD AND KWI’S “AFLAC: “Chances are you’re familiar with supplemental insurance giant
PERCEPTION PLAY IN SOCIAL Aflac and its quirky Duck. The 60-year-old company is one of For-
R­ESPONSIBILITY” FOR AFLAC
tune’s Best Places to Work and World’s Most Ethical Companies,
but in spite of these accolades, its successful business and brand
were not translating to well-earned recognition for corporate social
responsibility (CSR)—at least not beyond its Georgia HQ. That’s a
reputational deficit for a national consumer brand. There was no
ducking this disconnect. . . .”

KETCHUM AND DIGITASLBI’S “CARE “Whirlpool uncovered a surprising reason why students nationwide
COUNTS” FOR WHIRLPOOL weren’t coming to school: many kids lacked clean clothes, staying
home to avoid mockery and bullying. Could we find a solution to
chronic absenteeism with something as simple as a washer and
dryer and rise above a world of worthy causes?. . .”

GÜD MARKETING’S “DON’T WAIT “Health officials in Flint, Mich., are still trying to minimize the ef-
­EVALUATE” FOR EARLY ON® MICHIGAN fects of lead exposure of nearly 100,000 people, which began
AND GENESEE INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL
when the city started drawing water from the Flint River as its
DISTRICT
source of drinking water. Among those most impacted by the crisis
are approximately 3,600 children between ages 0 and 3 who are
potentially at risk of lead-related developmental delays.. . . .”

HELVEY COMMUNICATIONS AND KD/PR “When a tutoring company discovered a top employee was being
VIRTUAL’S “WHEN NIGHTMARES COME investigated for the possession of child pornography and sexual
TRUE: A CRISIS COMMUNICATIONS
relations with a minor, an effective crisis communications plan was
PLAN”
imperative. Maintaining the confidence of its clients and partners
would be a challenge in the midst of legal constraints, uncertainty
of facts and quickly changing circumstances.. . .”

organizations as part of their professional service. It would take research to

learn what these projects and organizations are and understand who
benefits.
Weaknesses are internal factors that make it harder for your organiza-
tion or client to do what it wants to do. In the college example, weaknesses
may be a lack of training or professional incentive for faculty to communi-
cate their scholarship outside of their peer groups. Or, perhaps there is a
gap in communication between college faculty and the professional com-
municators representing the school. Again, it would take research to obtain
an accurate sense of the internal communication environment.
Opportunities and threats are external variables. A relatively close-knit
college town where there are few degrees of separation between citizens and

Situation Analysis 121

 SWOT ANALYSIS
the people working in the college could be
an opportunity for word-of-mouth com-
Favorable/positive Unfavorable/negative munication. A decreasing revenue projec-
to achieving the goal to achieving the goal tion that will put greater scrutiny on the
college’s budget may be a threat.
As with strengths and weaknesses, op-
(Attributes of the organization)

portunities and threats are often two sides

Internal origin

of the same coin. Greater scrutiny of an or-

Strengths Weakness ganization’s budget may be perceived as a
threat. Programs could be cut or jobs could
be at risk. But at the same time, close atten-
tion to an organization’s budget may pro-
vide an opportunity to communicate the
value of the organization’s work. In addition
to educating students, colleges and univer-
(Attributes of the environment)

sities employ thousands of people, generate

External origin

revenue in patents and licenses and provide

Opportunities Threats launching pads for start-ups. Discovering
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats and listing them in a table is an ap-
propriate start, but the actual analysis of
that information requires closer examina-
tion and discussion. Prioritizing the most
Figure 5.2 SWOT analyses help you identify key factors in planning for public
relevant information, deciding what not to
relations.
focus on, and understanding how different
How might researching factors of internal origin (strengths and weak-
nesses) be different from researching factors of external origin (opportu-
factors relate to one another and to your or-
nities and threats)? ganization’s mission are all part of the work
you do in getting ready to tell the story.
In all likelihood, situation research starts with an internet search and con-
versations with the clients. However, gaining a deeper, more analytic and more
Gaining a deeper nuanced understanding of the situation than what the client already knows
understanding of a from their own quick Google search requires digging deeper for information of
situation requires substance. Here are some potential resources for researching the situation:
digging for • Summaries of relevant media coverage, including stories placed in
information of print, broadcast or online media. The organization may already have
substance beyond reports on file or may subscribe to media monitoring services (see
an internet search. Chapter 8) that generate such reports.
• Copies of any organizational documents related to the problem that the
client is willing to share, including policies, reports, archived correspon-
dence and web or intranet material.
• Collateral material from prior campaigns and programs (brochures, web
content, product information, etc.), news releases and ads.
• Any available statements, reports or information from or about the
organization’s competitors that is relevant to the situation.

122 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

• Calendars or schedules of related events.
• Copies of relevant laws, regulations, budgets or pending legislation that
are publicly available through government web pages or upon request
from government agencies.
• Any research already conducted and reported (surveys, interviews, content
analyses, communication audits, message testing and usability studies, etc.).
• Web analytics reports, which track website traffic such as the number
of unique visitors to a site, the number of page views, how much time
people spend on a site, the percentage of people who leave after seeing
only one page (bounce rate) or indicators of other objectives such as the
number of registrations or downloads (see Chapter 8).
• Prior marketing, advertising and public relations plans.

As a cohesive narrative analysis of the situation comes together, and as

that brief problem or opportunity statement begins to take shape, it’s cru-
cial to stay in touch with the client or organization’s management to ensure
you are on the right track. For example, consider the problem/opportunity
statement for Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide and DuPont’s “Welcome
to the Global Collaboratory” campaign:
DuPont was challenged by its “chemical company” reputation, despite being
a long-time global contributor to food production, nutrition and safety. It
also confronted a landscape with a chief competitor, Monsanto, espousing a
strong, public POV [point of view] that biotechnology is the primary answer
to the problem. DuPont retained Ogilvy to develop a campaign to showcase
to the global food influencer community its commitment to bringing together
key audiences who can create solutions to ensuring global food security.6
An organization and its publics are embedded in the situation and
must, therefore, be researched concurrently. Although practitioners may
start with a general background and broad context for strategic public rela-
tions efforts, delving deeper makes apparent the need for research specifi-
cally focusing on the organization and its publics.

Organization Research
Perhaps the best place to start understanding an organization is its mission.
The mission is the organization’s steady, enduring purpose. For example,
a college or university’s mission may entail research, teaching and service.
Even if you are working in house or are already familiar with a client, you In house
may still find it useful to review the organization’s mission or vision state- When public relations people are
employed directly within an organi-
ment if one is available. zation rather than working for an
external agency or contracted as
MISSION OR VISION STATEMENTS independent consultants.
A for-profit corporation’s mission statement may be quite different from Mission statement
the mission statement of a nonprofit or NGO. For example, compare Chewy. A formal statement of an organiza-
com’s mission statement: tion’s steady, enduring purpose.

Situation Analysis 123

Vision statement We’re working to become the most trusted and convenient online destina-
A declaration of an organization’s
desired end-state.
tion for pet parents and our partners—vets and service providers—alike.
Our success is measured by the happiness of the people and pets we serve,
not simply by the amount of pet supplies we deliver. That’s why we con-
tinue to think of outside-the-Chewy-box ways to delight, surprise, and
thank our loyal pet lovers.7

To the mission statement of the American Humane Society summa-

rized in four words that pack a punch:

Celebrating Animals, Confronting Cruelty.8

Many organizations also develop vision statements, which describe a

desired end-state resulting from an organization’s work. For example, the
University of Oregon’s mission statement differs from its vision statement.
Like many universities, Oregon’s mission statement focuses on what it does
teaching, research and service:

The University of Oregon is a comprehensive public research university

committed to exceptional teaching, discovery, and service. . . .9

Its vision statement, however, describes its aspirations and a desired

end-state:

We aspire to be a preeminent and innovative public research university

encompassing the humanities and arts, the natural and social sciences,
and the professions. We seek to enrich the human condition through col-
laboration, teaching, mentoring, scholarship, experiential learning, cre-
ative inquiry, scientific discovery, outreach, and public service.10

Mission statements, vision statements and other key publications give

researchers a sense of the organization’s values and culture. Given the
amount of effort and levels of review that these major organizational state-
ments often require before being published, they should be taken seriously
as indicators of the reason the organization exists and deeper purpose of
why people work there. Of course, not all organizations publish mission or
vision statements, but you can still find evidence of an organization’s broad-
est guiding principles and philosophy in key publications such as annual
reports, or even the “About Us” section of a website or app.

RESOURCES FOR ORGANIZATION RESEARCH

Other written documents to seek in learning about an organization may in-
clude the following:

• Any written history.

• The organization’s charter and bylaws.

124 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

• A flow chart or other description of the organizational structure.

• Product or service descriptions.

• Biographies of or interviews with key executives and board members.

• Summary budget reports, and other summary data on staffing, profits,

stock values and so on.
• Social media account profiles, posts and networks including individuals
and other organizations.
• Organizational communication policies and social media policies if ­available.

• Any prior research reports or audits of internal communication

­channels or programs.

Of course, researchers cannot rely on formal written material alone to

understand what makes an organization tick. Reviewing a company’s web-
page, publications and archives is not sufficient to gain tacit knowledge of
something as intangible as organizational culture. Designing a public re-
lations campaign with an appreciation for organizational culture in the
context of a particular situation (or a situation in the context of an organi-
zational culture) requires astute observation not just of written evidence
but of people and their behavior.

Publics Research
In conducting research on the situation and organization, you gain a good un-
derstanding of the benefits that an organization seeks from public relations Organization-
campaigns and programs. Public relations professionals use that research, public relationships
along with research on publics, to develop goals and objectives that serve the
organization’s broader mission. But remember that the best relationships
flourish when you
are mutually beneficial. This means you have to work to understand not just the spend as much
interests of your own organization, but also the interests of your publics. What energy trying to
are they going to get out of the relationship? This kind of understanding re- understand your
quires thinking about research as part of a larger process of two-way communi-
cation. The RPIE process is very much a cycle of interactive communication
publics as you do
between organizations and their publics. Just as your richest interpersonal trying to get your
communication happens when you listen as much as you talk, organization- message out.
public relationships flourish when public relations people spend as much energy
trying to understand publics as they do trying to get their messages out.

INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL

Publics can be either internal or external to the organization, and that desig- Organizational culture
nation may depend on the context. Employees and members are almost Groups of people that identify as
part of an organization such as
always thought of as internal publics, and as such they can be reached via employees and members.
internal channels such as face-to-face meetings, company email lists, hall-
way bulletin boards, intranets and even the organizational grapevine. To the Internal publics
The unique character of an organi-
degree that these channels are used for gaining feedback, they can be used zation comprised of beliefs, values,
for research and evaluation. symbols and behaviors.

Situation Analysis 125

External publics
Groups of people that exist mostly
outside of an organization and have
a relationship with the organization.

Teachers in Los Angeles participate in an organized protest.

When teachers go on strike, are they internal or external publics for their schools?

While an organizational chart may offer a relatively simple map for ref-
erence when identifying internal publics, it is important to think about the
definition of a public when identifying and prioritizing internal publics. Re-
member, publics are groups of people with shared interests who have an
effect on an organization or whom the organization affects. Most people
internal to an organization will fit both these criteria, but specific situa-
tions will mean prioritizing internal publics differently. If a university is
working to gain funding based on its faculty research and community ser-
vice, faculty members will be a key internal public. In a campus nighttime
safety campaign, university police and resident assistants may be more im-
portant. Alumni, who share an identity with the school, may be considered
internal or external, depending on the situation.
External publics are outside of the organization and are generally
reached via channels such as mass media, direct mail and the web. Each of
these channels also can serve as a resource for feedback and research. Even
though mass media such as TV, newspapers and radio are mostly one-way
forms of communication, audience data from services like Nielsen TV rat-
ings, responses to radio promotions, coupon codes from print ads or traffic
data from web pages can all be useful in researching external publics.
Of course, there are limitations on how precisely publics can be seg-
mented based on the media they use. The most massive of mass media will
certainly reach internal publics. You can bet employees are as affected by a
Super Bowl commercial for their company as their global customers are—
hopefully in a positive manner. Favorable cable news coverage or a

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 front-page story in the news may have a similar effect. For internal publics,
a well-received, big-time mass media hit may provide a boost in morale or
give employees extra confidence that people have heard of their company
when they pursue a sales lead or introduce themselves at a meeting. Like-
wise, even the most interpersonal channels can reach external publics. This
has always been the case with word-of-mouth communication, and it is
more pronounced with social media.
As it becomes easier to share internal communication externally online,
the lines between internal and external communication blur. Research
shows that good internal communication—which includes all sorts of Good internal
formal and informal communication such as CEO announcements, communication
­employee forums, and peer-to-peer social media—affects external commu- affects external
nication because employees serve as brand advocates. Professor Rita communication . . .
­Linjuan Men, author of Excellence in Internal Communication Management, because employees
maintains that employees should be seen as the highest-priority publics serve as brand
“because of their role as corporate ambassadors.”11, 12 advocates.
But it can go the other way too. When Amazon sent a 45-minute train-
ing video to team leaders at its Whole Foods grocery stores, it was meant to
encourage employees to bring grievances to their bosses individually in-
stead of through union representation. The video was leaked externally,
however, and became the center of a story about Amazon’s employee rela-
tions and adversarial relationship with employees who favor unions.
­Gizmodo quoted anonymous employees who complained of fear of retalia-
tion for voicing opinions about management externally. For example, one
Amazon worker described an internal culture of intimidation: “You’re

Employees are among the most important publics for organizations like Amazon and Whole Foods.
In what types of situations might the lines between internal and external communications be
blurred?

Situation Analysis 127

Situational theory of publics somebody that talks and you’re somebody they’re gonna absolutely make
Theory that the activity of publics
depends on their levels of involve-
the job as difficult as humanly possible for.”13 Research for a situation anal-
ment, problem recognition and con- ysis on this case would have to include internal publics (Amazon manage-
straint recognition. ment, Whole Foods team leaders), external publics (Gizmodo, other media
Net neutrality and their readers, unions) and employees who are thinking about organiz-
When data transmitted on the inter- ing and communicating externally about the situation, thereby blurring
net is treated equally by govern- the lines between internal and external communication.
ments and service providers in a
way that does not slow down,
speed up or manipulate traffic to LATENT, AWARE, ACTIVE
create a favorable business environ- According to Kurt Lewin, a pioneer in social and organizational psychology,
ment for some organizations or “There is nothing so practical as a good theory.”14 A good example of practical
users over others.
theory in public relations is James Grunig’s situational theory of publics. The
theory applies easily to practice, in that it helps us identify and strategize
about publics in the context of a situation analysis and the planning that fol-
lows. The situational theory of publics basically says that publics range from
latent to aware to active based on their levels of involvement, problem recog-
nition and constraint recognition.

Case Study
Applying the Situational Theory of Publics:
Net Neutrality
The case of net neutrality offers an example of how the situational theory of
publics can be applied. Net neutrality is the idea that internet service pro-
viders (ISPs) should allow all internet users equal access to content, without
giving some content providers a fast lane or slowing or blocking other content
providers. According to Free Press’s “Save the Internet” Campaign at www.
freepress.net, net neutrality “is the basic principle that prohibits internet ser-
vice providers like AT&T, Comcast and Verizon from speeding up, slowing
down or blocking any content, applications or websites you want to use.”15
The Free Press organization and its supporters celebrated in February
2015 when, after much public input, the Federal Communications Commis-
sion (FCC) voted narrowly (3-2) to adopt regulations ensuring that ISPs
would treat all internet content equally, including streaming video, audio and
games. But not everyone was happy with the outcome. Many sided with
broadband companies in arguing that the new rules were too restrictive on
companies that invest in innovation and that ISPs would be put at a disad-
vantage by the excessive regulation.
In 2017, the composition of the FCC commission changed, and the rules
in support of net neutrality were repealed. Activist organizations such as
Free Press, Fight for the Future, and the Free Press Action Fund, along with
companies like Netflix, Vimeo, Dropbox, Google and Facebook renewed the

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fight for net neutrality. But do everyday internet users really care either way?
How about you? Are you part of a latent, aware or active public for the issue?
The answer depends on how you would answer three questions related to
your problem recognition, involvement and constraint recognition.

PROBLEM RECOGNITION
How often do people stop to think about the issue? If people haven’t de-
tected an issue, they won’t think about it much. This doesn’t mean they
aren’t affected or don’t have a say. They may well still be part of a key public.
They just don’t realize it. Think of all the Netflix viewers, YouTube upload-
ers, and online gamers who never stop to think about net neutrality even
though they could be affected by changes to the rules. These are latent
publics, because even though they can be defined as a public, they them-
selves don’t recognize it. Once they do recognize the issue—problem
­recognition—and start thinking about it, they become aware publics.
Most strategic public relations efforts involve not just mere awareness, but
some level of understanding of the issue, and, beyond that, behavior. Latent publics
People who are affected by a prob-
LEVEL OF INVOLVEMENT lem or issue but don’t realize it.

How connected do people feel to the issue? A key factor in whether people Problem recognition
will become active publics on an issue is their level of involvement. When people detect a problem or
situation in their environment and
People who use the internet primarily for low-bandwidth activities like begin to think about it.
checking email or occasional light web browsing may have been aware of
Aware publics
the net neutrality issue, but they just didn’t see a strong enough connection People who recognize that they are
between the issue and their personal situations to get active on the issue. affected by a problem or issue in
Some people may have become active prior to 2017, but then felt less in- their environment.
volved with the issue when they didn’t notice any difference in their service Active publics
after the net neutrality rules changed. People who behave and communi-
From a public relations planner’s perspective, research on demographics cate actively in response to a prob-
and psychographics is useful in identifying involved publics. Research on lem or issue.

­demographics answers questions like how old these people are and where Level of involvement
they live. Research on psychographics, on the other hand, answers ques- The degree to which people feel or
think that a problem or issue affects
tions about variables such as the personality types of heavy internet users them.
and their preferences for online content. The psychographic profile of a po-
tential active public in the net neutrality debate is one of a heavy data user Demographics
Data describing objective character-
who combines professional, personal and social use of bandwidth. Political istics of a population including age,
leaning comes into play too. level of income or highest educa-
tional degree obtained.
CONSTRAINT RECOGNITION
Psychographics
What, if anything, can people do about the issue? Let’s say your public now Data describing psychological char-
really understands net neutrality and they’re good and mad about it being acteristics of a population including
interests, attitudes and behaviors.
taken away (high problem recognition) because they feel the change is a po-
litical move that only benefits big ISPs (high level of involvement). What are Constraint recognition
they going to do about it? The answer depends on constraint ­recognition, When people detect a problem or
situation in their environment but
and a smart public relations plan will have a response to that question perceive obstacles that limit their
ready for publics at this stage. Users who found the Free Press website by behavior to do anything about it.

Situation Analysis 129

 Netflix tweeted this message from the website BattleFortheNet.com, which is hosted by a non-
profit organization called Fight for the Future. This meme made the rounds on social media sites in
2014-2015 and again in 2017.
What types of research do you think led to this tactic?

clicking  through from social media links or following hashtags such as

#NetNeutrality were greeted with a call to action: “Stop the Trump admin-
istration’s attack on the open internet!” and an “Act Now” button. Clicking
the button opened an easy-to-use form for generating an email to
Congress.
In 2015, the FCC adopted rules to protect the open internet and, in so
doing, sided with millions of people who took an active stance on the issue.16
And in 2017, when the FCC considered repealing the 2015 rules, the agency
received more than 23 million comments on the issue! However, according to
USA Today, “millions of them were fake submissions, many sent by bots, and
nearly a half-million comments came from Russian email addresses.”17
Despite the loss, many activist organizations such as Free Press, Fight for
the Internet, and the Free Press Action Fund continue to fight for net neu-
trality by working to sustain grassroots campaigns. The success of their ef-
forts will depend in large part on whether people feel like they can make a
difference in this environment (constraint recognition) as well as if people
sense that the new regulations have made any difference in their online ex-
perience (problem recognition).

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Fight for the Future is a nonprofit organization that creates civic campaigns including this one
advocating for net neutrality.
Do you think this is an effective tactic for moving publics from aware to active?

OTHER WAYS OF SEGMENTING PUBLICS

Depending on the context, public relations strategists may choose to seg-
Some people will
ment publics in a number of other ways. For clear prioritization, publics
support your efforts
may be labeled as primary, secondary and tertiary. Suppose you are plan-
without a public
ning a community park cleanup. You may decide that young volunteers are relations program,
your p­ rimary public. According to the Useful Community Development and others will
website (http://www.useful-community-development.org), you could re- never get involved,
cruit local children: “At age 3 and up, they can pick up trash,” and “Teenag- but you can make
ers can be drawn in, especially if you provide a good-looking T-shirt. . . .” In progress with publics
planning, you would also want to develop strategy to communicate with that are somewhere
their teachers and parents, especially if some of your recruits are only three in between.
years old. Parents of small children also would be primary publics, but you
might decide to label parents of older teenagers and teachers who might
encourage participation as secondary publics. Additional groups, known Primary publics
Groups of people identified as most
as tertiary publics, could include city officials, sponsors or private waste important to the success of a public
removal companies as well as other park users who will benefit. relations campaign or program.
In cases involving competition or divisive issues, publics may be seg-
Secondary publics
mented into proponents, opponents and uncommitted. Campaign strat- Groups of people who are impor-
egy, especially in political campaigns, often focuses on the uncommitted. tant to a public relations campaign
While it is important to reinforce the attitudes of supporters, and occa- or program because of their rela-
tionship with primary publics.
sionally those opposed to your candidate or position may be won over in
an election, the greatest gains in many campaigns come from undecided Tertiary publics
or independent voters. The same logic applies outside of politics. Some Groups of people who indirectly
influence or are indirectly affected
people will support your efforts even without a public relations program, by a public relations campaign or
and others will never get involved; however, you can make progress with program.

Situation Analysis 131

 Planners need to consider many publics that will be involved in various ways with an event like this
neighborhood cleanup in Detroit.
Can you name some primary, secondary and tertiary publics for this event?

publics that are somewhere in between, moving them from latent to

aware to active.
Sometimes it makes sense to segment publics based on their role in the
communications process. For example, you may want to think about the
sources for your messages such as employees or members of your organiza-
tion, the intermediaries such as reporters, community leaders or social
media influencers, and the target publics who will receive and respond to
the message. Keep in mind that in two-way communication, senders and
receivers will have interchangeable roles. For example, company represen-
tatives may be expected to send information out, but having those same
people positioned to receive and respond to feedback is important too.
RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH ON PUBLICS
The following are useful resources for conducting research on publics:
• Results of prior surveys. These may be conducted either by the organiza-
tion or by others who have sampled from populations that overlap sig-
nificantly with key publics.
• Publicly available databases, including census data. Funded by the govern-
ment, U.S. Census data are free to access, and www.census.gov allows
for searching and analysis based on geography, demographics and topics
such as education, economy, health and business.
• Market research reports. These generally cost money if you want data tai-
lored to your specific questions about key publics, but they can be useful

132 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

 and fascinating if your budget permits them. For example, the Strategic
Business Insights’ VALSTM (values, attitudes and lifestyles) system offers
demographic and psychographic profiles of consumers.
• Media lists. These include journalists and other opinion leaders (e.g., col-
umnists, editors, commentators) and influencers online (e.g., bloggers
and other actively engaged social media users).
• News stories or online reports about key publics. For example, if you search
for “Sacramento park cleanup” you’d find information from the city of
Sacramento about volunteer programs, a nonprofit organization called
Census data are freely available at
American River Parkway Foundation that coordinates cleanup activi-
www.census.gov.
ties, and news and information about “Creek Week” including its past
How might this type of data be
sponsors and Facebook group (“First we clean . . . then we celebrate!”). useful in a public relations
More controversial situations will more likely have been covered in program?
news reports including descriptive information about proponents and
opponents. News stories or prior research reports may also include
perspectives gained from interviews that offer richer perspective than is
available from statistical reports.
• Social media accounts of representatives of key publics. Blogs, Twitter
accounts, public Facebook groups and Instagram accounts can offer a
better understanding of a public’s motivations, concerns and general
culture from a first-person perspective.
• An organization’s past communication records with key publics. Look around
for collections of comment cards, email folders with public feedback,
archived comments or replies to social media posts, minutes from public
meetings, guest lists for special events and even logs of incoming phone
calls (including complaints). As a customer, I actually like it when I’m
told that my call to a company “may be recorded.” It gives me hope that
my concern will be taken seriously (though somehow I doubt those call
recordings are listened to often).

Quantitative Research
When numbers and statistics accompany the results of research, it is consid-
ered quantitative research. In a blood drive, quantitative data could include
demographic statistics on blood donors and non-donors in a county, the
number of email accounts that are known to have received an invitation, the
percentage of people who click on a link in an email invitation, the number of
people who respond to a Facebook invitation, the number of retweets of a
Twitter announcement, other more sophisticated analytics of the pattern of
social media activities, the number of people who make an appointment to
donate blood, the number of people who actually board the bloodmobile on a
Quantitative research
given day and, perhaps most important, the amount of blood actually donated. Research that results in numerical
Surveys and experiments are common methods for quantitative research. or statistical data and analysis.

Quantitative Research 133

Treatment group Surveys
A group of subjects or people in an
experiment who receive or are ex- Questionnaires that are administered online, on printed paper or face-to-
posed to a treatment. face allow researchers to gather data from respondents that can be presented
in quantitative form. Reports can include the number or percentages of
Control group
A group of subjects or people in an people who answered questions in certain ways (yes, no, maybe, strongly
experiment who do not receive or agree, etc.) and more sophisticated statistics such as correlations, and tests of
are not exposed to a treatment for the significance of interactions between variables.
the purpose of comparison.
For example, researchers who surveyed a sample of Polish university
Content analysis students with questionnaires administered in lecture rooms found that
A systematic method for analyzing 19 percent had considered blood donation and that 37.9 percent had not
recorded information such as audio,
video or text. decided about donating blood or had never even thought about it. They also
reported that religious obligation (measured with a numerical scale of
agreement with the statement “My religious beliefs encourage me to help
other people”) correlated with another item that measured “definite con-
sideration of blood donation.”18 A positive correlation in this case means
that people who reported stronger religious beliefs were more likely to con-
sider donating blood.

Experiments
Experiments allow researchers to test predictions based on controlled dif-
ferences between groups. For example, researchers working with the Swiss
Red Cross and the Zurich Blood Donation Service sent three different invi-
tations out to people who were registered in the blood donation service’s
database. Recipients of the invitations were randomly assigned to one of
three groups. Members of one group, a treatment group, were offered a
lottery ticket as an incentive to donate. A second treatment group was of-
fered a free blood screening. The third group, known as a control group,
was offered no special incentive. Because more than 10,000 donors were
part of the study and participants were assigned to groups randomly, any
difference between groups could reasonably be attributed to the different
invitations and incentives. The researchers found that “offering a lottery
ticket increases usable donations by 5 percentage points over a baseline do-
nation rate of 42 percent.”19

Content Analysis
Content analysis does not involve direct interaction or questioning of
people, but rather analyzing the content of people’s communication. Any
type of recorded communication—from newspaper articles to TV shows to
YouTube comments to Instagram feeds—can be systematically analyzed.
In planning a blood drive, it may be useful to analyze the content of
comments on the organization’s Facebook page, news stories that mention
Social media allow countless ways
for people to communicate.
the organization by name, letters and e-mails written to the organization
or internal communication such as memos and newsletters. University of
What are some useful units of
analysis that can be quantified in Miami Professor Emeritus Don Stacks identified four types of units of anal-
a medium like Facebook? ysis that can be quantified.20

134 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

 1. Words or symbols. How many times has the word bloodmobile been
used in the local newspaper in the past year? How many times
during a drive was #bloodmobile used on Instagram? How many
arm selfies appeared?
2. Characters. These are the people involved or the roles that they
play. How often do stories include volunteers, donors, doctors or
recipients?
3. Time and space. How many minutes of news coverage does a blood
drive get on TV? How much space does the announcement get in a
company email newsletter?
4. Items. An item is the message itself. How many tweets? How many
comments on a blog? Even the number of likes on Facebook could
count as items.

Content analysis also can reveal themes and underlying messages in

communication. Stacks calls this latent content. A careful analysis of blog

The label #Bloodmobile aggregates an interesting sample of user-generated content related to

blood drives.
How might you use Instagram in the research process for planning a blood drive in your
community?

Quantitative Research 135

Qualitative research entries about donating blood may, for example, reveal a theme of interper-
Research that results in in-depth
description and understanding with-
sonal influence if bloggers regularly mention key people who motivated
out relying on the use of numbers them to donate. Convenience, guilt, safety or altruism could also show up
or statistics to analyze findings. as themes. Exploring deeper themes and meaning, however, is much more
of a qualitative endeavor than quantitative. Therefore, content analysis can
be quantitative or qualitative.

Qualitative Research
Qualitative research answers open-ended questions that can’t be answered
with numbers alone. What motivates people to donate blood? What fears,
concerns or misconceptions do potential donors have? What differences have
volunteers observed between one-time donors and donors who give blood re-
peatedly? Interviews, focus groups and direct observation give researchers
and strategists a deeper understanding of human behavior.

Interviews
While it is interesting and useful to know that researchers have found a sta-
tistical correlation between religious beliefs and consideration of blood dona-
tion, much more can be learned about what potential blood donors are
thinking and feeling by sitting down with them (or talking on the phone or
Skype, etc.) and asking carefully considered open-ended questions. In-depth
interviews allow respondents the opportunity to elaborate, sometimes re-
vealing answers the researcher may have never even considered. Perhaps the
connection between religion and blood donor attitudes has something to do
with deep-seated personal values. Or maybe it’s just convenience if the blood
drives are organized at churches? Or perhaps it’s a combination of these
­factors? Interviewing people is a good way to find out. Interviews enable
­respondents to answer questions in their own terms instead of merely agree-
ing or disagreeing with statements in surveys or answering questions within
the constraints of short-answer questionnaire formats. Interviews can focus
on facts and biographical information, beliefs, feelings, motives, behaviors,
perceived norms and conscious reasoning for feelings and behavior.21

Focus Groups
In public relations, we are very often interested in how people think, feel and
act in groups. Focus groups are essentially group interviews. Instead of sit-
ting down with an individual, you would arrange to interview a small group
of 6 to 12 people together. While each person may not have the opportunity
to articulate his or her own insight at length the way he or she would in a one-
on-one interview, the conversation among people in a focus group may yield
results that more closely approximate the way people form and express ideas
in social settings.
A well-moderated focus group will allow group members to explore
points of agreement as well as areas in which members diverge in their

136 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

Focus groups were commonly used by advertising firms in the Mad Men era of the 1950s and
1960s to test ad concepts, and they have been widely adopted in social sciences in recent decades.
How can public relations researchers use focus groups?

attitudes, beliefs and behaviors. In his book Focus Groups as Qualitative Re-
search, sociologist David Morgan wrote about how focus groups can bring to
life topics that may be mundane or difficult to explore in depth with any one
individual: “I once watched a marketer with a background in sociology con-
duct a lively demonstration focus group of professors and graduate students
who discussed their use of bar soap.”22 Indeed, it would be hard to imagine
sitting down with one person for an hour or so to talk about a bar of soap.
Imagine what a skilled group moderator could do with the right group of
people from one of your key publics discussing a topic like blood donation.

Direct Observation
Of course, what people say is not always consistent with what they do. There-
fore, do not overlook direct observation as a form of research. Two types of
direct observation are participant and nonparticipant observation. In
­nonparticipant observation the researcher does not interact with the
people being observed. A researcher might sit unnoticed a few feet away from
volunteers who are staffing a blood drive registration table or out of the way
Nonparticipant observation
in the back of a bloodmobile and watch what people do and say. In p­ articipant Research method in which the re-
observation, the researcher interacts with those being observed, sometimes searcher avoids interaction with the
for very long periods of time. You may have seen documentaries dealing with environment or those being
observed.
anthropologists who go to great lengths to become part of the cultures they
wish to understand. Research in public relations planning likely will not re- Participant observation
Research method in which the re-
quire such an intense personal commitment. If your organization is a local
searcher deliberately interacts with
blood bank, you could learn a lot by serving as a volunteer or by going through the environment and those being
the blood donation process yourself while observing others. observed.

Qualitative Research 137

Secondary research Direct observation can also reveal important variables to measure in
Collection, summary, analysis or
application of previously reported
other types of research. For example, a blood bank may decide to do further
research. research on factors that influence donors, such as cleanliness of facilities,
the comfort of waiting areas, food and drink options and donor interaction
Primary research
Systematic design, collection, analy-
with counselors.
sis and application of original data
or observation.

Informal research
Research conducted without clear
Secondary and Primary Research
rules or procedures, which makes Many of the resources for research listed earlier would be considered
the findings difficult to replicate or ­secondary research, which is the re-use of research and data that already
compare to other research or
situations. have been collected. When public relations strategists explore census data,
read market research reports, search for blogs or news stories on the web or
Formal research
Research designed with clear rules
review research from past case studies, they are conducting secondary re-
and procedures for collection and search. Consider how much you can learn about blood drives (situations),
analysis of information. blood banks (organizations) and blood donors (publics) without even step-
ping away from your computer. In writing this chapter, every single resource
on blood drives consulted was available online. But if I wanted to plan my
own blood drive here in my own hometown, I would still have some specific
questions that would require primary research to answer.
Primary research involves designing research and collecting your
Primary research own data for communication planning. One clear benefit of primary re-
allows you to search is that it allows you to tailor research to your own specific purposes.
tailor your While I have learned that lottery tickets were an effective incentive to con-
research to your vince people to donate blood in Switzerland and that college students in
own specific Poland are motivated in part by religious beliefs, I may want to test other
purposes. incentives with my own research.

Formal and Informal Research

As mentioned near the beginning of this chapter, research in public relations
ranges from casual and unscientific to carefully planned and sophisticated.
In other words, the options range from informal research to formal
­research. The more carefully that public relations strategists design research
with clear rules and procedures for the collection and analysis of informa-
tion, the more formal the research.
The U.S. Department of Health and Human Services includes an agency
called the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
(SAMHSA). SAMHSA funds a national survey on drug use and health that
involves interviews with a random sample of nearly 70,000 Americans aged
12 or older. The company selected to conduct the research, Research Triangle
Institute, won the bid to conduct the research based on their expertise in re-
search design, sampling and data collection, processing, analysis and report-
ing. This formal process has obvious advantages over less formal research.
The survey is designed to “provide national and state-level estimates on the
use of tobacco products, alcohol, illicit drugs (including non-medical use of

138 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

prescription drugs) and mental health in
the United States.”23 Goals for the research
include providing accurate data on drug use
and abuse, tracking national trends in the
use of alcohol, tobacco and various types of
drugs, studying the consequences of sub-
stance use and abuse, and identifying high-
risk groups. The resulting data are of great
value to SAMHSA and the organizations it
serves, including state and local health de-
partments, the U.S. Department of Educa-
tion and the White House Office of National
Drug Control Policy. It is easy to imagine
how the research would be useful in strate-
gic planning for anyone practicing public
relations in any one of these organizations.
The research yields a wealth of data on the
situation and the publics with whom these
organizations are most concerned. The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)
Informal research just wouldn’t pro- spends millions of dollars on scientific research, including face-to-face survey
vide the same value in results. The main administration, to attain good data on drug use and health issues in the United
States.
issue with formal research, however, is
that it doesn’t come cheap. The SAMHSA Why is this research so expensive?

contract award with optional surveys run-

ning from 2018 to 2022 costs U.S. taxpayers $300,514,412!24
So, let’s say you don’t have a couple hundred million in your budget, but
you still need to do some research. Informal research can be designed and
conducted for practically free. If you were researching drug and alcohol
issues, you could ask your friends and family about drugs and alcohol
­(informal interviews or focus groups), create a quick online questionnaire
or Facebook poll and post it on your organization’s page (informal survey),
compare a few different types of brochures to see if they have different ef-
fects on people (informal experiment) or skim local newspapers for drug-
and alcohol-related stories (informal content analysis).
Of course, asking some questions to a few friends and conducting a
$300 million national survey represent extremes on the spectrum from in-
formal to formal research. Deciding on research that best meets your orga-
nization’s needs and budget means weighing costs and benefits. Two of the
biggest factors driving decisions about research are reliability and validity.

Reliability and Validity

Reliability refers to how well a particular research technique can be applied
multiple times and yield comparable data. In getting ready for a long trip,
I often lift my suitcase and estimate how much it weighs because I don’t want
to get dinged with a $25 fee for overweight luggage if my bag weighs more
Reliability
than 50 pounds. I zip my bag closed and lift it a few inches off the ground. Consistency and precision of a par-
“About 40 pounds,” I figure. “No problem.” ticular research technique.

Formal and Informal Research 139

Validity Two hours later, I unload my family’s luggage from the car to the curb
Accuracy of a particular research
technique in measuring or observ-
at the airport. I lean way into the back of the car to heave my bag out. “Oh
ing what the researcher intends to no!,” I think this time. “This thing has got to weigh at least 55 pounds.” In
measure or observe. reality, my bag weighs the same at the airport as it did at home, but my
guestimate is not reliable.
I get to the ticket counter for the moment of truth. “Please put your bag
on the scale,” says the ticket agent. The digits on the display scramble and
then settle in on the reading—52 pounds. “D’oh!” I take my bag off the
scale, pull a jacket and a book out, and heave it back on the scale. The digits
on the scale scramble again as we all wait for the new reading . . . 49 pounds.
“Woohoo!” No one argues with the scale. We assume it is reliable. If you
place the same bag with the same contents on the scale multiple times it
should give the same reading. That’s reliability. If you get a different reading
on a second measure, as in my case, you assume that the weight of the suit-
case actually changed, not that something is wrong with the scale. Again,
the assumption is that the scale is reliable.
One of the goals of the national drug use survey is to track changes in
drug and alcohol use. The formal research methods employed are designed
for reliability so that if the results show a year-to-year change in drug or
alcohol use among a certain population, researchers can be confident that
the change in results is due more to actual changes in the population than
to errors in the survey as a measurement tool. Smaller (and less expensive)
research designs can be reliable too if they are designed well.
Validity is a big Validity refers to the accuracy of a measurement or observation in re-
concern when flecting what the researcher intends to measure or observe. After the agent
trying to measure checks my bag at the ticket counter it rides on a conveyor belt and disappears
intangibles like into another part of the airport, likely to go through an X-ray machine or pass
attitudes toward by bomb-sniffing dogs. The scale at the ticket counter may offer a reliable read-
an organization or ing of weight in pounds, but no validity in representing the contents of the
involvement with bag. From the weight scale, the agent would have no idea whether the bag con-
an issue. tains 49 pounds of books or 49 pounds of clothes or 49 pounds of pineapples.
Validity in public relations research and social science research can be
particularly tricky because we often try to measure and observe things that
are much harder to define than books, clothes or pineapples. When the con-
cepts to be measured include intangibles like attitudes toward an organiza-
tion, involvement with an issue or behavior that is not easily observed in
public, validity is a big concern. Even in a very reliable survey of alcohol use
for example, we have to wonder about validity. Consider the following find-
ing from a SAMHSA report.
“Nationally, 15.9 percent of all persons aged 12 to 20 were binge alcohol
users in the 30 days prior to being surveyed. Estimates ranged from
9.2 ­percent in Shelby County, Tennessee, to 46.3 percent in the District of
Columbia’s Ward 2.”25
Reading this report after reviewing the research methods, I am fairly con-
fident in the reliability of the results. I’m confident that there is significantly
more binge drinking in D.C.’s Ward 2 than in Shelby County, Tennessee. But
I’m a little less confident in how well the data from a self-report drinking

140 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

survey represents the complexity of alcohol use and abuse. The researchers
carefully define binge drinking as having five or more drinks on the same oc-
casion at least one time in the past 30 days, but people may reasonably dis-
agree about what these self-reports actually indicate in terms of alcohol abuse.
Another example is campus crime safety campaigns. If you organize a
campus safety campaign that emphasizes the importance of reporting sus-
picious activity, how would you feel about an increase in calls to police on
your campus? Would you be disappointed because this indicates more suspi-
cious activity? Or would you welcome the news that more suspicious activ-
ity was actually reported? Or would you need more information to draw a
conclusion? This is a question of validity and requires a deeper understand-
ing of the information available. You may obtain that information from fur-
ther quantitative data (number of actual convictions or data on property
loss) or you may obtain it from qualitative research (in-depth interviews
with law enforcement, riding along with police on their beats, etc.).

Trade-Offs in Research Design

No single research method, no matter how formal, is perfect. There are always
trade-offs. The strengths of a large-scale national survey with tens of thou-
sands of participants can become limitations in understanding deeper social
phenomena. Careful observation or in-depth interviewing can reveal rich in- No single research
formation to help you understand your organization and publics and their method, no matter
deeper motivations, attitudes and behavior, but reliability becomes an issue how formal, is
with this type of research because it would be difficult to repeat with consist- perfect. There are
ent results. always trade-offs.
A research methods course will help you design and evaluate research
for reliability and validity. Even if you end up performing secondary re-
search or hiring others to conduct research, understanding the different
types of research and the strengths and limitations of your options is a
critical part of planning for strategic public relations and for reporting the
results of your work with confidence.

Qualitative and quantitative research often complement each other.

What are the trade-offs of surveys and less formal questioning as research methods?

Formal and Informal Research 141

 Voices from the Field
Megan Kindelan

MEGAN KINDELAN is Director of Public Affairs for BLS in the language they understand to show that
the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) and what we are doing is having an impact.
teaches strategic public relations in The George
Washington University Graduate School of Political You also teach strategic communications.
Management. Kindelan also served for eight years as What are some of the best research re-
a Public Affairs Specialist for the U.S. Census Bureau. sources you share with your students?
My favorite (and free!) resource is Google Alerts.
How do public relations people use the labor Budgets are tight at BLS and across the federal gov-
statistics your office provides? ernment, and this news alert system is better than
The Bureau of Labor Statistics has millions of data some of the media monitoring I’ve paid for in the
points that measure the ever-changing economy. We past. It’s a time saver and a great way to track cover-
like to say that from your very first job to retirement age. Excel is another (often overlooked) resource
and everything in between, BLS has a stat for that! that I use for just about everything—from making my
Public relations professionals often use our data to own media database to running statistics. I also go
back up their own research on everything from how to PRSA to keep up-to-date on research trends and
much consumers spend on certain items to which case studies. Their Public Relations Journal is
jobs are in demand. Using quantifiable data from a fantastic.
trusted federal statistical agency is a great way to
prove (and improve!) whatever pitch you are trying What’s the most interesting statistic or trend
to make to reporters—from showing how Americans your office has turned up recently?
spend their time (our American Time Use Survey) to Ridden in an Uber or Lyft recently or used TaskRab-
exploring the spending patterns of Millennials com- bit? BLS recently did a study on this type of gig
pared to earlier generations (our Consumer Expendi- (short-term work), focusing for the first time on
ture Survey). people who do short jobs or tasks they find through
websites or mobile apps. I think I can safely say most
You’re in an interesting position because you of you reading this book have worked for or used
work for a government office that conducts what we call here at BLS “electronically mediated
research and makes it available to everyone work.” BLS found that about 1.6 million people do
else, but you’re a professional communicator this type of work, accounting for about 1 percent of
yourself. How do you use research to support total employment.
your own communication efforts?
Working for a statistical agency surrounded by data How’s the job market looking for those seek-
experts makes my job even more fun! I create a ing to enter the public relations field in the
quarterly digital metrics report for all BLS staff, and I next few years?
appreciate the enthusiasm my colleagues have for Employment of public relations specialists is pro-
the data I provide. I have to be prepared to answer jected to grow 9 percent through 2026, about as
very in-depth and savvy questions about the statisti- fast as average for all occupations. BLS pay data
cal methods I’ve used in the report. This metrics show that the median pay for public relations profes-
report is just one example of how I’m using data to sionals is $59,300 per year. The typical entry-level
show the ROI (return on investment) of the commu- education required? A bachelor’s degree. So, keep
nications work we do. I’m speaking to executives at studying!

142 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

Ethics: Doing the Greatest Good for Utilitarianism
Principle that the most ethical

the Greatest Number of People course of action is the one that

maximizes good and minimizes
harm for people.
Research helps us make informed decisions. Public relations practitioners
use research not only to inform their own thinking and strategy, but also to
inform and persuade their organizations and publics. Contributing to the
marketplace of ideas in a way that informs citizens in democracies is one of
the highest ideals of public relations. One of the most common ways that
public relations professionals engage the marketplace of ideas is to present
research data.
In democracies, ideas are often judged based on the question of which Research the
course of action will do the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
In philosophy, this approach to decision-making is called utilitarianism.
consequences of
Nineteenth-century English philosopher Jeremy Bentham and one of his
competing actions
students, political economist and philosopher John Stuart Mill, spelled out and determine
utilitarianism as an ethic of consequences. That is, they wrote that you can which action does
decide on an ethical course of action by determining which actions will the most good and
have the best consequences. Take into account all the good and bad conse- the least bad.
quences of competing actions and determine which action does the most That’s utilitarian
good and the least bad, and then you are ready to act ethically. ethics.
Ethics of consequences can be applied in everyday decision-making. In
deciding how to handle media interview requests when bad news breaks,
which stories to include in newsletters, what photos to pin on Pinterest
and even which employee tweets to retweet, public relations practitioners
think through the consequences of their actions in an effort to make the
right decisions every day. But when dealing with large-scale issues of
public concern, research is often brought into the mix to help organiza-
tions decide on their positions and then
advocate appropriately.
Take, for example, the issue of raising
minimum wages for fast-food restaurant
workers. It’s an interesting and difficult
political and economic issue, and we have
organizations with paid professionals
ready and willing to help us sort out the
best course of action.
A nonprofit organization called the
Employment Policies Institute published
a research report by an economics profes-
sor at San Diego State University that
found that raising minimum wages actu-
ally leads to reduced employment oppor-
tunities for entry-level laborers. The study
of data over two decades shows that in Workers protest for a higher minimum wage.
weak labor markets “each 10 percent min- In what ways could reasonable people disagree about the consequences
imum wage increase reduces employment of raising minimum wages?

Ethics: Doing the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number of People 143
 for young drop-outs by over four percent.”26 John Stuart Mill would love
this, right? The data show us that even though some people would benefit
from raised wages, others—particularly the least skilled and least experi-
enced employees—would suffer because there are fewer jobs. The thrust of
the research posted by the Employment Policies Institute suggests that not
raising minimum wages would do the greatest good for the greatest
number of people.
Of course there is another side to this issue. The Center for Labor Re-
search and Education at UC Berkeley published results of a study that
showed “the fast-food industry costs American taxpayers nearly $7 billion
annually because its jobs pay so little that 52 percent of fast-food workers
are forced to enroll their families in public assistance programs.”27 If low
wages hurt both the fast-food workers and taxpayers, then the utilitarian
answer seems to be to raise wages. What would Mill say now?
As the minimum wage case shows, determining the most ethical an-
swers to public-interest questions by
trying to maximize positive and mini-
mize negative outcomes can be difficult.
Philosophers call it utilitarian calculus,
and it has its limits. In the minimum wage
case much of the confusion stems from
the fact that the organizations promoting
the research have very different political
agendas. The data from the Berkeley study
were used by a group called the National
Employment Law Project, which hosts
websites such as http://www.raisethemi-
nimumwage.org and https://www.just-
pay.org that advocate for higher minimum
wages. On the other side, the Employ-
ment Policies Institute is closely tied with
a public relations firm called Berman and
Company and the website http://www.
minimumwage.com. According to a report
in The New York Times, Berman and Co.
bills the nonprofit Employment Policies
Institute for ­ services of its employees,
and “the arrangement effectively means
the nonprofit is a moneymaking venture”
for Richard Berman and his associates
who actively represent and advocate for
the restaurant industry.
Perhaps the moral of the story for
The website minimumwage.com uses research to argue one side to a conten- public relations is to avoid confusing the
tious issue. use of research for advocacy and profit
Is this an example of ethical utilitarianism? with the process of utilitarian ethics. As

144 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

 public relations scholars Shannon Bowen and Don Stacks point out, a pri-
mary weakness of utilitarian ethics is that the person who applies them can
use them “to sanction whatever he or she wants to maximize in their per-
sonal good outcomes, as opposed to maximizing the greatest good for the
greatest interest in the public interest.”28
The Institute for Public Relations measurement commission has ad-
opted a statement on ethical standards in public relations research and
measurement that promotes many core values beyond utilitarianism: “All
research should abide by the principles of intellectual honesty, fairness,
dignity, disclosure, and respect for all stakeholders involved, namely cli-
ents (both external and internal), colleagues, research participants, the
public relations profession and the researchers themselves.”29

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI

The very first thing most of us do • Organization-public relationships flourish

when we need an answer to a new when you spend as much energy trying to
understand your publics as you do trying to get
question is hit the search button. your message out.
But research in public relations is
• Good internal communication affects external
about so much more than online communication . . . because employees serve as
searching and “re-searching.” To de- brand advocates.
velop effective strategy and achieve • Some people will support your efforts with-
worthwhile outcomes, we have to out a public relations program and others will
never get involved, but you can make pro-
ask the right questions and under- gress with publics that are somewhere in
stand the best methods for answer- between.
ing them. Here are some tips to • Primary research allows you to tailor your
consider as you get started with research to your own specific purposes.
your programs and campaigns, • Validity is a big concern when trying to measure
maybe even before you open intangibles like attitudes toward an organiza-
tion or involvement with an issue.
Google.
• No single research method, no matter how
formal, is perfect. There are always trade-offs.
• Evaluation can happen at any point in a strate-
• Research the consequences of competing
gic program, not just at the end.
actions and determine which one does the
• Gaining a deeper understanding of a situation most good and the least bad. That’s utilitarian
requires digging for information of substance ethics.
beyond an internet search.

Ethics: Doing the Greatest Good for the Greatest Number of People 145
 SUMMARY
5.1 Explain the role of formative and summa- descriptions that don’t rely on numbers or sta-
tive research in the RPIE cycle. tistics. Interviews, focus groups and direct ob-
Formative research is conducted before and servation help public relations researchers
during a campaign or program to develop and understand the behavior of various publics.
fine-tune strategy. Summative research is con- Qualitative research allows for rich description
ducted at the end to answer the question, “Did and deep understanding of the people or con-
it work?” However, one campaign or program tent studied before, during and after public re-
normally leads to another, so what may be lations efforts.
considered summative for one effort may
become formative for future strategy. Research 5.5 Compare costs and benefits of secondary
and evaluation can be thought of as connected and primary research.
parts of a cycle rather than the beginning and Secondary research is generally cheaper and
end of a linear process. easier than primary research. However, pri-
mary research yields custom results that are
5.2 Describe the contents of a situation directly applicable to the situation at hand.
analysis.
In writing a situation analysis, the planner re- 5.6 Differentiate between formal and
searches and reports on the strengths and ­informal research based on reliability
weaknesses of an organization along with the and validity.
opportunities and threats in the organization’s Informal research is easier than formal re-
environment (i.e., SWOT analysis) as they search, but formal research is conducted with
relate to the motive for a public relations pro- rules and procedures that allow for more confi-
gram or campaign. The narrative analysis leads dence in the results. Reliability refers to the
to a concise problem or opportunity statement consistency and precision of a research tech-
that clearly articulates the reason for planning nique: Does the instrument produce the same
a public relations program or campaign and or comparable results in repeated trials? Valid-
sets the stage for campaign goals. ity refers to the accuracy of the technique: Are
5.3 Discuss applications of quantitative you measuring what you think you’re
research. measuring?
Quantitative research is when numbers and
5.7 Evaluate utilitarianism as an ethical
statistics are used to answer research ques-
­principle for public relations research.
tions. It allows for clear numerical reporting
Utilitarianism is a useful ethical principle to the
and analysis of large amounts of data. Surveys,
extent that the person applying it makes unbi-
experiments and content analyses all provide
ased and informed decisions based on a clear
data that can be used to describe and analyze
understanding of the relative harm and benefit
public relations situations, public relations ef-
of competing courses of action. When re-
forts and public relations results.
searchers work with a biased perspective on
5.4 Discuss applications of qualitative the data available, they tend to calculate ben-
research. efit and harm in ways that support their own
Qualitative research is when open-ended re- opinions or agendas rather than society at
search questions are answered with in-depth large.

146 CHAPTER 5   |   RESEARCH

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Recall an event or activity that you’ve planned 4. How do you think the public relations insights
and conducted in the past year. What kind of gained from a focus group would be different
formative research, if any, did you do? How from the insights gained from individual inter-
could summative evaluation of that effort help views with the same people?
you next time you do a similar event or activ- 5. Have you ever conducted a survey, focus
ity? What kind of research would you do next group or other type of social research? Aside
time? from cost, what are some advantages and dis-
2. CASE STUDY Would you say you were part of advantages of doing primary research yourself
a latent, aware or active public for the issue versus using secondary research?
of net neutrality before reading this chapter? 6. Suppose you are asked to organize a fundrais-
Identify one organization that might want to ing drive for a local nonprofit group or student
see your status on the issue change? What organization. After identifying the organization,
types of research would a public relations name two types of research you might do as
person from that organization do to have a part of your efforts—one type more informal
better chance of understanding people like and one type more formal. Which would be
you as part of their situation analysis? more reliable and why? Which would be more
3. Look through https://www.census.gov or valid and why?
­another site that presents quantitative statisti- 7. Name a decision that a politician made that
cal data about people. What’s the most inter- you don’t agree with. Make a utilitarian argu-
esting statistic you can find? Name an ment for why you would make a different deci-
organization that would be interested in that sion. What kind of research supports your case
information for public relations purposes? How (and his or hers)?
would they use it?

KEY TERMS
Active publics 129 Latent publics 129 Quantitative research 133
Analytics 119 Level of involvement 129 Reliability 139
Aware publics 129 Mission statement 123 Secondary publics 131
Constraint recognition 129 Net neutrality 128 Secondary research 138
Content analysis 134 Nonparticipant observation 137 Situation analysis 120
Control group 134 Organizational culture 125 Situational theory of publics 128
Demographics 129 Participant observation 137 Summative research 119
External publics 126 Primary publics 131 SWOT analysis 120
Formal research 138 Primary research 138 Tertiary publics 131
Formative research 118 Problem or opportunity statement 120 Treatment group 134
In house 123 Problem recognition 129 Utilitarianism 143
Informal research 138 Psychographics 129 Validity 140
Internal publics 125 Qualitative research 136 Vision statement 124

KEY TERMS 147

 C HAP TE R 6

Planning

Convincing people to wash their hands more is a universal

challenge. How do international organizations collaborate to
change behavior and measure success?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

6.1 Analyze strategic 6.3 Develop basic timelines 6.5 Apply consequentialism to
­communication outcomes. to organize tasks in a strategic make ethical decisions about
public relations program. setting and achieving public
6.2 Define key terms of
s­ trategic communication 6.4 Identify key categories of relations objectives while en-
planning. public relations budget items. hancing the profession.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.4 STR ATEGIC THINKING • 1.5 PL ANNING • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR
4.2 BARRIERS TO COMMUNIC ATION • 5.2 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
A
ppear or occur suddenly and unexpectedly—
that’s how Oxford Dictionaries defines the term
pop up.1 But there is nothing sudden or unex-
pected about pop-ups as strategic communication tac-
tics. A pop-up is a temporary storefront, event or Research
experience designed to gain attention and generate Planning
engagement by appearing quickly in an unusual place.
Effective pop-ups take planning with bigger organiza-
tional goals in mind. Melissa Gonzalez, author of The
Pop-Up Paradigm, advises, “Step back and think of your
goals before starting to plan a pop-up. Why are you
doing a pop-up—besides sales—and what are you ulti-
mately looking to achieve, learn and gain from it?”2 Evaluation
These are good questions for any kind of public rela- Implementation
tions activity, from one-time tactics to long-term cam-
paigns. Planning in public relations refers to the
forethought about goals and objectives and the strate-
gies and tactics for achieving them (Figure 6.1). Study-
Figure 6.1 In the RPIE cycle, planning is preceded by re-
ing outcomes of past campaigns and programs can
search (including evaluation of past programs and campaigns)
help us develop goals and objectives for future ones. and drives implementation.
Think of all the planning required for the shoe How does research help planners write better goals and
company Timberland to host a weeklong series of objectives?
events in New York City, including the launch of its
first experiential pop-up store on Fifth Avenue. The
3,500-square-foot retail store was designed to exist for only a few months
during the fall and holiday shopping season, but it featured live full-sized
ficus and birch trees, giant terrariums with ferns and moss, and various
weather-themed rooms including an immersive digital rain room and a
“blustery, photo-ready winter scene.”3 This was all very “Instagrammable”
of course. But beyond Timberland’s wish “to inspire the community to em-
brace the outdoors in the city”4 (as stated in a Timberland news release),
what was Timberland really trying to accomplish? Or, as Vox’s Kaitlyn Tif-
fany asked, “What does any of this have to do with actually buying Timber-
land’s shoes?”5
To better understand and evaluate public relations tactics like Timber-
land’s pop-ups, we have to understand how and why they were planned in
the first place. According to Argu Secilmis, the company’s vice president of
global brand marketing, beyond product sales, one major goal was making
an emotional connection to Timberland’s commitment to environmental
and social responsibility.
There are a number of steps that take place between someone noticing Pop-up
a giant boot on a city block, which was part of the pop-up park in the Flat- Planned events or experiences that
are set up quickly in a temporary
iron District of New York City, or seeing friends’ Instagram selfies from a location for a short time.
weather experience room on Fifth Avenue, and purchasing a $200 pair of
boots or rolling up their sleeves in Harlem to create a living rooftop. This Planning
Forethought about goals and objec-
chapter discusses those steps as well as the key components of plans to tives and the strategies and tactics
achieve them: goals, objectives, timelines and budgets. needed to achieve them.

PL ANNING 149
For one day, this giant replica of Timberland’s iconic wheat boot drew families to a pop-up park in the Flatiron District of New York City,
kicking off a week-long series of events that also included the opening of a temporary 3,500-square foot Timberland store on Fifth Avenue.
What kind of planning is needed to make a pop-up event like this successful?

A Hierarchy of Outcomes
There are times when a client or organization knows they need help with public
relations, but they have a hard time specifying exactly what it is that they want
you to do. Your job as the public relations professional is to convert fuzzy think-
ing into a strategy that will lead to meaningful results for the organization.
One of the most common client requests is “Help us raise awareness.”
Awareness may be part of the desired results, but more often than not
awareness is only an intermediate step in a larger process to reach some
other goal. Awareness of a cause, a new product or an app is only part of the
process in leading people to donate, purchase or download, and to contin-
ued involvement or use beyond that.
Awareness of a Planning for public relations means considering a number of outcomes
cause, new beyond awareness. Public relations practitioners need to think strategically
product or app is about communication. That is, they need to think about the specific out-
only one step in comes of their action and communication. Yale social psychologist ­William
leading people to McGuire developed a hierarchy-of-effects model that outlines key steps in
donate, purchase public communication campaigns (Figure 6.2): tuning in, attending, liking,
or download. comprehending, learning, agreeing, remembering, acting and proselytizing.

150 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

 Proselytizing

Acting

Remembering

Agreeing

Learning

Comprehending

Liking

Attending

Tuning in

Figure 6.2 McGuire’s hierarchy of effects.

Where does “raising awareness” fit in this hierarchy? What are the limitations of
making awareness a campaign goal?

Tuning In
Before communication can have any effect at all, people must be exposed to
the messages. Think of all the messages you see and hear every day: advertis-
ing, announcements, posters, fliers, email, social media posts and so on—you
get the picture; even the most tuned-in media users are exposed to way more
messaging than anyone can possibly pay attention to. While exposure is nec-
essary in communication, it is only the first step in effective communication.

Attending
Attention is the next challenge. Take almost any bulletin board in any col-
lege hallway, classroom or lecture hall. Watch as people walk by the posted
fliers day after day. They are all exposed to the message if they even glance
at the bulletin board, but how many of them actually pay attention? Next
time you listen to ads on a streaming music service like Pandora or Spotify
(assuming you haven’t subscribed to the ad-free version), pay attention to
how you pay attention. Do you notice the first ad or two more than the ones
that come on after you’ve been listening a while?

Liking There’s evidence of limited success

On Facebook, we can signal our “likes” with a thumbs-up. It’s one of many with this hallway flier because some
emotions we can express. According to McGuire, “liking” in particular is of the contact tabs have been
taken.
an  important step in message processing because people must maintain
interest in a message in order to process it further. In public relations, our When someone takes a contact
tab, which steps to persuasion
messages are often more complex than a Facebook photo, a hallway flier are complete? Which still
announcing an event, or a streaming radio ad for tacos. Our publics may remain?

A Hierarchy of Outcomes 151

Fats, Oils, & Sweets KEY
USE SPARINGLY Fat (naturally occurring and added)
Sugars (added)
These symbols show fat and added sugars in foods.

Milk, Yogurt, Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans,

& Cheese Group Eggs,& Nuts Group
2-3 SERVINGS 2-3 SERVINGS

Vegetable Group Fruit Group

3-5 SERVINGS 2-4 SERVINGS

Bread, Cereal,
Rice, & Pasta
Group
6-11
SERVINGS

A B C

The USDA has a lot on its plate in communicating dietary guidelines in a likable and understandable way.
How is the newer message design (C) an improvement over older designs (A and B)?

not love the idea of donating blood, eating more vegetables or joining a
community discussion on a controversial issue, but if we are going to con-
vince them to participate, our communication has to keep them engaged.
If they dislike or just do not understand a message, they are unlikely to
process it.

Comprehending
Sometimes people like a message, but they just don’t get it. Again, in public
relations, goals and objectives for communication often depend on publics
understanding complex ideas or considering different sides of multidimen-
sional issues. A clever post or credible influencer may get lots of “likes,” but
effective communication requires comprehension.
I really liked the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s old food pyramid to
promote balanced eating. My reading of that poster on the cafeteria walls
of elementary, middle and high school was that I should carb-load like an
endurance athlete and then top off with maybe a nice steak and a milk-
shake. In hindsight, that’s probably not what the USDA was really trying to
communicate. They later revised the food pyramid to emphasize more exer-
cise and more individually appropriate choices. But that revision confused
people too. Realizing that their message may have been liked but was too
often misunderstood, the USDA settled on a plate graphic to illustrate the
importance of a balanced diet.

Learning
When campaign Helping publics acquire relevant skills is one of the more difficult goals to
goals include helping achieve in public relations. Consider campaigns to get people to save for
publics acquire retirement, properly separate recyclables or maintain safe privacy settings
relevant skills, on social media accounts. Public relations basically becomes an act of teach-
public relations ing. However, instead of the students sitting captive in a classroom, the
basically becomes primary public may be new employees who are overwhelmed in their first
an act of teaching. week on the job, tired residents taking their trash out or distracted

152 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

teenagers uploading to their Instagram accounts. Reaching and teaching
each public will require different tactics. New employees may be asked to
view an online video about retirement plans at their leisure before register-
ing for benefits. Instructions for recycling might be placed right on the
bins. Teens’ parents may be recruited to review privacy settings before
signing mobile contracts (although teaching parents may be harder than
teaching their kids).

Agreeing
So let’s say you’ve taught your public how to open a retirement account,
where to dispose of pizza boxes or how to revoke access to third-party web-
sites when posting photos on mobile apps. That still doesn’t mean they will
agree to do so. Attitude change is at the heart of persuasion.

Remembering
McGuire reminded communicators that publics must both store what
they’ve learned in memory and later retrieve that knowledge and attitude
at the right time. Even with the best intentions, people often forget to do
what it is they learned and agreed to do. When was the last time you actu-
ally reviewed your privacy settings on your social media accounts? Would a
reminder help? Building reminders into public relations campaigns makes
sense.

Acting
A lot of work goes into using communication to change knowledge and at-
titudes, but the most important results are usually behavioral. I’m thinking
of my annual flu shot. Each fall, I view, read and hear messages about flu
season and the importance of getting a flu shot. I pay attention because I
hate getting sick. I wouldn’t say I love the messages, but they do hold my
interest as I think about how vaccines work and the risks and benefits for
individuals and communities. I understand what getting a flu shot entails,
that I am eligible and that it will be covered by my insurance. I learn that all
I have to do is walk in to a clinic on a Monday through Friday, sign a form
and roll up my sleeve. I agree it’s a good idea. Then I get an email reminder on
a Tuesday afternoon when I have no other appointments. But none of this
matters to me, my immune system or the general state of public health in
my community if I don’t actually walk into the clinic and get the shot.
­Behavior is what matters most.

Proselytizing
The very best campaigns and communication efforts go beyond a two-step Proselytizing
communication flow from sender to media and from media to receivers. When members of publics advocate
They go viral. People not only learn, agree and act, but they encourage or promote to others the goals and
objectives of a communication strat-
others to do likewise; this is referred to as proselytizing. Proselytizing egy. Proselytizing is a key part of
may be the secret sauce of viral social media, but it also is key to the strategic campaigns going viral.

A Hierarchy of Outcomes 153

Impressions endurance of historical social movements in religion, education and politics
A measure of how many people
were exposed to a message.
(see Chapter 2).

Using McGuire’s Hierarchy of Effects

Avoid setting goals for Planning
at one level While not every public relations program will address all nine of these out-
(e.g.,  liking) when comes, and the steps do not always happen in the same order, thinking
through McGuire’s list (McGuire and others have offered other steps besides
what you and your these) can help your planning in a number of ways. First, the list will help
client really want you avoid the mistake of setting goals at one level (e.g., liking) when what
is effectiveness at you and your client really want is effectiveness at a greater level (e.g., acting).
a greater level Second, the list will help you identify specific objectives and tactics and
(e.g., acting). remind you not to forget any key steps. The remembering step may cue you
to include reminder emails or build an app feature that notifies publics
when it’s time to act. When you are evaluating your efforts, the list may
help you diagnose what worked and what didn’t. Maybe your campaign
message was tremendously popular (lots of liking) but led to very low par-
ticipation. You might then review whether people actually understood your
key message (comprehending) and knew how to act (learning).
Third, the list serves as a reminder to be realistic about expected out-
comes. Let’s say you get your story placed in The Wall Street Journal, and it
contains your key messages just how you want them. Score! The 2019 U.S.
circulation figure for the national edition is 1,011,200. For simplicity, we
might optimistically estimate the following:

• A million people are exposed to the message.

• A quarter of those who are exposed pay attention (250,000).

• A fifth of those who pay attention are interested enough to read the
story (50,000).
• Half of those who read it understand the key message (25,000).

• Most of those who understand the key message acquire the skills you
want them to (20,000).
• Half of those with the skills agree (10,000).
• One in 10 of those who agree remember (1,000).

• Half of those who remember finally act on the message (500).

Convincing 500 people to do something is excellent if you’re leasing

airplanes or seeking large donations to a nonprofit, but it may not be as
meaningful if you’re selling smoothies or trying to get out votes for a na-
tional election. And in either case, 500 is a far cry from the 1 million
i­ mpressions—the measure of how many people were exposed to a
­message—that you may be tempted to claim as a metric of success.

154 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

 Digital media allow for better track-
ing of steps as well. For some steps, such
as liking and proselytizing, subscribers
can gather fairly specific data. Metrics
available for online video sites like You-
Tube allow subscribers to see the number
of unique views, the average view dura-
tion, the number of people who shared the
material or commented on it and the con-
tent of those comments. You may find that
almost everyone who started a video
watched it all the way through or that
almost no one who clicked on it actually
watched it or shared it.
Digital marketers, who are focused on
sales as a final outcome, sometimes refer
to the process outlined in McGuire’s model
as a funnel. The funnel represents a cus-
tomer’s journey from exposure to pur-
chase (and eventually post-purchase
loyalty and sharing/proselytizing). In
Google Analytics, the basic process is
termed a conversion funnel. “With this
funnel in place, you can see whether users Change.org makes it easy to start an online petition as part of a strategic com-
munication plan.
navigate from one page or screen to the
What is the overall goal of this petition and what are the measurable
next,” as explained on a Google Analytics steps that can be tracked in reaching it?
support page.6 Any online action that can
be tracked electronically then becomes a
measurable step in the process. For example, a marketer might track the
number of people who find their business’s home page from a Google search,
then the number of those people who click on a promotion, then those who
fill in a form, and then the number of people who make a purchase online. Funnel
Similar processes can be tracked for organizations with goals of recruiting A model for tracking how people
new members or getting petitions signed. move from exposure and awareness
to action, particularly in online mar-
For now it’s important to think specifically and realistically about the keting where the goal is to convert
outcomes of strategic communication. Chapter 8 will delve more into mea- a large number of web page view-
surement at various levels of outcomes. ers to sales leads or purchases.

Tactical decision-making
Daily management and communica-
tion tactics implemented without
Strategic Planning consideration of the strategic objec-
tives, goals and mission of the
organization.
Tactical decision-making refers to daily management and communica-
tion without consideration of the strategic objectives, goals and mission of Strategic decision-making
an organization. Strategic decision-making, on the other hand, means Daily management and communica-
tion decisions made with mindful-
that public relations tactics are planned and implemented to help an or- ness of the objectives, goals and
ganization pursue its mission and goals. mission of the organization.

Strategic Planning 155

 What may at first look like a simple publicity stunt to gain attention
may actually serve as part of a broader strategy. For example, on March 8,
2018, McDonald’s flipped its iconic golden arches on many of its menus,
french-fry containers, uniforms, and even one of its giant outdoor signs in
the Lynnwood neighborhood of Los Angeles. Naturally people were sur-
prised when they noticed a giant “W” where the “M” had become an estab-
lished part of the landscape. However, as described by McDonald’s Chief
Global Diversity Officer Wendy Lewis on her Medium page, these upside-
down letters were part of a strategy to honor the “extraordinary accom-
plishments of women everywhere and especially in our restaurants.”7
March 8 is International Women’s Day, and one of McDonald’s key corpo-
rate values is commitment to their people:

We provide opportunity, nurture talent, develop leaders and reward

achievement. We believe that a team of well-trained individuals with di-
verse backgrounds and experiences, working together in an environment
that fosters respect and drives high levels of engagement, is essential to
our continued success.8

While McDonald’s International Women’s Day tactics certainly drew

attention, they were designed in a way that promoted understanding of
the  company’s values. A dedicated website (McDonalds.com/IWD) was
launched to explain and celebrate the contributions of women, including

Owners Patricia Williams, center, and her daughters Kerri Harper-Howie (left) and Nicole Enearu
pose for a portrait in front of their upside down, iconic, McDonald’s “M.” The three own
18 ­McDonald's franchises in the Los Angeles area.
What makes this tactic of turning the “M” upside down strategic?

156 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

statistics such as 6 of 10 McDonald’s restaurant managers are women. The
site also featured stories on amazing women who have worked at McDon-
ald’s and owned franchises and included a “Proud Sponsor” link illustrating
the company’s relationship with International Women’s Day with a link
that directed website visitors to McDonald’s careers page where women
were invited to search jobs and apply.
As discussed in Chapter 5, an organization’s mission and vision de-
scribe an organization’s overall purpose and desired end-state. The mission
or vision should guide all management and communication. Finding the
cure for a disease, sustaining democracy, making money or preserving the
environment may be central to various organizations’ missions. An example
of a mission/vision would be: Zero waste in Orange County.
Goals are desired outcomes that directly help an organization pursue
its mission or vision. Dollars donated, percentage of the population regis-
tered to vote, products sold and pounds of waste recycled are all examples
of goals that could be set at various levels to contribute in a meaningful way
to an organization’s mission. An example of a goal would be: Orange County
high school students will recycle ten tons of plastic by June 1.
Objectives are the specific measurable steps that you must achieve to
accomplish larger goals. Video views, people in attendance at a special
Pounds of recycled material may be
event, coverage in news media of a press event, placement of recycling bins used to define a campaign goal.
at key locations, a minimum percentage of social media followers who use a What kinds of public relations
particular hashtag or number of app downloads all could be quantified and tactics and objectives could be
measured as evidence of objectives being met. Objectives are valuable to used to achieve such a goal?
organizations when they help meet broader goals. An example of an objective
would be: To achieve 1,000 downloads and registrations of the recycling app by
high school students in the Orange County school district by February 15. Mission
Overall reason an organization
Tactics are the specific actions you take and items you produce in exists.
public relations. Video clips, news releases, websites, fliers, special events,
Goals
press conferences, infographics, TV ads, email messages, hashtags and apps
Statements that indicate a desired
are all tactics. Indeed, public relations isn’t public relations without tactics. result for public relations efforts. In
However, absent a broader strategy, it’s hard to say what value tactics have strategic planning, goals are more
for your organization. An example of a tactic would be: Development of an app specific than the organization’s
mission but more general than
that allows high school students to record, upload and post a running total of the objectives.
amount of material they recycle.
Objectives
Of course, many tactics go into achieving an objective, multiple objec- Statements that indicate specific
tives are normally required in order to attain a goal, and organizations per- outputs or outcomes desired. In
petually work toward goals in pursuit of their missions or visions strategic public relations, objectives
(Figure 6.3). Strategy is the underlying logic that holds a plan together and are specific steps taken to achieve
broader goals.
offers a compelling rationale for why we expect a plan to work. A campaign
can have one overarching strategy as well as several smaller strategies that Tactics
Specific actions taken and items
work in conjunction to support various dimensions of success. An example produced in public relations.
of a strategy would be: High schools will compete to see which school logs the most
recycled material by the end of the school year, with progress posted online and Strategy
Underlying logic that holds a plan
publicized on social media, and the winner will receive a full day off for an eco fair together and offers a rationale for
and picnic at the end of the school year. why it will work.

Strategic Planning 157

Figure 6.3 In strategic public rela-
tions, a mission drives goals, goals
drive objectives, and objectives
drive tactics. Think about what
Mission/Vision
you’re doing right now (reading this
book!).
Are you being strategic or tacti-
cal? If strategic, what are your Goals
own larger objectives, goals and
mission?

Objectives

Tactics

Case Study
Global Handwashing Day: Goals, Objectives
and Outcomes
Did you know that October 15 is Global Handwashing Day? The Water
Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) is a global partner-
ship organization based in Geneva, Switzerland, that is affiliated with the
United Nations. Partners include NGOs, private companies and govern-
ment agencies. In its mission statement, WSSCC lays out its vision “of a
world where everybody has sustained water supply, sanitation and hy-
giene.”9 From that mission and vision, the organization has adopted a broad
strategy to contribute “substantially to global efforts to improve sanitation
and hygiene for vulnerable sections of society, with a special focus on com-
munities in Africa and Asia.”
UNICEF, a key partner with WSSCC in sponsoring Global Handwashing
Day, has published a toolkit for handwashing campaign planners, which
outlines major goals for handwashing campaigns. These goals are derived
from the larger missions of WSSCC and UNICEF and provide the strategic
rationale for objectives that determine appropriate tactics. Program plan-
ners want to see behavior change. They want more people to wash their
hands and to sustain that behavior. This, in turn, leads to the “ultimate
goal” of public health impact, including reducing diseases such as respira-
tory infections and diarrhea.10
Specifically, the UNICEF toolkit presents the following goal: “Increase,
improve and/or sustain good hand washing behaviour and form good

158 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

NGOs, private companies and government agencies all partner to make Global Handwashing Day
happen.
How do private companies benefit from participating?

handwashing habits.”11 This is a great goal. We should all wash our hands
more. And it clearly serves the missions of WSSCC, UNICEF, government
health ministries, soap companies and any other organization affiliated with
Global Handwashing Day. However, campaign planners need more than a
well-stated and well-intentioned goal. Success in strategic public relations
means being able to demonstrate the results of your work. A goal like this
can be achieved by identifying and accomplishing objectives as steps along
the way.

SMART OBJECTIVES
Well-designed objectives are SMART objectives. SMART stands for specific,
measurable, attainable, relevant, and time-bound.

Specific
Well-written objectives state exactly what the strategic communicator
plans to accomplish in a way that makes the outcome clear to all who see it.
A goal to improve handwashing behavior is general. It is also debatable. My
elementary-school-aged son and I have very different opinions about what
counts as good handwashing, and a trained public health worker might
have advice for us both. An objective serving the goal of improving hand-
washing would need to be more specific about what is meant by improve-
ment. Does improved handwashing mean people will wash their hands
more often? At specific times? Using more soap? Perhaps all three of these
are important outcomes needed to achieve the larger goal. In that case, each
would be the basis for a separate specific objective. Multiple objectives may
serve each goal.

Strategic Planning 159

 Measurable
Can the results be observed and measured in a way that shows actual
change? A clear objective sets a standard that will define success. This could
be the number of times people report washing their hands in a day, the
percentage of people who are observed washing their hands before meals or
the pounds of soap used in a community center in a month.

Attainable
Although you want to be ambitious in setting objectives, it’s important to be
realistic. Research and past experience may guide planners in finding that
balance between ambitious and attainable. In a hospital staffed by profes-
sional healthcare workers, it might be realistic to aim for 100 percent partici-
pation in an effort to get doctors and nurses to wash their hands thoroughly
before contact with patients, but would it be realistic to try to get 100 per-
cent of children in a remote village to wash their hands three times a day?

Relevant
Do the objectives relate clearly to the goal and mission? An objective to gener-
ate a certain number of social media posts hashtagged #HandwashingHeroes
may be specific, measurable and attainable.12 But if your goal is to increase
handwashing in specific communities in Africa, you would need to be able to
explain how those social media posts are relevant where it matters.

Time-Bound
Timing is a critical part of strategy. Setting a deadline for accomplishing an
objective adds accountability. It also aids planning, as deadlines for specific
objectives become milestones for achieving larger goals in the broader cam-
paign timeline. A goal for a certain percentage of children to wash hands in
school in October may be preceded by an objective to guarantee donations
of soap to the schools by the start of the school year.

Example objectives in the UNICEF toolkit include the following. Do you

think they are SMART?

• “Increase knowledge about the benefits of handwashing with soap among

primary school-aged children in 100 primary schools within one year.”
• “Increase the number of primary school-aged children that wash hands
with soap before eating in 100 primary schools within one year.”13

OUTPUTS, OUTCOMES AND IMPACTS

Outputs
In writing goals and objectives it is important to think beyond what you
Tasks or work attempted and com- plan to do and to think about what you plan to accomplish. While it makes
pleted, including communication sense that a strategic plan outlines outputs—tasks completed—a plan
tactics produced. Outputs can be without goals and objectives that specify the results of those efforts will
completed without necessarily lead-
ing to meaningful results (i.e., fall short on strategy. Output objectives focus on the tangible efforts of
outcomes). public relations such as the number of tweets posted, news releases sent,

160 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

events sponsored or schools visited by experts. As Professor Ronald Smith Outcomes
Observable results of public rela-
put it in his text Strategic Planning for Public Relations, “Measure outputs if tions work.
you wish. They can provide useful assessment of what has been done. But
don’t stop there.”14 Impacts
The broadest and furthest-reaching
Beyond outputs, outcomes identify the results of public relations work. results of public relations efforts,
How many people retweeted your tweet? How many news organizations often stated in terms of societal
covered the story in your news release? How many schools reported partici- benefit.
pating in Global Handwashing Day as a result of invitations from health Benchmarking
experts? How many students were observed washing their hands? Process of setting a point for com-
parison with eventual program re-
In the big picture of public relations campaigns and programs, planners
sults in order to observe change
may want to account for impact. Impacts are the broadest and furthest- over time. (Benchmarking can also
reaching results of public relations efforts. They also are the hardest results be used to make performance com-
to attribute to the specific efforts of a particular program. You may never parisons with other organizations or
industry standards.)
know if your recycling program affects global climate change, but you may
be able to at least estimate the amount of energy conserved or landfill space
saved. These would be impacts beyond the outcomes of the number of
people who report recycling, which may follow the output of distributing
recycle bins. Here are samples from the UNICEF handwashing program:
• Output: Number of door-to-door visits by hygiene promoters to discuss
with caregivers the role of handwashing in nurturing children.
• Outcome: Proportion of primary caregivers who report washing hands
with soap and water at two critical times during the day.
• Impact: Reduced prevalence of illness among children younger than
5 years old living in the household observed.

Timelines A good timeline

determines when
As outlined in the RPIE (research, planning, implementation and evalua-
tion) model, research leads to goals and objectives, which lead to strategies
to spend resources
and tactics, which are monitored, adapted and evaluated with further re-
(such as time and
search. The process is cyclical, but it also happens in a logical order, and a money) on what.
timeline for that order puts each step in chronological context. At the most
basic level of management, a good timeline determines when to spend re-
sources (such as time and money) on what. Key steps in a public relations
plan timeline include formative research, client/management meetings, im-
plementation of management and communication tactics, production of
media and communication materials, events and evaluation.

Formative Research
Once you have a general idea of your goals and how they fit into the organiza-
tion’s larger mission or vision, you’ll want to start thinking about two types of
formative research. The first is benchmarking. Benchmarking research

Timelines 161
 defines your starting points for accomplish-
ing goals and objectives. In an annual fund-
raising campaign, planners often start by
reviewing the prior year’s donations as a
benchmark that can be used in setting new
goals. In a handwashing campaign like the
one in the UNICEF example, you would want
to do research in the early stages of planning
to determine the proportion of primary
school-aged children who wash hands with
soap prior to eating before you start so that
you can later determine your program’s suc-
cess in “moving the needle,” so to speak. If
The goal thermometer is a common tactic for tracking and communicating 75 percent of children are found to wash
success over time in fundraising campaigns. hands before eating in the 100 schools under
What type of research is needed to set appropriate benchmarks? observation, then that would be your bench-
mark, and 95 percent or even 100 percent
might be a reasonable goal. If, however, you learn that only 5 percent of chil-
dren currently wash hands before eating, then that would be your benchmark,
and a goal of 50 percent (a 10-fold increase) might be more realistic.
In management by objectives (MBO), planners consult with their orga-
nizations and clients to determine appropriate objectives for which they
will be accountable. For both social and scientific reasons, a 50 percent suc-
cess rate in a handwashing campaign may or may not be a ­desirable out-
come. Benchmarks can be used for broad program goals or at the level of
any specific objective. Any of the steps in McGuire’s model can work as a
place to gather benchmark data for later comparison to determine the ef-
fectiveness of strategic communication.
McGuire’s steps also work in formative evaluation. The purpose of for-
mative evaluation is to monitor program efforts to enable corrections based
on feedback; it may be used at any time in a campaign and may be built into
a timeline as a periodic or ongoing effort. For example, social media analyt-
ics allow communicators to monitor real-time feedback in response to any
post. Review of annual, weekly, daily or even hourly reports of social media
activity can be built into program timelines. Which Instagram stories are
Social media getting the most views (tuning in)? Which Facebook posts are getting the
analytics allow most thumbs up (liking)? Which tweets are retweeted the most (proselytiz-
communicators to ing)? You can check if certain times of day, sources of information or types
monitor real-time of content such as replies to others, humor, personal narrative or rational
feedback in argument are working or not working well and adjust your social media
response to any strategy based on that diagnosis. Formative evaluation works for any form
post. of communication strategy and not just social media.

Client/Management Meetings
Public relations campaigns and programs are often initiated in a meeting
with a client or with management in your own organization. After that

162 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

initial meeting, public relations planners forecast the timeline for their
proposed project. In cases in which an agency is trying to win new business,
the agency will then develop a competitive campaign proposal to try to win
the business. If you’ve ever watched Mad Men or other portrayals of a client
pitch, you can imagine the amount of preparation that goes into the pro-
posal. Winning new business or management approval requires a clear ar-
ticulation of strategy and mutual agreement about how that strategy will
be implemented. Beyond the initial meeting and pitch, plans should include
an outline of how often those implementing the campaign will meet with
clients or management.

Action and Communication Tactics

Communication should be planned around organizational action. Sometimes
the communication must precede action, as when an electric company consults
with communities via town hall meetings prior to installing new power lines.
Communication also is planned concurrently
with action, as when commuters and customers
are notified in real time about construction
that may interfere with traffic or electric ser-
vice. Communication also may follow the pro-
ject to promote the improved service or to
explain increases (or decreases) in electric bills
that occur as a result. Two-way communication
that results in mutually beneficial relationships
between organizations and publics happens
throughout the process. In your timeline, that
communication may be labeled as research in
early stages and evaluation in later stages as you
gather feedback.

Production of Media and

Communication Materials
Print tactics require lead time for copywriting,
design, printing and distribution. Audio, video
and multimedia communications need time for
scripting, production and editing. Interper-
sonal and social media channels need to be es-
tablished and relationships need to be developed
as part of an ongoing process of relationship
building and maintenance. Program timelines
should take all of this prep time into account.

Special events, like the Las Vegas Color Run (also billed as “The Happiest
Events 5K on the Planet”) are focal points in public relations calendars and
Some programs are planned around a single timelines.
major event such as an election or a grand What types of organizations would be involved in planning such an
opening. In planning these programs, the event? What types of organizational goals would be served?

Timelines 163
 event date becomes the focal point around which all other tasks are sched-
uled. How far in advance do announcements need to be made? How much
time should be allotted to the production and placement of those announce-
ments? Who will live-tweet the event as it happens? How soon after the
event will results of the program be evaluated?
Other programs include multiple events. Event types include holiday cel-
ebrations, speeches and panels, press conferences, celebrity appearances, car-
nivals, contests, building dedications and so on. Events can be geographically
dispersed (broadcasts, webcasts, virtual conferences). They can be dictated by
tradition or law (homecoming, the U.S. Census). They can even be
­participant-driven, such as unconferences—conferences organized for active
peer-to-peer e­ xchange of ideas and information—meet-ups and grassroots
rallies. But if events are to be part of a larger public relations plan or program,
their place on the calendar must be considered carefully in planning.

Evaluation
Strategic communicators who write SMART objectives realize they’ve done
themselves a favor when it’s time for evaluation. If objectives are specific
and measurable, it will be clear what needs to be measured (e.g., number of
primary caregivers who report washing hands or pounds of recyclable ma-
SMART objectives terial collected). If objectives are attainable, relevant and time-bound, the
make it clear right time to measure results also will be readily apparent. Furthermore, if
when, what and benchmark research is designed well, conducting evaluation research will
how evaluation largely be a matter of repeating earlier research and comparing results.
should be Planners have several options for timeline formats. Gantt charts are
conducted. types of bar charts that show project timelines including the start and

Sample Plan
Plan Plan Weeks
Activity Start Duration 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Client meeting 1 1
Agree on goals 1 1
Benchmark research 2 3
Set objectives 4 1
Client meeting 4 1
Formative research 2 7
Develop print materials 5 2
Event planning 5 2
Recruit volunteers 5 2
Print media production 5 2
Social media setup 3 2
Social media activation 4 1
Print announcements 7 2
Volunteer training 6 2
Unconferences
Client meeting 8 1
Meetings or conferences organized
Event 9 1
by their participants for active peer- Social media participation 4 9
to-peer exchange of ideas and in- Social media monitoring 4 9
formation. Unconferences are less Evaluation research 12 1
structured and more participatory Debrief with client 13 1
(e.g., fewer one-to-many presenta-
tions) than traditional conferences. Figure 6.4 Gantt chart for a 14-week plan with primary event in week 9.

164 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

duration times of tasks. Looking at each task (normally presented in hori-
zontal rows), a planner can consider how long a task will take or how often
it needs to be repeated. Looking at any particular time (normally presented
in vertical columns), a planner can consider which tasks will occur at the
same time and which resources will be needed. Gantt charts can be rela-
tively simple, like the sample presented in Figure 6.4 that was created with
standard spreadsheet software. Planners can design more advanced inter-
active Gantt charts using relatively inexpensive project management soft-
ware available online.
Other options for timelines are to use a standard calendar or to develop
a bulleted list that is organized based on times relative to a focal event. For
example, the list may start with what should be done 6–11 months before
the event, include monthly and weekly tasks leading up to the event, and
end with what needs to be done in the days and weeks after the event has
passed (Figure 6.5). Simple checklists of tasks with due dates also are help-
ful in planning.

Budgets
Achievable goals and objectives depend on the budget, and the budget de-
pends on the resources needed to achieve the goals and objectives. In some
cases, the budget is set in advance, and the planner works to develop a pro-
gram within that budget. In other cases, the planner develops a proposal
and then requests or negotiates a budget to carry out the plan. Either way,
gaining budget approval and then achieving the goals and objectives within
that budget indicate professionalism in public relations. Both processes
entail reaching agreement with clients or management on the value of your
work and having them invest valuable resources in getting the work done.
Three key resources to consider in any public relations budget are per-
sonnel, administrative costs and supplies, and media. These three categories
overlap. For example, if you hire an influencer to use Instagram to promote
your product at a music festival, that could be considered either a personnel
expense or a media expense. If you buy paper and color toner to produce
posters or fliers, that could be categorized as administrative or as media in
the budget. And if you hire translators for an international conference, that
could be considered either an administrative expense or a personnel ex-
pense. The key is to organize your budget in a way that makes sense to the Organize budgets
person or people funding it and to make sure that you carefully think through in a way that
the categories so you don’t leave out any major expenses (see Figure 6.6). makes sense to the
people funding it.
Personnel
Even in programs with no budget, people invest time and depend on others
to do so as well to achieve public relations goals. Class projects and pro
Pro bono
bono work for nonprofit organizations often are planned and conducted Work conducted as a public service
with almost no financial resources, but this doesn’t mean that people aren’t without fee or payment.

Budgets 165
 Example of Basic Fundraising Event Planning Timeline

6–11 months out

• Final decision on chairs/co-chairs
• Develop event committees (fund development/marketing/auction/volunteer)
• Discuss & determine event theme
• 1st meeting w/co-chairs
3–6 months out
• Select event date & book event venue
• Evaluate vendor needs & requests for proposals (RFPs) for catering, rentals, A/V, printing
• Develop, print and compile silent auction/corporate sponsorship solicitation packets
• Media: Send calendar listing to society “glossies” (at least 4 months out)
3 months out
• Distribute corporate marketing and program book packet to potential sponsors/advertisers
• Mail underwriter letters to identified targets
• Develop detailed budget for event and review with event stakeholders
• Create payment portal for tickets
• Draft contracts/finalize RFPs for services
• Start collecting e-mail addresses from event stakeholders for “Save the Date”
2–3 months out
• Follow up on all corporate sponsorship/silent auction/program ad solicitations
• Update web page event information
• Media: Define media/publicity strategy (coordination of advertising, PR, and social media)
• Event site visit
• Create Save the Date & e-mail
• Start collecting snail mail invitation lists from all event stakeholders
6–10 weeks out
• Start recruiting volunteers for the night of duties
• Send invite to printer
• Media: Distribute calendar release 8 weeks out and full press release to media targets 6 weeks out
4–6 weeks out
• Finalize event web page info
• Mail formal invitations
• Have silent auction committee develop a silent auction check-out procedure
• Identify banner/signage needs, design & send to printer
• Media: Follow up with media targets to secure event coverage/coordinate e-mail/social media invites
2–3 weeks out
• Finalize budget
• Finalize silent auction and program (with ads) and design forms/programs
• Create first draft of run of show (event schedule & script) and review with chairs
• Create list of all vendors to be paid day/week of event
• Review volunteer duties
• Program book, silent auction listings to printer
• Media: Encourage all event stakeholders to distribute personal e-mail invitations
Week of event
• Create vendor day-of point person list (with e-mails & cell phone numbers)
• Create a detailed load in/sound check schedule
• Create sorted guest lists (seating charts/table assignments)
• All printing (programs/silent auction forms/labels) & signage picked up
• Media: Send digital reminder to all contacts and those of event stakeholders
Immediate follow up
• Close-out (All income/expenses collected and logged)
• Confirm all receivables paid
2–6 weeks after (closeout, evaluation & stewardship)
Figure 6.5 List of tasks for a
one-year plan culminating in an • Committee and attendee acknowledgments
• Special “thank-you’s” to corporate sponsors, underwriters and silent auction donors
event at the end with follow-up.
• Thank-you event for volunteers
Source: www.fresharts.org; • Close out receipt of income and payment of expenses and create closing financial report
Adapted from Spacetaker|Artist • Share event results with all event stakeholders
Resource Center.

166 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

Figure 6.6 This budget template from HubSpot.com opens as an Excel file and can be customized for any public relations program.
How are the categories of personnel, administrative costs and supplies, and media included in the template?

investing. In such cases it is important to note the time required. Although

the hours worked by volunteers, students or employees with salaries paid
for by other sources may not show up as dollar figures, those hours should
be acknowledged in the plan as required resources.
On the other end of the accounting spectrum for personnel costs, agen-
cies often apply very specific billing formulas to account for their employ-
ees’ time working on client accounts. I’ll always remember the first time I
saw a billing sheet. I was working in an unpaid summer internship during
weekdays and operating a driving range golf ball picker on nights and week-
ends for $6.50 an hour. My supervisor at the internship was just a few years
older than me. He asked me to review a project budget, and I just about fell

Budgets 167
Billable rate out of my chair when I saw that he was getting $150 an hour for his work. I
Amount that an agency or firm
charges clients per hour for an em-
did the math and figured he must be making more than $300,000 a year!
ployee’s time. How could this be? Why wasn’t he driving a Ferrari?
When agencies bill clients for their work, they often include billable
Overhead expenses
Costs of running a business that are hourly rates as a major part of the budget, but the amount billed is consider-
not directly related to the product ably larger than the amount the employee gets paid. Author, consultant and
or services delivered. PRSA Fellow James Lukaszewski offered the following example on his web-
site.15 Suppose an account supervisor at a public relations agency earns a
salary of $65,000 a year. Assuming the employee is paid for 40 hours a week
over the course of 52 weeks, her hourly pay comes out to $31.25. However,
the agency also pays for her benefits including costs such as health insur-
ance and retirement contributions. These fringe benefits can cost the firm
up to 30 percent or more of her base pay. With 30 percent fringe added, her
hourly cost to the agency is $40.63 per hour. Of course, agencies wouldn’t
make any money if they only charged their clients their actual costs, and
they have many other expenses to cover besides those payroll costs, so they
bill clients at a rate of three or even four times the cost of paying the ac-
count executive. Using a multiple of three, the billable rate for the account
supervisor would be $121.89 per hour. Using a multiple of four, the billable
rate would be $162.52 per hour, even though she is earning an annual salary
of $65,000 and not $338,000. Now I understand why my internship super-
visor was driving a nice Toyota but not splurging on an Italian sports car.
We can see how important it is to factor in the amount of time people
will spend on particular projects when developing budgets. While an agen-
cy’s HR and accounting departments may handle all the specifics of sala-
ries, fringe and billing, planners must still provide an estimate of how
many people will work on which projects and for how long. Other personnel
costs to consider include hiring freelance writers and editors, photogra-
phers, artists, spokespeople, social media influencers or any type of tempo-
rary workers such as event security staff for a concert or drivers to take
nurses to remote communities in an international healthcare campaign.

Administrative Costs and Supplies

In agencies or established businesses, regular and ongoing administrative
costs such as electricity, paper and internet services are often considered
overhead expenses, meaning public relations planners normally wouldn’t
need to account for them specifically in developing a campaign strategy or
program budget (though clients pay for them indirectly with marked-up
prices for services). Beyond those costs, or if you are working independently,
you have to think about budgeting for any stuff that you will need for your
campaign that you don’t plan on having donated or paying for out of your
own personal funds. These costs may include anything from specialty items
like coffee mugs or T-shirts, to nametags, pizza and drinks, soap for hand-
washing, bins for recycling, computers and tablets—you name it. If you are
organizing an event as part of a larger program, you may estimate the total
cost of the event in your initial program proposal rather than getting too

168 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

specific with each line item. Other major
non-media expense categories include
travel, facility rentals, speaker fees and
research costs.

Media and Communication

Expenses
Advertising and promotion are important
costs to consider in most public relations
programs. For traditional media, price
quotes can be attained to get an accurate
estimate of how much to budget for adver-
tising. As discussed in Chapter 3, newspa-
per ads can range from less than $20 per
column inch in a student newspaper to OK, who ordered pizza? Even smaller expenses like food and snacks for
hundreds of thousands of dollars for a events add up when you are working independently.

full-page ad in a national or international Where might you find pizza in a public relations budget?
publication. As with print media, advertis-
ing sales representatives from radio and TV stations can give you quotes for
media space (e.g., a 30-second spot during prime time). Someone budgeting
for a national branding campaign may have to choose between, say, spend-
ing $327,000 for a full-page color ad in The Wall Street Journal, and spending
$400,000 for a 30-second TV spot during a top-rated prime-time network
sitcom. Of course, many factors go into such decisions, and when the stakes
are high, professional media planners are part of the process. Media plan-
ning entails considering factors such as strategy and audience demograph-
ics to make sure that advertising budgets are spent wisely and in line with Media planning
Choosing media channels to
SMART objectives. Reach (the percentage or number of people exposed to a achieve strategic communication
message) and frequency (the average number of times people in an audi- goals and objectives. Media plan-
ence are exposed to a particular message in a given period) are two of the ning drives advertising purchases.
most important variables. Media planning is a career path in and of itself. Reach
Advertising in digital and interactive media has evolved into new models Percentage or number of people
of buying and selling media. Programmatic media buying, for example, exposed to a message at least once
via a specific communication chan-
involves automated real-time bidding (RTB) that is preprogrammed by mar- nel during a defined period of time.
keters and automated to buy space when certain criteria are met. In pro-
Frequency
grammatic media sales, publishers use software called supply-side platforms
The average number of times
(SSPs) and buyers use demand-side platforms (DSPs). Former Instagram and people in an audience are exposed
Twitter executive Ameet Ranadive explains the process with an example: to a particular message in a defined
period of time.

Based on its knowledge about this user (e.g., the user recently searched for Programmatic media buying
Automated media buying that is
flights to Hawaii on a travel website), a DSP will bid on the right to serve preprogrammed so that advertising
an ad to this user. The RTB exchange will then run an auction for the purchases are completed when
ad impression generated by this user. The winning DSP will serve a certain criteria set by buyers (mar-
­creative — potentially a dynamic display ad with personalized content, keters) and sellers (media) are met.
Programmatic media buying com-
perhaps including the recently browsed flight details, price, and image of monly occurs via computer-run,
the destination— to the user.16 real-time auctions.

Budgets 169
 Programmatic media buying can be
used for everything from basic ads on
news websites to promoted tweets to
Google search returns to sponsored posts
in Facebook. Again, this type of media
planning requires specialized expertise,
but understanding the basics will help
public relations planners work with media
planners in buying space in digital and in-
teractive media.
At this point, you may be thinking,
what about “free” media? You can write
your own newsletter, distribute your own
fliers or set up your own Instagram account,
Facebook group or Pinterest board for free,
Social media command center war rooms like this one allow for 24/7 monitor-
ing of client mentions and trends. right? It’s true that these communication
Setting up social media accounts may be free at first, but what other ex-
tactics don’t incur advertising costs, but you
penses need to be considered in budgeting for continued operation? will have other costs to consider. An effec-
tive social media presence requires time
and effort—in other words, personnel costs. If you are including fliers in your
A social media budget, you should include the cost of designing and printing.
presence may For professionalism with just about any communication tactic, public re-
be “ free” of lations planners must also consider the costs of production. Production costs
advertising costs, for national TV ads can range from tens of thousands of dollars to millions of
but it still requires dollars. For a basic event flier, you might design it yourself or buy lunch for a
personnel costs. talented friend to design it. Even so, you’ll want to check with a local printer
on printing prices if you don’t have access to a good copy machine with a full
supply of paper and toner. For example, to print in full color on premium
paper, FedEx Office charges $29.99 for 50 copies and $149.99 for 250 copies.
These numbers undoubtedly vary (and the FedEx quote probably won’t apply
any more by the time you read this), but it goes to show how important it is to
think about production costs and to build them into your budget.

Voices from the Field

Natalie Asorey
NATALIE ASOREY is a lecturer in public relations at communication agency based in Miami, where she
the University of Florida. She most recently was head oversaw the McDonald’s USA scope of work as His-
of social media at BODEN, a leading cross-cultural panic agency of record. She led the account team

170 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

and collaborated with McDonald’s communication, How have budgets for public relations pro-
marketing and digital teams to develop communica- grams and campaigns changed with the rise
tion and social media strategies to reach the His- of social media?
panic consumer market. Asorey also led the agency’s Many organizations now have dedicated budgets for
award-winning social listening practice, Escucha, to social media, which can include everything from
build brand advocacy through influencer and con- agency fees for content production to out-of-pocket
sumer engagement and real-time content. expenses for influencer partnerships and social
media promotion. Sometimes, though, these are part
You’ve taught and supervised many entry- of larger public relations budgets, and it’s up to the
level communicators and interns. How much client or agency to determine how much will be al-
do entry-level practitioners need to be con- located to social media. Regardless of how small or
cerned with strategic planning, and to what large the budget, the key is to manage it strategically
degree can they get by early in their careers and effectively and demonstrate how you’re using
by just being good with tactics? the resources to meet goals and objectives.
The entry-level practitioners who have a strong
grasp of strategic planning are the ones who will Are there times when it makes more sense
propel quickly in their careers. But even in develop- just to wing it and go with instinct?
ing tactics, you have a chance to show your strategic Simply “winging it” is a recipe for disaster. Say it
thinking. Consider one of the most common entry- works once . . . great. That doesn’t guarantee it will
level public relations tasks: creating a media list (a work every time, and you don’t want to risk failure
list of potential outlets and journalists to pitch a news because you didn’t take the time to plan. Sometimes
story). Identifying the right journalists who will care you have a strong gut feeling that something will or
about your organization’s story requires research and will not work—but you can’t quite pinpoint why.
strategy. Every task, no matter how small or tedious, Always speak up when that happens, but also back
is an opportunity to show you go above and beyond. up that instinct with research. Clients are more in-
clined to take a chance on a big idea if you have data
McDonald’s has been recognized for success- to support it.
fully experimenting with innovative forms of
social media engagement. What kinds of met- What’s the coolest campaign outcome you’ve
rics have you used to track engagement ob- achieved?
jectives and goals? When BODEN planned the “¡Síganme los Buenos!”
To track objectives and goals on social media, we’d campaign for McDonald’s, the brand challenged the
measure both quantitative and qualitative metrics. agency to not only deliver on traditional public relations
We’d analyze metrics like engagement rate, click- outcomes (like impressions and engagement), but to
through rates (to websites) and conversions (how also drive traffic to the restaurants and boost sales. The
many people signed up, provided contact informa- campaign centered on a partnership with a legendary
tion, completed a transaction, etc.), among others. Hispanic character, El Chapulín Colorado (like the
These allowed us to understand not just how many Mickey Mouse of Latino culture), to show the brand’s
people were seeing the brand’s content, but how commitment to Hispanic consumers and launch its new
they were interacting with it. We’d also analyze dollar menu. Consumers had such a powerful cultural
tweets and comments for sentiment, giving us a connection that the line wrapped around the restaurant
better sense of how people perceived the brand and on the day of the event. Families even dressed up as
helping us manage its online reputation. When ana- the character! It was such a rewarding experience—
lyzed together, this gave us a more holistic, accurate and the proof was in the numbers, which showed an
view of how we were tracking against our objectives. increase in guest count and sales.

Budgets 171
 Ethics: Beware of Zombies; Enhance
the Profession
When public relations strategy includes a social media platform like Insta-
gram, a common element of SMART objectives relates to the number of
followers or likes or comments the account receives. As you know if you
have ever started a social media account, the first batch of friends and fol-
lowers comes relatively easily.
That first batch of friends and followers may be all you need if you’re
keeping your account for personal reasons. Your network may grow slowly
and organically from there as you discover new friends and others discover
you. That’s how most of us expect social media to work. So when we see that
@selenagomez has more than 150 million followers on Instagram but f­ ollows
only 59 others, we know a different pattern of influence is in ­process. The
communication is one-way. However, in between small interpersonal ac-
counts and pure mass-communication-by-Instagram, there are many ways
that strategic communicators build social media influence into their plans.
One way to harness influence in social media is to work long and hard
to build a large and lasting base of friends and followers. Over time, work-
ing to provide content that people enjoy and find useful enough to like and
share will earn you or your organization followers and clout. Consistent
and regular interaction (i.e., two-way communication and relationship
building) with others online is also a big part of what it takes to be success-
ful in building online social networks.
As noted in the budget section, social media aren’t really free. Success
with social media requires an investment over time in providing valuable
content and building relationships. The return on that investment in public
relations comes when it’s time to get the word out about your recycling
drive, to introduce your company’s new product, or to remind voters to go to
the polls in support of your cause on Election Day. From tuning in to going
viral, a large and well-maintained social media network can support each
and every one of the steps in McGuire’s model of strategic communication.
Now, what if I were to offer you a shortcut? A site called Buzzoid offers 500
followers for $6.99 or 5,000 followers for $39.99. Another site, iDigic.net, has
similar prices—500 followers for $7.95 up to 5,000 followers for $39.95. Ac-
cording to iDigic, when you buy followers, “you add more visibility and credibil-
ity to your Instagram account and get more engagement numbers without
breaking a sweat.”17 It is widely acknowledged that these followers are not the
same as the real people who would otherwise follow your account out of real in-
terest in you or your organization. What these services offer are “zombie” fol-
lowers. The companies operate thousands of fake accounts that exist for no
other purpose than to follow other accounts. More sophisticated services offer
packages that include automated “like” and commenting functions. One Dutch
blogger who paid for a service told how real commenters called out an automated
comment that said “Nice pic” when the actual post was a video. I think it’s safe
to say that zombie followers are not high on anyone’s list of primary publics.

172 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

 These services could be seen as an effective and budget-friendly tactic
for eventually increasing real followers. A longer-term goal to increase com-
munication via social media may be helped along by a shorter-term objec-
tive to get social media accounts up and running with a respectable number
of followers. Is there really any harm buying followers to meet your social
media objectives? A quick run through Kathy Fitzpatrick’s guide for ethical
decision-making (see Chapter 1) will help answer that.

Define the Specific Issue/Conflict

It’s possible to pay for fake follow-
Buying followers is a quick, inexpensive, legal and effective way to boost ers on social media accounts.
quantitative results (followers, likes, comments, etc.) for social media ob-
What are the pitfalls of buying
jectives. However, the followers aren’t real people. The benefit of buying zombie followers?
followers is one of perception—accounts with more followers appear to be
more credible, reliable and popular.

Identify Internal/External Factors

Major internal factors include program budget, goals and objectives. An im-
portant strategic question is whether or not purchased followers will actually
contribute to the larger goals of a campaign. External factors include the per-
ceptions of external publics who may be impressed with large numbers but
feel deceived and lose trust if they were to learn that the account holder had
paid for zombie followers. Could you report to a client with confidence and
good faith that thousands of purchased followers would help you achieve a
goal to get more people to buy a product, make a donation or volunteer time?

Identify Key Values

Authenticity, transparency and expertise are key values. A big part of what A big part of what
makes social media social is that people are motivated to engage other real makes social
people. Authenticity matters in any social context (not just online media).
Touting fake friends or followers is not an authentic approach to self-presenta-
media social is
tion in any type of communication. Most people keep the practice hush-hush
that people are
and would feel “busted” if the word were to get out that they had paid for fol- motivated to
lowers. If you were to buy followers as part of a public relations strategy, would engage other real
you want people to know? Probably not, and wanting to keep something a people.
secret indicates a lack of transparency. Building a base of followers for an or-
ganization by creating engaging content and maintaining mutually beneficial
relationships requires expertise. That expertise is what employers and clients
pay public relations people for. Employers and clients might feel duped if they
knew you “earned” your money with cheap shortcuts.

Identify the Parties Involved

Again, one party is the employer or client. The practitioner himself or her-
self is another. I don’t think I’d count the zombie followers as a party, but
people in real publics who see the social media account and make decisions
based on perceptions of that account would be another party. At the broad-
est level, anyone working in public relations whose reputation may be dam-
aged by unethical practices in this area is also a party.

Ethics: Beware of Zombies; Enhance the Profession 173

Consequentialism Select Ethical Principles
Results-based system of ethics that
holds that the best ethical decision In Chapter 1, we applied deontological (duty-based) principles to decide
is the one leading to the best out- whether ghost tweeting was ethically defensible for a public relations prac-
comes or impacts. titioner. In Chapter 5, we applied the principle of utilitarianism to evaluate
how public relations research is presented. Utilitarianism focuses on the
results of one’s actions. For this case, let’s consider consequentialism—a
results-based system of ethics that holds that the best ethical decision is
the one leading to the best outcomes or impacts.
What are the consequences of buying followers? A very narrow view
would be that buying followers results in short-term success in meeting
objectives. One might even expand this into an ethical argument by saying
that buying followers is ethical if it leads to larger, more important conse-
quences. For example, if you bought followers for an NGO account, and
those followers led to more real followers, and those real followers donated
money, and that money was used to produce vaccines against Ebola, pre-
venting disease would be the result. Fighting deadly viruses would certainly
be an end that one could use to justify the means of buying followers. But
come on. You could drive a truck through the logic of that strategy. The fol-
lowing consequences are more likely:

1. Nothing happens. You spend part of your budget buying followers

and no one even notices.
2. It kind of works. You buy followers and it somehow makes your
a­ ccount look more legit. A few real followers ensue, but they are
deceived in the process because they assume you are producing
content and communicating in a way that others have found
worthwhile.
3. It backfires, and you get called out on it. This happens. Services like
IG Audit and Socialbakers’ fake followers app make it easy to check
your own or others’ social media accounts for fake followers. Your
client may get mocked online for doing this because the lack of
­authenticity and transparency runs directly counter to the values
listed earlier. This hurts your client’s reputation and your own
credibility as a professional. It also drags down the reputation of
public relations as a profession in general.

Make a Decision and Justify It

Although buying followers may offer a quick and inexpensive way to meet
short-term social media objectives, there are plenty of ways to justify the de-
Professionalism in cision not to do so. In all likelihood, the consequences will not be positive or
public relations productive. Real expertise and professionalism in public relations means
means being being willing and able to put in the time and effort required to build relation-
willing and able to ships. PRSA lists “Enhancing the Profession” as a key provision of conduct:
put in the time and “Professionals work constantly to strengthen the public’s trust in the profes-
effort required to sion . . . to build respect and credibility with the public for the profession of
build relationships. public relations . . . to improve, adapt and expand professional practices.”18

174 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
Public relations professionals are • A good timeline determines when to spend
some of the busiest people in busi- resources (such as time and money) on what.
ness, but mere busyness is a waste • Social media analytics allow communicators to
monitor real-time feedback in response to any
of time without planning. These tips
post.
from the chapter will help you see
• SMART objectives make it clear when, what and
day-to-day activities as ways to how evaluation should be conducted.
serve the broader missions of orga-
• Organize budgets in a way that makes sense to
nizations in society: the people funding them.
• A social media presence may be “free” of adver-
• Awareness of a cause, new product or app is tising costs, but it still requires personnel costs.
only one step in leading people to donate, • A big part of what makes social media social is
purchase or download. that people are motivated to engage other real
• When campaign goals include helping publics people.
acquire relevant skills, public relations basically • Professionalism in public relations means being
becomes an act of teaching. willing and able to put in the time and effort
• Avoid setting goals at one level (e.g., liking) required to build relationships.
when what you and your client really want is
effectiveness at a greater level (e.g., acting).

SUMMARY
6.1 Analyze strategic communication 6.2 Define key terms of strategic communica-
outcomes. tion planning.
Planning for public relations means considering Strategic decision-making means that daily
a number of levels of outcomes. McGuire de- action and communication tactics can be tied
veloped a hierarchy-of-effects model that out- with specific objectives, which help achieve
lines key steps in public communication broader goals, which serve an organization’s
campaigns: tuning in, attending, liking, compre- vision and mission. When public relations action
hending, learning, agreeing, remembering, and communication are implemented without
acting and proselytizing. Beyond exposure and this context, decision-making is more tactical
attention/awareness, strategists must think than strategic. Outputs describe the tangible
about steps leading to behavior change and efforts of public relations practitioners—what
proselytizing when communication goes viral. people do. Outcomes describe the results of
Minding these outcomes helps planners set that work—what people accomplish. Impacts
goals, identify appropriate objectives and tac- are the broadest and furthest-reaching results
tics, and be realistic about expected outcomes. of public relations.

SUMMARY 175
6.3 Develop basic timelines to organize tasks 6.5 Apply consequentialism to make ethical
in a strategic public relations program. decisions about setting and achieving
Timelines foster accountability in the manage- public relations objectives while enhancing
ment of strategic programs and campaigns. Key the profession.
steps to consider include formative research, Consequentialism entails thinking through the out-
client/management meetings, implementation of comes of one’s actions in making ethical deci-
tactics, production of communication materials, sions. The case of whether or not to buy followers
events and evaluation. on Twitter or Instagram raises questions about
6.4 Identify key categories of public relations consequences such as misspent budget or inef-
budget items. fective strategy. More important, ethical decision-
Three key resources to consider in any public making in this case means considering broader
relations budget are personnel, administrative consequences such as deception of publics and
costs and supplies, and media. These three cat- damaging (rather than enhancing) the profession.
egories overlap.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. When was the last time you changed your 4. Set an academic or professional goal for your-
­behavior as a result of an organization’s strate- self for some time in the next year. Draw or
gic communication? Which of McGuire’s steps chart a timeline such as the Gantt chart in
did you go through? Figure 6.4 that shows how your activities will
2. Search for an organization that (a) has its vision lead toward your goal over time.
or mission statement posted online, and (b) has 5. Suppose you are the leader of a student or
conducted a public relations tactic that you community organization that is given a budget
think was effective. Describe how the tactic of $1,000 to compete with other similar groups
might help achieve an objective, which helps to recycle the largest number of plastic bottles
with a goal, which supports the vision or in your community. How would you allocate
­mission. What’s the strategy? your budget between personnel, administrative
3. CASE STUDY Take UNICEF’s general hand- costs and supplies, and media?
washing goal and apply it to your own school or 6. Not all fake followers on social media are bought.
workplace: “Increase, improve and/or sustain Almost every account is susceptible to at least a
good hand washing behaviour and form good small percentage of unwanted fake followers (in
handwashing habits.” Write at least two SMART the same way that we get spam via email). Should
objectives, one key output, one key outcome, public relations people be responsible for removing
and one impact for a proposed campaign. these fake followers for clients? Why or why not?

KEY TERMS
Benchmarking 161 Mission 157 Proselytizing 153
Billable rate 168 Objectives 157 Reach 169
Consequentialism 174 Outcomes 161 Strategic decision-making 155
Frequency 169 Outputs 160 Strategy 157
Funnel 155 Overhead expenses 168 Tactical decision-making 155
Goals 157 Planning 149 Tactics 157
Impacts 161 Pop-up 149 Unconferences 164
Impressions 154 Pro bono 165
Media planning 169 Programmatic media buying 169

176 CHAPTER 6   |   PL ANNING

 C HAP TE R 7

Implementation

With the right mix of owned, paid, shared and earned media,
direct-to-consumer startups can take a bite out of market share
from competitors. How did BarkBox implement public relations to
tug business away from companies with longer pedigrees?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

7.1 Explain how organiza-

7.4 Differentiate among
tional action is the foundation
owned, paid, shared and
for credible communication. 7.3 Outline media options on earned media.
7.2 Decide which communica- a continuum from controlled
to uncontrolled. 7.5 Describe the relationship
tion channels are appropriate
between the values of loyalty
for which public relations
and diversity.
purposes.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.6 AUDIENCE IDENTIFIC ATION • 1.8 IMPLEMENTATION • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR
4.2 BARRIERS TO COMMUNIC ATION • 6.4 MEDIA REL ATIONS
 A
fter research and planning, it’s time to implement
programs and manage the communication that
goes along with them. The third step in the RPIE
(research-planning-implementation-evaluation) ­process
Planning is implementation, which includes a combination of
Implementation
­organizational action and communication (Figure 7.1).
As important as communication is in public relations,
­excellence in the public relations field is based on mean-
ingful action.
We’ve all heard spokespeople use buzzwords about
“maximizing potential,” “taking it to the next level,”
“providing thought leadership” or “giving 110 percent.”
Research But what do those phrases mean, especially if they can’t
Evaluation be tied to anything specific that the organization is ac-
tually doing? “Actions speak louder than words,” the
old adage goes. The same logic applies in the implemen-
tation of public relations. It’s one thing to say your or-
Figure 7.1  In the RPIE model, a well-planned, research- ganization values diversity and inclusion, for example.
based public relations program will be implemented in a way It’s another to manage the organization in a way that
that allows evaluation of outcomes. proves it.
How can action and communication both be part of
implementation?

Taking Action
Recall from Chapter 1 that Arthur Page said principled management of
Excellence in the public relations means you have to “prove it with action.” The American Red
field of public Cross doesn’t just send thoughts and prayers when disaster strikes. They
relations is based send aid workers with blankets, water and first aid.
on meaningful In Chapter 2, on the history of public relations, we saw how public rela-
action. tions matured when organizations started taking it seriously as a manage-
ment function based on action. With the counsel of Earl Newsom, Ford
Motor Company didn’t just talk about the importance of auto safety in the
1950s, it actually funded research on safety and changed its operations and
vehicle design in the interest of its publics.
In Chapter 3, on convergence and integration, we explored the link be-
tween public relations, marketing and advertising based on the shared com-
munication function of the three fields. We also learned that promotion is just
one of the four P’s, along with product, place and price. Kwikset enjoyed great
publicity for its technological savvy when its Kevo deadbolt (which enables you
to unlock doors at home using a Bluetooth-enabled smartphone) was named
Organizations product of the year. But that publicity resulted only after the company did the
must bring heavy lifting of research and development to bring the new product to market.
something beyond “What have you done for me lately?” could have been the theme for
talk to their Chapter 4 on relationships. Relationships with employees, investors, media
relationships with and other organizations and publics are all predicated on organizations
publics. bringing something beyond talk to the relationship.

178 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

 Chapters 5 and 6 on research and planning bring us to the doorstep of
action. A well-planned, research-based public relations program will be
implemented in line with the organization’s mission and broad goals. But
living up to these ideals and “walking the walk” can be tough, as Chipotle
Mexican Grill can attest.

Case Study
Pulled Pork: Chipotle’s Challenge
to Act on Its Principles
Chipotle Mexican Grill endured one of the toughest restaurant food-safety
crises in U.S. history in 2016 when multiple locations across several states
were investigated as sources of E. coli outbreaks. One of the main factors in
Chipotle’s ability to withstand the initial shock of that massive crisis was
its organizational history of building and maintaining strong relationships
with its publics based on both action and communication.
Chipotle’s “Food with Integrity” program outlines the company’s com-
mitment to using only quality ingredients and respecting the welfare of
farmers, animals and the environment. Online (chipotle.com/food-with-
integrity.html), they communicate this commitment:

We care deeply about where our ingredients come from. While industrial
farming practices have evolved to maximize profits and production, we
make an extra effort to partner with farmers, ranchers, and other suppli-
ers whose practices emphasize quality and responsibility. See how we're
making choices with farmers, animals, and the environment in mind.1

For meat in particular, Chipotle claims to work with farmers whose ani-
mals are raised in ways that meet specific criteria. “We think that animals
raised outdoors or in deeply-bedded pens are happier and healthier than
those raised in confinement.” Chipotle takes “a firm stand” on sourcing
from farmers who abide by their strict guidelines including “pasture-raised
animals that have room to be animals,” and no “nontherapeutic antibiotics
or added hormones on the farms that produce our ingredients.”2
Of course, maintaining these standards comes at a cost, but the busi-
ness model worked for Chipotle—up to a point. The chain surged in growth
between 2001 when it began implementing the policy and 2014 when Chi-
potle shares jumped 37 percent.3 Chipotle was soaring in the markets and
in public relations, minding investors, customers and even pigs, all at the
same time.
But that beautiful balance was knocked off-kilter in 2015 when Chi-
potle discovered that one of its major pork suppliers was not complying

Taking Action 179

 with the humanitarian guidelines. So what did they do? They pulled the
pork from about a third of their restaurants. This was a huge management
decision for a burrito chain known for its carnitas.
In a way, Chipotle was a victim of its own success. Its eco-friendly busi-
ness model became harder and harder to sustain as the chain grew. While
farms that met Chipotle’s standards still made up a relatively small per-
centage of food suppliers, Chipotle had grown into one of the nation’s larg-
est fast food chains. “Those two realities could eventually prove untenable,
because . . . they simply don’t add up,” wrote Washington Post blogger Rob-
erto Ferdman.4 This was the public relations challenge for Chipotle.
Chipotle, however, stuck to its principles. “This is fundamentally an
animal welfare decision and it’s rooted in our unwillingness to compromise
our standards where animal welfare is concerned,” Chipotle Communica-
tions Director Chris Arnold told Ferdman. As the case continued, Chipotle
management had to make tough decisions to balance their own interests
with the interests of their publics. They resorted to rotating their restau-
rant menus periodically so that no one restaurant would go without carni-
tas for any extended period of time.
Of course, Chipotle still has its critics. The case even gave rise to the
hashtag #carnitasgate, while “pork-ocalypse” trended on Twitter. Some
speculated that the whole ordeal was a conspiracy to sell more of its

Yes, we have no carnitas.

How do you think pulling a major menu item affected Chipotle’s reputation? How do you think it affected their sales?

180 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

meatless, tofu-filled “sofritas,” which were introduced at about the same
time.5 Within a few years, Chipotle was back on track financially. The com-
pany was considered “one of the unsung heroes of the stock market” after
gaining 49 percent market value in 2018.6
Any way you slice it, this case illustrates how much management goes
into real public relations. Anyone can slap a web page up, post some tweets,
or send out news releases claiming that an organization is green and sus-
tainable, but living up to the promise while growing an organization’s
bottom line entails a lot of hard work (i.e., implementation).

Choosing Channels
Two-way communication and relationships are the heart of public relations.
Most of what you can expect to do on a day-to-day basis in public relations
is indeed communication. In between meetings, phone calls and presenta-
tions, you’ll spend your time on email and social media. You’ll probably chat
like mad—both in person and via instant messaging. Skyping, blogging,
tweeting, posting—even old-fashioned reading and writing—they’re all
forms of communication. In managing relationships, you have to make
smart choices about when to send a text, when to “reply all” in an email,
when to call someone on the phone, when to tweet, when to send a photo,
and perhaps most important, when to turn off all your devices and pay at-
tention to the people in the room with you.
A lot of these decisions are not unique to public relations. Most people
working in modern organizations have to make these same decisions as

View more social media cartoons at

Social Media Overload www.socmedsean.com
Okay, we have accounts for
our company on Face book,
Twitter, YouTube, MySpace,
Cool! Now what? Ummm...l have no idea.
Digg, Delicious, Blogger,
Vimeo, Google+, Flickr,
Picasa, Linked In, and Tumblr

Selecting the channels for communication is a big responsibility.

What factors are most important to consider before launching social media efforts?

Choosing Channels 181

Controlled media they manage their professional interactions. What makes public relations
Channels of communication that
allow public relations practitioners
different is that we also have to manage the communication that we plan
to write, edit, produce and distrib- and do on behalf of the organizations that we represent. In implementing
ute messages as they see fit. public relations programs, we are expected to make wise and informed de-
Uncontrolled media cisions on which channels of communication to use, when and for what
Channels of communication that are purpose. When communicating to meet specific goals and objectives, we
outside of the control of public rela- have to carefully analyze the pros and cons of various media for communi-
tions practitioners.
cations between organizations and publics.

Make wise and Controlled and Uncontrolled Media

informed decisions
about which Traditionally, public relations practitioners have thought about media in
channels of terms of how much control they have (or how much control they give up)
communication to when using various channels and tactics for communication. Internal
newsletters or television ads would be thought of as controlled media be-
use, when and for cause communicators may write and edit, or create and produce, messages
what purpose. exactly how they want them. They also control where and to whom the mes-
sages are sent. If you edit your own newsletter, you choose exactly what
stories you want to include, you choose the images and layout, you define
the angle on the stories, and you decide whose mailboxes the newsletter
lands in. If you are paying for a TV spot, you are buying control of the mes-
sage. You can make creative and strategic decisions about how the message
is produced (or at least you contract the people who do). You also decide
where, when and how often the ad airs. Recall the concepts of reach and
frequency from Chapter 6.
On the other side of the spectrum are uncontrolled media. According to
the APR Study Guide, uncontrolled media include newspapers, TV and
radio news, and external websites, as well as blogs and social media that are
not produced internally.7 You can spend days crafting a news release to per-
fectly align with your organization’s goals and objectives, but the second
that you send it to a journalist or blogger, you lose control. It’s up to the
journalist how (and if) to tell the story after that.
Of course, most communication falls somewhere in between entirely
controlled or uncontrolled. Real, interactive and two-way communication
doesn’t allow one party or another total control. Press conferences and in-
terviews are good examples.
Gaming press conferences combine entertainment, technology and
ardent fan interest, and they are among the most elaborately planned and
staged media events. But that doesn’t mean they are entirely controlled
channels for communication. When Electronic Arts Inc. (EA) hosted its EA
Play press conference in summer 2018, the company hyped a live look into
some of its biggest games of the year (e.g., Battlefield™ V, Anthem™, FIFA 19,
Madden NFL 19, NBA LIVE 19 and Star Wars™ Battlefront II) as well as big
reveals for new games. However, many members of the media who attended
focused more on the bumpy production of the press conference itself rather

182 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

than the smooth features of the games that the event was designed to pro-
mote. GamingBolt’s USA Editor Pramath Parijat called it “One of the worst
press conferences of all time”:

The fact that most of the show was just people awkwardly talking about
games without footage or in a lot of cases, even trailers, made other things
stand out even more—there was a complete lack of preparation (one of the
few times we were shown gameplay footage, it seemed like the demo was
not set up). . . . Developers stumbled over what they were saying, often
being prompted pretty aggressively by the presenter, who ended almost any
segment of the show with a fake excited “HOW COOL WAS THAT?!?”8

“No, EA. That was not cool,” concluded Parijat. “No part of that was cool.
It was so uncool it made even a goddamn Star Wars game reveal boring.”
So why would any strategic communicator want to mess with uncon-
trolled media? Well, for starters, money is a factor. You don’t pay for the
space for a newspaper story that runs as the result of a news release or an
interview with your CEO that airs on national TV. When press events go
well, organizations receive a lot of good publicity; this means that they
reach publics via mass media that otherwise would be prohibitively expen-
sive. Some also see credibility as a big advantage for uncontrolled media.
When your message is vetted by a journalist or editor and told as part of a
news story it may carry more credibility.

Actress Janina Gavankar introduces Star Wars: Battlefront II at the Electronic Arts (EA) E3 press
conference at the Hollywood Palladium in Hollywood, CA.
In what ways are press events like this uncontrolled, and what are the risks and benefits of
hosting them?

Controlled and Uncontrolled Media 183

Third-party credibility Think about the Chipotle story. What’s more compelling—a statement
Tendency of people to attribute
greater trustworthiness or expertise
directly from Chipotle’s communications director or a story in USA Today?
to a source other than the original The actual effectiveness of third-party credibility is the subject of aca-
sender of a persuasive message. demic debate and very much depends on the context.
In most situations, like the Chipotle case, public perceptions of and re-
lationships with organizations are the result of a converged mishmash of
communication and experience with those organizations. A news report
consists of a mix of the reporter’s story and quotes from her sources. Read-
ers will consider that story along with everything else they have heard
about the organization. Of course, they also will think about any firsthand
experience they have had. In implementing public relations programs, we
have to consider what our organizations are doing as it affects publics
(action), what we are saying (communication) and what others are saying
about us (third-party communication).

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned

Media
Another way to think about the spectrum of media options is in terms of
owned, paid, shared and earned (Figure 7.2). Public relations people and
their organizations have always had options for all four. But new technolo-
gies have changed the way media are owned and paid for. Social media in
particular have changed how we share in-
formation. And today’s public relations
professionals seek to earn followers, fans,
likes, search engine rankings and positive
reviews, in addition to earning news
coverage.

Owned Media
Owned channels include newsletters, cor-
porate video, brochures, direct mail, voice-
mail messaging systems, intranets and
web pages. Since organizations own the
channels, they more or less control the
message and its dissemination, as well as
the opportunity for feedback or two-way
communication. For example, while in-
tranets allow for two-way communication
on organization-owned platforms, public-
facing web pages allow organizations to
Pardon the low resolution and snazzy fonts, but here’s the very first White
communicate externally.
House home page as it appeared in 1994. Most early organizational web pages
While this is a typical Web 1.0 image, do you see any evidence of move- were designed primarily for delivering
ment from one-way/controlled to two-way/uncontrolled media? messages in a one-way fashion. Many

184 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

 PUBLICITY
MEDIA RELATIONS
BLOGGER RELATIONS
AUTHORITY INVESTOR RELATIONS
OPTIMZED CONTENT INFLUENCER RELATIONS
SHAREABLE CONTENT
ENGAGING CONTENT
GOOGLE AUTHORSHIP
EARNED
INFLUENCER ENGAGEMENT
MEDIA
RESPONSE TO DETRACTORS
PAID MEDIA DETRACTORS TURNED TO LOYALISTS
LOYALISTS TURNED TO ADVOCATES
FACEBOOK SPONSORED POSTS
SPONSORED TWEETS
TWITTER CARDS
FAN ACQUISITION PARTNERSHIPS
LEAD GENERATION CHARITY TIE-INS

PAID SHARED
OUTBRAIN COMMUNITY SERVICE
CO-BRANDING

MEDIA MEDIA

INCENTIVE
AFFILIATE SOCIAL MEDIA
BRAND AMBASSADORS
SPONSORED CONTENT FACEBOOK
NATIVE ADVERTISING TWITIER

OWNED
LINKED-IN
YOU TUBE
PINTEREST
INSTAGRAM
MEDIA VINE
CONTENT GOOGLE+
CREATE FROM EXPERTS
EMPLOYEE STORIES
CUSTOMER STORIES
USER-GENERATED CONTENT
REVIEWS
BRAND JOURNALISM
WEBINARS, VIDEOS & PODCASTS

Figure 7.2  In her “Spin Sucks” blog, Gini Dietrich offers this model classifying tactics that work in each media category, as well as over-
laps between categories.
Can you name an organization (or organizations) using the range of tactics effectively?

websites still fit this description. Think Web 1.0. These websites are some-
times referred to as brochureware because they basically present the
same information that can be delivered in static brochures. They enable
organizations to disseminate information, potentially to worldwide audi-
ences. Potentially is a key word here because—let’s be realistic—people in
Kazakhstan or Kenya probably won’t search the web for a kickboxing club
in Kansas. For websites to reach their potential they need to be part of a Organizations can
communication strategy that drives people to them. After all, websites enhance the utility
don’t get delivered to targeted publics in the same way that brochures,
newsletters or in-house videos do. People have to actively search them out
of owned media
and find them.
when they give up
Owned media include newer and emerging channels for communica- some control and
tion as well. Podcasts, webinars, text messaging systems, blogs, apps and allow for feedback
online video can all be owned. But like web pages in general, their utility to and sharing.
users is often enhanced when organizations give up some control and allow
for feedback and sharing. This brings us to a more profound implication of Brochureware
Web pages that present essentially
the internet for public relations—the way it opened new channels for two- the same material as printed materi-
way communication and interaction between organizations and publics. als such as brochures.

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned Media 185

Corporate advertising Paid Media
Paid media designed to promote an
organization as a whole rather than Advertising is probably the first thing that comes to your mind when you
sell a particular service, product or think about paid media, and rightly so. As defined in Chapter 3, advertising
product category (also sometimes is the stuff that fills paid media space. That space could be column inches in
called institutional advertising).
a newspaper, page portions of a magazine, seconds on the radio or TV, or
Pay per click pixels on a computer monitor or a giant high-definition LED display at a
Model of media sales in which ad-
sports arena. Product and brand advertising are designed primarily to help
vertisers, marketers or sponsors pay
an online publisher or website owner sell products and services. Corporate advertising or institutional adver-
for each time the sponsored mes- tising is designed more to promote the organization as a whole.
sage or advertisement is clicked. Paid media also include banner ads, Google AdWords, targeted email
distribution and pay-per-click services. LinkedIn, for example, sells ads
that will appear on profile pages, in users’ inboxes, on search results pages
and in LinkedIn group pages. You can target your ads based on job titles,
location, age, gender or company size. Then you set up your account to pay
per click—whereby the sponsor of an ad pays each time an ad is clicked—
starting at $2 per click and going up to whatever maximum you set in a bid.9
Native advertising, another paid
option, refers to ads that match the format
of the primary content of the medium
or  channel. A sponsored column or
­advertorial in a newspaper or magazine, a
promoted tweet, a sponsored Facebook post
or an in-feed ad—they’re all paid media.
And they can get expensive. When Snap-
chat first offered companies the opportu-
nity to buy one day’s worth of ads to appear
in users’ “recent updates” feeds, they re-
portedly charged $750,000. Apparently it
was worth it to big brands like Macy’s, Sam-
sung, McDonald’s and Universal Pictures,
the last of which used the paid service to
promote the film Dumb and Dumber To.10
Within a few years, Snapchat began offer-
ing a wider array of pricing options. By
2018, Snapchat ads were available for an
average of $2.95 per thousand impressions
compared to more than $4 for Instagram
and more than $5 for Facebook.11 But the
costs still add up. An Australian teeth-­
whitening product company called HiSmile
budgeted approximately $10 million for
their Snapchat advertising budget that
year, including Snapchat’s Story Ads, which
are sponsored videos that display along
Outdoor advertising seems to be everywhere. with posts from professional media in
Is this owned, paid, shared or earned media? Snapchat’s “Discover” section.12

186 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

 Whenever you see the words “Sponsored content” or “You may also Native advertising
Paid advertising that is presented in
like” on a web page or in an app, you’re very likely looking at native advertis- the form of the media content that
ing. A word of caution: this type of communication risks being deceptive. surrounds it. Advertorials are a type
Stealth advertising that is designed and placed to trick people into thinking of native advertising, as are pro-
moted tweets, sponsored posts and
they are seeing third-party news, reviews or editorial content is a bad idea
so on. Native advertising should be
if your goal is to build and sustain trust between your organization and its labeled as “advertising,” “paid con-
publics. tent,” “sponsored,” etc.

Advertorial
Shared Media Paid advertising that is presented in
Think about your social media use. How often do you “share” your own orig- the form of editorial content.
inal content, and how often do you share stories, memes, photos, videos
and other content from organizations that may consider you a member of
one of their publics? Organizations invest a lot of resources in developing
content that they hope will be shared. When broad sharing is a goal, the
biggest successes are the posts that go viral.
Amazon.com tells me that many customers who buy this book also buy
The Associated Press Stylebook, so many of you are among key publics for the
AP Stylebook. If you follow @APStylebook on Twitter, you will notice that
the social media team indeed has its own “style” that lends itself to sharing.
A big part of @APStylebook’s success is infusing humor into tweets as they
share important information for students and professional writers.

A B

When The Kansas City Star sports writer Brooke Pryor posted this tweet (A), it generated thou-
sands of likes and retweets, including a response from @APStylebook (B) that resulted in thou-
sands of additional retweets and likes.
What makes @APStylebook effective as shared media?

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned Media 187

 Another key to success is how those who manage the
@APStylebook account monitor news and other social
media to find opportunities to engage key publics.
Follow @APStylebook and you’ll definitely learn some
writing tips, but you also might find yourself laughing
and maybe even sharing. Learning, laughing and shar-
ing are solid public relations outcomes in my book.
Successful efforts to share (and be shared) are usu-
ally no accident. In public relations, shared media tac-
tics are very carefully planned and implemented.
GoPro’s YouTube strategy is a good example. GoPro is a
company that makes HD, waterproof video recording
devices. With more than seven million subscribers as
of this writing, a big part of the company’s strategy is
the way it facilitates sharing among its subscribers.
“Subscribers provide velocity,” writes Econsultancy
blogger Christopher Ratcliff. “YouTube loves velocity,”
he continues. “They’ll watch it, they’ll share it and your
video will end up in more places.”13
To be sure, it doesn’t hurt that the nature of Go-
Pro’s product line lends itself perfectly to a social
media site that is built on the concept of amazing
videos. But GoPro leverages the medium particularly
well by providing a forum for users to determine which
videos are the best by viewing, liking, sharing, com-
menting and discussing. Most of the sharing is be-
tween and among the organization’s publics, and
GoPro representatives are careful and strategic about
how they get involved. For instance, they may feature
“staff’s top picks,” offer a few comments on popular
videos, post tutorials or occasionally answer product-
related questions in the discussion section of their
YouTube channels. However, the biggest act of sharing
may be the way GoPro shares its platform by letting
users provide some of the content and dominate the
discussions. In communication strategy, sharing can
GoPro’s YouTube channels have millions of subscribers. refer to either the sharing of content such as a tweet or
Why is GoPro so successful in leveraging shared media? a video, or the sharing of a forum or channel such as a
discussion page or YouTube channel. Either way, shar-
ing means ceding some control.
It’s just as easy to find examples of organizations that have gone viral
for regrettable reasons when the shared communication about them spun
out of control. When Lockheed Martin attempted to take advantage of
#WorldPhotoDay by tweeting, “Do you have an amazing photo of one of our
products? Tag us in your pic and we may feature it …,” the response was not
at all what they had hoped for. Instead of soaring jets or hi-tech helicopters,

188 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

A B

Lockheed Martin deleted their request for Twitter followers to post pictures of their products for
#WorldPhotoDay (A), but not before some users noticed and took advantage of the opportunity to
criticize the company (B).
How might the company make better use of shared media?

Twitter users posted photos of bomb fragments and blood-stained chil- Just as you give up
dren’s backpacks. These responses stemmed from recent reports that a 500- control of a story
pound laser-guided Lockheed Martin bomb had been used in an attack that
had killed dozens of people, including children on a school bus in Yemen.14
as soon as you
In the same way that public relations practitioners give up control of a news
send a news
story as soon as they send a news release to journalists, they also give up release, you give
control when they share information or invite engagement with publics on up control of
social media. information when
you share it with
Earned Media your publics on
Just as advertising may be the first thing that people think of when they social media.
think of paid media, publicity may be the first thing that comes to mind for
public relations practitioners when they think of earned media. The APR
Study Guide defines publicity as “information from an outside source that is
used by the media because it has news value” and “an uncontrolled method
of placing messages because the source does not pay the media for place-
ment.”15 In other words, publicity isn’t bought. Publicity is earned.
A classic example is a newspaper story that is written and published as
the result of a news release. If an organization has done something news-
worthy, its public relations person will have a higher probability of success
getting the story reported in the paper than if the news release is mostly
spin and is deemed by editors to have little news value. As discussed in
Chapter 4 on relationships, effective public relations people understand
how journalists think. They understand news value. They know when their

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned Media 189

Media gatekeepers
People or processes that filter infor-
mation by deciding which content is
published, broadcasted, posted,
shared or forwarded.

During a partial government shutdown in 2019, The Delta Airlines Foundation supported the Na-
tional Park Service (NPS) with a grant to keep Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historical Park open.
The two organizations issued this news release to publicize the story.
Do you think the two organizations earned further news coverage?

organizations have done something that merits media coverage. When

public relations people work in a management role, they help organizations
perform in the public interest, and they also help organizations tell that
story by garnering media coverage. They help organizations earn media
attention.
Of course, the concept of media attention today is much broader than
making news in newspapers, magazines, television and radio. In addition
to traditional editors and producers, today’s media gatekeepers are social
media influencers, everyday media consumers and even computer algo-
rithms. Having a picture of your product pinned on a top Pinterest board,
trending on Reddit, getting retweeted by a celebrity, or showing up at the
top of organic search results on Google are all forms of earned media.
Wikipedians define search engine optimization (SEO) as “the process of
affecting the online visibility of a website or a web page in a web search
engine's unpaid results—often referred to as ‘natural,’ ‘organic,’ or ‘earned’
results.”16 While you can buy placement at the top of search results with
programs like Google AdWords, effective SEO requires earning that place-
ment by offering useful information, designing your site well and building

190 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

relationships with other sites that may link to yours. On the last point,
Google rewards earned links more than self-placed ones. Google treats a
link from an external page as a “vote” by that page for the page to which it Today’s media
links. In Google’s algorithms, “votes cast by pages that are themselves gatekeepers
­‘ important’ weigh more heavily and help to make other pages ‘important.’”17 include social
In the same way that news operations draw a line between paid advertising media influencers,
and editorial content (sometimes referred to in publishing lingo as the sep- everyday media
aration of “church and state”), search engines take care to separate paid and consumers and
unpaid results to protect the relevance of their search results and the cred-
ibility of their service.
even computer
algorithms.
Mixed Media
In the universe of owned, paid, shared and earned media, communications
functions and effects mix and overlap considerably. Content from an owned
channel like a company blog, Pinterest board or Twitter timeline can easily
be shared with a re-post, re-pin or retweet. Paid advertising, including
native advertising and paid search results, can complement earned cover-
age in those same channels.

Case Study
Puppies as Publics? BarkBox Marks Its
Territory Across Owned, Paid, Shared
and Earned Media
BarkBox is a subscription service that delivers boxes of themed dog treats
and toys to millions of dogs and their humans each month. The Bark com-
pany designs and makes most of its products in-house and customizes each
delivery based on the dog’s breed, size and temperament. As a direct-to-
consumer (DTC) brand, you might expect BarkBox to fetch most of its
business from its own channels and from social media. But BarkBox and
other DTC brands have learned to sniff around more in deciding the right
mix of owned, paid, shared and earned media.
In the medical world, direct-to-consumer advertising has long referred
to pharmaceutical companies that promote prescription products directly
to patients rather than relying entirely on medical professionals to recom-
mend prescriptions. More recently, DTC also has come to describe brands
like BarkBox, Dollar Shave Club and Blue Apron that market and deliver Direct-to-consumer
products directly to consumers. Part of the formula for success for these Business model in which organiza-
companies has been cutting out the intermediary. By delivering products tions such as home-delivery and
subscription services market prod-
directly to your door, these companies don’t have to split profit margins
ucts and services directly to con-
with the PetSmarts, WalMarts and Krogers of the world. So it may be sumers and bypass traditional retail
tempting to assume that they would want to go direct to consumers with channels.

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned Media 191

 their communication strategies as well and bypass media gatekeepers in
the process. However, as BarkBox has shown, optimizing the media mix
means weighing the costs and benefits across all available media channels.
As consumers, social media feeds are where many of us first become
exposed to and aware of the hippest new DTC brands. In fact, Facebook
featured BarkBox as a prime example of how the platform’s news feed,
along with Facebook video ads, Facebook Marketplace, and other Face-
book research and measurement tools generated conversions from views
to subscriptions. “Because it signed up more subscribers by showing ads
in Marketplace and News Feed,” Facebook reported, “BarkBox will con-
tinue to tap Facebook’s shopping destination to generate more subscrip-
tions.”18 This is definitely paid media because Bark paid Facebook for
BarkBox to be featured in users’ news feeds and in the Facebook
Marketplace.
Of course, Facebook and Instagram (owned by Facebook) also are top
channels for shared media too. And BarkBox quickly became a darling on
Instagram, where dog owners and dog lovers post funny pictures, quotes
and videos of their four-legged friends tearing into their freshly delivered
toys and treats. Adweek reported in 2017 that BarkBox had 500,000 sub-
scribers and more than 4 million fans on Facebook and Instagram. The
Adweek report highlighted the Bark social media team’s knack for cultivat-
ing sharable content by working with comedians instead of traditional
marketers to infuse humor into the content in ways that resonate with dog
owners and dog lovers.19 Stacie Grissom, Head of Content at Bark, identifies
with her publics as “an iceberg of a population who’s just like us, total weir-
dos about their dogs.”
Just as Bark owns and controls much of its manufacturing and packag-
ing, it also owns and controls many of its media channels including its web-
site Barkbox.com (“Ready to spoil your pup with a BarkBox of their very
own?”), its “Pupdates” email service (I have to admit I subscribe) and Bark-
Post, which started as a blog for BarkBox and evolved into a leading enter-
tainment site for dog lovers.
BarkBox earns media too by making news with programs such as
“Snacks That Give Back,” a line of dog treats for which a portion of sales are
used to support shelter and rescue organizations across the United States,
and BARK for Good, which is an online program that gives 5 percent of
BarkShop proceeds to organizations that assist animals in need. It also has
sponsored events including the CMA Fest in Nashville.
Perhaps the most important part of BarkBox’s implementation strat-
egy, though, is its flexibility and responsiveness to research and evaluation
in the RPIE cycle. As of this writing, the darling of DTC was moving more
of its advertising budget to old-fashioned radio, TV and print media and
had started selling toys in Target stores with plans to expand to other
brick-and-mortar retail chains.20 You may not be able to teach an old dog
new tricks, but apparently new dogs can learn old tricks.

192 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

BarkBox relies heavily on user-generated content and humor in its mix of owned, paid, shared and
earned media.
What are the risks and benefits?

Voices from the Field

Rosanna M. Fiske

ROSANNA M. FISKE, APR, is a PRSA Fellow and PRSA, received four Silver Anvils, was named a
senior vice president of corporate communications at PRWeek Diversity Champion, and was honored as
Wells Fargo. Widely known for her cross-cultural un- one of the Top 100 Influential Hispanics in America
derstanding and expertise, Fiske is responsible for all by Hispanic Business magazine.
aspects of corporate communications including
­executive advocacy, social media and internal and In 2018 Wells Fargo launched the
external communications for Wells Fargo’s Florida ­“Re-Established” campaign to win back trust
and Southeast regions, which include 1,200+ after a challenging period in its history.
branches and more than 30,000 team members. ­(“Established in 1832. Re-established 2018
Fiske has a proven track record developing success- with a recommitment to you.”) What’s the
ful, multi-channel campaigns working with some of role of public relations in that effort?
the world’s leading brands such as Charles Schwab, Our transformation is grounded in our vision of satisfy-
American Airlines, GE, Google, Absolut Vodka and ing our customers’ financial needs and helping them
MTV Networks. Fiske was the first Latina CEO of succeed financially. Our five values guide every action

Owned, Paid, Shared and Earned Media 193

 we take: what’s right for customers, people as a com- of messaging but wonder, “is anyone listening?”
petitive advantage, ethics, diversity and inclusion, and You can pull a lot of messaging, if you do the
leadership. And by delivering on our goals, we want to listening.
become the financial services leader in: customer ser- For Wells Fargo we have owned content in a
vice and advice, team member engagement, innova- number of ways, including Wells Fargo Stories (sto-
tion, risk management, corporate citizenship and ries.wf.com) where we tell stories of everyday things
shareholder value. Our communications effort is en- that happen at Wells Fargo and with Wells Fargo cus-
grained in everything that we do and every single effort tomers. Our vision is to help customers succeed fi-
we embark on as a company. The overall takeaway we nancially and you can find a lot of ways that we do
want to impart upon audiences, through our public re- that through those stories. Interestingly, if you go to
lations efforts, is that it is a new day at Wells Fargo. one of our ATMs you’ll find some of those stories—
some of that owned content—showing on the
Can you tell us about how that plays out as
screen. You may even be asked if you want the story
real action within the organization?
printed so that you can take it with you, and share it
We have made foundational changes to identify and
with someone else.
fix problems so they do not happen again. We’ve
made significant progress on our commitment to Have you made much progress with diversity
make things right for our customers and build a since you identified it as a core tenet for
better bank. We have more work to do before we PRSA in 2011?
fully transform into the Wells Fargo we aspire to I was elected to the PRSA board in 2004. Right
be—but we know what we need to do to make that around that time we did a comprehensive member
aspiration a reality. We have a vision, a plan, and the survey, and the percentage of ethnically diverse
drive to get there. membership was in the single digits. By the time that
How do you make the business case for I ended my year as CEO and chair of PRSA, we were
diversity? at 13–14 percent. I was the first Latina CEO and
People as a competitive advantage—one of our key chair, the first Latina who was national treasurer, and
values. Wells Fargo sees our diversity and inclusion the second Hispanic member on the board. Since
council, and really diversity and inclusion as a whole, then, and looking at ethnicity as one dimension of
as a great professional development and engage- diversity, three African American women, two His-
ment opportunity. In addition, diversity and inclusion panic women, one African American man, one His-
enable us to use creativity and multiple perspectives panic man, and one Asian American man have
to adapt and respond to our customers’ needs faster served on the board. The fact that we have been
and more effectively. To be successful as a company able to make those changes in the last ten years at
and as team members we must be as diverse as the that top level of leadership definitely shows that
customers and communities we serve. we’re making progress.
However, you can’t look at diversity and inclu-
What risks and rewards do you consider sion separately. You can’t say, “We need a few di-
when deciding to communicate with uncon- verse people here because we’re lacking that.” It
trolled channels like shared social media vs. really needs to be built into everything that you do. A
more controlled channels like owned media? perfect example comes from back in 2011. When-
Well, I actually think most work in public relations is ever we provided national news from PRSA that went
uncontrolled! I worked in advertising too, and in ad- beyond the profession, we provided it in Spanish to
vertising you’re controlling message, frequency and Spanish-language media and to diverse media. Sup-
placement. I see social media as an extension of plying this content in different languages and to di-
public relations. You have the same pull and push verse media wasn’t an add-on. It was part of the
philosophy on social media. You can push out a lot outreach and part of the strategy.

194 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

Ethics: Loyalty and Diversity
in Communication and Action
Just as communication without action produces meaningless spin, diver-
sity initiatives without loyalty amount to window dressing or a “misguided
attempt to gain political correctness points,” as media critic Eric Deggans
puts it.21 A key step in the process of ethical decision-making is identifying
the diverse parties who will be affected by a decision and defining the or-
ganization’s loyalty to each. Loyalty is a core value of public relations. It is
listed in the PRSA Code of Ethics along with advocacy, honesty, expertise
and independence. “We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring The more diverse
our obligation to serve the public interest.”22 decision-makers
Interestingly, diversity is not mentioned directly in the PRSA Code of within an
Ethics, but it is certainly an important issue to PRSA’s leadership, as it is to organization, the
professional organizations worldwide. In response to a PRWeek editorial more effective the
titled “Agencies Must Find Answers for a Lack of Diversity,”23 PRSA Chair organization will
and CEO Rosanna Fiske wrote that PRSA had “made increasing diversity in be in relating to
the profession a core tenet of our mission.” Fiske noted that PRSA, along
with the Arthur W. Page Society and the Council of PR Firms, among others,
various publics.
had identified diversity as a priority to “engender not only greater diversity
within our ranks, but higher value for our services.”24 So what does diver-
sity have to do with loyalty, and what does this ethical question have to do
with implementation?
In their book Doing Ethics in Media, ethicists Jay Black and Chris Rob-
erts write that we expand our empathy as we grow personally and profes-
sionally. At earlier stages of moral development we tend to be loyal to
ourselves and to those who have power over us such as parents, teachers
and bosses. But as we mature in life and in our professional careers, we
expand our worldview and our empathy with “people who are not like us—
people different in race, ethnicity, physical ability, religion, sexual orienta-
tion, age, economic class, etc.”25 In public relations—a field defined as the
management of relationships with all sorts of publics—empathy and loy-
alty go hand in hand with diversity. The more diverse the decision-makers Loyalty
A sense of obligation or support for
are within an organization, the more effective the organization will be in someone or something, including
relating to its various publics. Diversity initiatives that are implemented as both organizations and publics.
part of an organization’s mission and loyalty to both internal and external
Diversity
publics are more than window dressing. They are the implementation of Inclusion of different types of
good strategy. people and different types of views.

Ethics: Loyalty and Diversity in Communication and Action 195

 Case Study
Doing Good by Doing Well: Kimberly-Clark’s
Efforts to Promote Diversity
When Kimberly-Clark Corp. named Sue Dodsworth to the role of vice presi-
dent and chief diversity officer, they communicated all the right things. “Diver-
sity and inclusion is critical to the success of our business,” said Chairman and
CEO Thomas J. Falk in the news release.26 With global brands like Huggies,
Kotex, Kleenex, Scott and Pull-Ups, it didn’t take advanced analytics to under-
stand that many of Kimberly-Clark’s most important publics are women. Data
available at the time showed that 85 percent of the company’s customers were
female.27 While naming Dodsworth to this post sent a message, Kimberly-
Clark needed more for any lasting effect. “We must build a more diverse and
inclusive global organization that looks, thinks and behaves like the people
that use our products,” said Falk. Dodsworth had her work cut out for her.
Research and planning came first. In sharp contrast to the demograph-
ics of its customers, only 17 percent of the Kimberly-Clark’s upper-level (di-
rector level or higher) employees were women. In closer analysis of HR data,
Dodsworth found two glass-ceiling points in women’s careers at Kimberly-
Clark. Many women were “stuck” in the position they attained right after
their first promotion, and others were stuck just below the director level.28
A company like Kimberly-Clark often promotes managers from areas
like manufacturing or millwork that traditionally may not include many
women. Dodsworth and her team analyzed hiring and promotion data and
Glass ceiling
Metaphor used to describe a pres-
interviewed employees. They learned that women were deterred by leader-
ent but unseen barrier to promotion ship job descriptions that mentioned years of experience in these areas as
for women and minorities. desirable qualifications. As Dodsworth explained in a Fortune article,
“When we asked why, it was, ‘Because of these 10 things that I need for the
role, I’ve only got eight.’ Whereas when I talked to the men who applied,
they had five and they were going for it.”
Dodsworth and her team then developed and implemented a strategy
that focused on career development. Dodsworth asked hiring managers
writing job postings to focus more on skills that could be transferred to
new positions than on accumulated years of past experience. Other actions
included global networking forums, mentoring programs, hiring policies
that were more amenable to work-life balance, and the implementation of
specific business plans for recruiting and developing more women leaders.
As reported in a news release announcing that Kimberly-Clark had won a
Catalyst Award, the results were impressive:
• The number of women who held director-level or higher leadership
­positions globally increased by 71 percent.
• The number of women with racially or ethnically diverse backgrounds in
“director-plus” positions at Kimberly-Clark in the United States doubled.

196 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

• Internal promotions of women to “direc-
tor-plus” jobs increased from 19 percent
to 44 percent.
Catalyst is a nonprofit organization dedi-
cated to advancing business leadership op-
portunities for women. The Catalyst Award
“annually honors innovative organizational
approaches with proven, measurable results
that address the recruitment, development,
and advancement of all women, including
diverse women.”29
While some may see the award and the
publicity it earned as “great PR,” that recog-
nition is less important to the success of the
organization than the role of public rela-
tions as part of the way the organization is
Kimberly-Clark claimed, “We’re changing more than just diapers around
managed. As Dodsworth reported in the here.”
Forbes article, “This started as an initiative,
How did the company’s efforts to promote diversity also promote the
but now it’s the way we work.” company’s business interests?

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
Communication in public relations • Organizations can enhance the utility of owned
will ring hollow without action to media when they give up some control and
allow for feedback and sharing.
back it up. Here are some key
• Just as you give up control of a story as soon as
points from the chapter to help you
you send a news release, you give up control of
hit the right notes in implementing information when you share it with your publics
a successful public relations plan. on social media.
• Today’s media gatekeepers include social media
influencers, everyday media consumers and
• Excellence in the field of public relations is
even computer algorithms.
based on meaningful action.
• The more diverse the decision-makers within an
• Organizations must bring something beyond
organization, the more effective the organiza-
talk to their relationships with publics.
tion will be in relating to various publics.
• Make wise and informed decisions about which
channels of communication to use, when and
for what purpose.

Ethics: Loyalty and Diversity in Communication and Action 197

SUMMARY
7.1 Explain how organizational action is 7.4 Differentiate among owned, paid, shared
the foundation for credible and earned media.
communication. Owned media include organizational web
You have to walk the walk if you are going to pages, newsletters, intranets and other con-
talk the talk, and actions speak louder than trolled media that organization employees
words. Both of these common sayings speak to own and operate. Paid options include adver-
the idea that the implementation of solid public tising and other media services that require
relations programs requires the management of payment for placement and distribution of in-
organizational action. Communication that is formation. Shared options are more common
not based on meaningful action is spin. Chi- in social media, where users share by re-
potle’s pork issue illustrates how an organiza- posting, retweeting, tagging, linking and so
tion implemented public relations with both on. Earned media include traditional publicity
action and communication. as well as coverage by third parties online
(i.e., influencers). These channels often over-
7.2 Decide which communication channels are
lap, and integrated strategies may use all of
appropriate for which public relations
the media types for implementing common
purposes.
goals, as was illustrated in the BarkBox
In managing relationships, you have to make
example.
smart choices about which channels of com-
munication to use when and for what purpose. 7.5 Describe the relationship between the
You must carefully analyze the pros and cons values of loyalty and diversity.
of various media for communication on behalf At more advanced stages of professional and
of the entire organization. moral development, we expand our empathy to
people who are different from us, thereby ex-
7.3 Outline media options on a continuum
panding our loyalty to more diverse groups.
from controlled to uncontrolled.
Understanding an organization’s obligations to
Media like brochures, newsletters, intranets
and relationships with diverse publics informs
and advertising fall on the controlled end of the
ethical decision-making as well as informed
spectrum because the public relations practi-
management of an organization. The more that
tioner can, to some extent, control the produc-
diversity of public relations staff and internal
tion and distribution of content. Social media
publics reflects the diversity of an organiza-
and publicity are considered uncontrolled be-
tion’s external publics, the better suited the or-
cause public relations practitioners cede con-
ganization will be for building and maintaining
trol to social media users, news editors and
mutually beneficial relationships, as illustrated
producers. The most uncontrolled media often
in the Kimberly-Clark case.
provide better options for two-way communica-
tion, credibility and influence.

198 CHAPTER 7   |   IMPLEMENTATION

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. CASE STUDY The Chipotle case suggested 4. Provide an example of a case when an organi-
that the company’s eco-friendly business zation benefited from something going viral,
model became harder to sustain as its success and compare that to a case in which viral com-
led to rapid expansion. In what ways is it is munication harmed an organization. To what
easier for small organizations to live up to envi- degree did the organizations have control of
ronmental and social justice promises? What the channels in each case?
advantages do large organizations have in 5. CASE STUDY BARK started off as a direct-to-
being able to act on their principles? Cite ex- consumer (DTC) company. Name another DTC
amples of each. company that you are familiar with. What types
2. Name an organization that you believe lives up of owned, paid, shared and earned media have
to high standards. What does the organization you observed them using? Does the company
do to earn your respect, and how does the favor social media in its communication strat-
organization communicate about those egy? Why or why not?
actions? 6. CASE STUDY Kimberly-Clark has been recog-
3. When might it be a bad decision for an organi- nized for its efforts to promote more women in
zation to use social media to communicate with the organization. What other kinds of diversity
its publics? Give an example and explain why are beneficial to organizations like Kimberly-
you would choose alternate channels. Clark, and why is this a public relations issue?

KEY TERMS
Advertorial 187 Diversity 195 Pay per click 186
Brochureware 185 Glass ceiling 196 Third-party credibility 184
Controlled media 182 Loyalty 195 Uncontrolled media 182
Corporate advertising 186 Media gatekeepers 190
Direct-to-consumer 191 Native advertising 187

KEY TERMS 199

 C HAP TE R 8

Evaluation

PR News called it a “close shave” when Gillette’s “We Believe:

The Best a Man Can Be” video drew millions of viewers and
a range of very strong responses. How did Gillette evaluate
its controversial campaign?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

8.1 Explain how evaluation 8.3 Discuss how digital 8.5 Match appropriate metrics
research can be used in public t­ echnology has expanded our with the various public rela-
relations program develop- ability to track and analyze tions outcomes they measure.
ment and message testing. data in evaluating public
8.6 Analyze the relationship
­relations programs.
8.2 Describe how media between independence as a
monitoring services work. 8.4 Evaluate public relations core value of public relations
research practices using in- and the ethical conduct of
dustry standards for research ­research, measurement and
(i.e., Barcelona Principles). evaluation.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.9 EVALUATION OF PROGR AMS • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 5.1 BUSINESS LITER AC Y
5.2 RESOURCE MANAGEMENT • 5.4 PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING
E
valuation is the process by which we determine the value of our work.
When we invest time, energy and budgets in both short- and long-
term projects, we use evaluation to understand our return on invest-
ment. We also use evaluation to demonstrate to employers and clients the
value they receive when they invest in us and our programs. From deter-
mining whether it’s worth it to update an Instagram feed daily to pitching
a million-dollar campaign proposal, evaluation is how we know—and
show—the value of our work.
The “E” (evaluation) may come last in the four-step RPIE outline
(Figure 8.1), but as we’ve discussed throughout the book, evaluation and
research go together, and both are used continuously throughout strategic
public relations programs. In the introduction to Chapter 5, we described
research as a cyclical process. Evaluation of prior programs can be useful
right at the very beginning of a new campaign or program. In Chapter 6 on
planning, we discussed the concepts of formative research and benchmark-
ing. In planning goals and objectives, it’s important to understand the cur-
rent state of your organization, situation and publics so that you can
measure your progress against that baseline or starting point. Then, in
Chapter 7, we looked at how implementing public relations programs with
digital and social media allows us to track and analyze activity across
owned, paid, shared and earned media. In this chapter, we examine what
we count as successful communication and our metrics for understanding
that success.
All of the major research methods described in Chapter
5—surveys, ­experiments, content analysis, interviews, focus
groups and direct ­observation—are just as useful now as they
have been through the history of social science. The purposes
for these methods haven’t changed much. For example, surveys
Implementation
are still conducted to gather data that describe demographics Evaluation
and what people think, feel and do. In addition, as a method for
evaluation, the data from surveys conducted before a campaign
can be used as a baseline for comparison to data collected during
and after a campaign to assess changes in cognition, attitudes
and behavior.
Of course, online survey tools make it much easier to
collect and analyze data than it was in the days when most Planning
surveys were conducted using paper and pencil. However, Research
online surveys still serve much the same purpose as paper
surveys. In fact, for some research with some populations,
you may receive a higher response rate and a more repre-
sentative sample of participants with a survey sent by snail Figure 8.1  In the RPIE model, evaluation demon-
strates the value of what was planned and imple-
mail or handed to respondents in person. Nielsen still mented, but it also helps current and future planning
mails pen-and-paper surveys, along with crisp dollar bills and implementation.
as incentives, to collect data on household TV viewing How can evaluation of one program or campaign
behavior. serve as formative research for the next?

EVALUATION 201
 This isn’t to say, however, that there
hasn’t been significant innovation in re-
search methods. Nielsen and other re-
search firms also have developed digital
watermarking technology that enables
audio and video to be tracked with digital
information woven into the signals that
carry programming content. This helps
copyright owners protect their informa-
tion, and it also helps companies like
Nielsen track which signals reach your TV
and mobile devices. This digital research
technology has the advantage of providing
more accurate accounting for what content
is delivered, but unlike paper surveys and
diaries, the watermarking technology
can’t tell researchers whether you are actu-
Virtual reality headsets are widely available for gamers and other digital media ally paying attention.
consumers. In a laboratory setting, communica-
How might virtual reality be evaluated as a public relations tactic? tion researchers might use software for
eye tracking, or even functional mag-
Digital watermarking netic resonance imaging (fMRI), to observe how people pay attention to
Information embedded into digital
audio and video signals that can be
and respond to messages. Virtual reality headsets are available to everyday
used to track when and where the gamers and consumers. And, with new technology for communication
content is delivered. comes new ways to measure and evaluate the experiences. Every virtual
movement can be recorded and analyzed.
Eye tracking Whether you use traditional or new research technology, and whether
Process of measuring eye move-
ments to determine where people
you evaluate traditional or new public relations efforts, your research deci-
are focusing; often used in website sions should be driven by the specific purpose of your evaluation. Three
testing. major areas for evaluation research are: (1) message testing, (2) media mon-
Functional magnetic resonance
itoring, and (3) measurement of outcomes (i.e., metrics and analytics).
imaging (fMRI)
Tests that use magnetic fields to
generate images of brain activity,
including responses to communica-
Message Testing
tion and media stimuli.
As a way to evaluate your tactics for communication, message testing can range
from informal to formal and from qualitative to quantitative. Ever type a tweet
and then quickly show it to a friend before posting? That’s message testing: you
are doing a tiny bit of evaluation research to see how others will receive your
message before you send it. Other examples of ways to test messages with more
rigor include focus groups, readability tests and experiments.

Focus Groups
Focus groups have been a popular method of message testing in advertis-
ing, entertainment and public relations for decades. Focus groups can be
formal. Trained moderators may lead discussions with small groups of

202 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

carefully recruited participants who must
respond to campaign concepts. Organiz-
ers of a health campaign may run focus
groups to see what types of messages and
appeals resonate most with high school
students. A startup tech company getting
ready to launch a new app may invite
early adopters to focus groups to discuss
the design of the app’s icon or various dis-
play pages.

Readability Tests
Every time an editor or reviewer reads
through copy and offers feedback, they
are helping with message testing. This
feedback is normally qualitative in the
form of editorial suggestions and com-
ments, either written or oral. But mes- Even informal message testing can be useful as formative evaluation in public
relations.
sage testing also can be quantitative. For
example, if you paste the text from the What kind of message testing have you conducted?
previous paragraph into a readability
tester window on the site www.webfx.com/tools/read-able/, the software A/B testing can be
will tell you that the paragraph has five sentences, 95 words, 14 complex used to quickly
words, an average of 1.58 syllables per word and 19 words per sentence.
The software calculates that this all adds up to an average readability score
compare the
for a grade level of 12. So if you’ve graduated high school, we should be OK.
effects of different
However, this little bit of message testing reminds me to try to keep my digital content and
sentences short. messages.

Experiments
Experimental design also can be applied in message testing. Message test-
ing experiments are known as A/B testing in the parlance of digital media
(Figure 8.2). Let’s say you want to test different news release headings as
links on one of your organization’s web pages. You could set up two versions
of the web page—an “A” version with one news release heading and a “B” A/B testing
version with another heading. These are basically two conditions in a simple Experiment in which one group of
experiment. Your website can then be programmed to randomly display participants is randomly assigned to
see one version of a message and
either A or B to a sample of visitors over a period of time. A/B testing pro- another group is randomly assigned
grams allow you to compare the two conditions against each other to see, to see a second version. Results are
for instance, whether the A version or the B version generates more clicks then compared to test the effective-
ness of message variations.
through to the full text of the news release. The independent variable (the
cause) is the type of headline, and the dependent variable (the effect) is Automated copy testing
click-through behavior. When software and computer programs are used to Using computer programs to auto-
mate the process of testing digital
automatically test digital messages, marketing and advertising researchers messages such as promotional
call this automated copy testing. copy.

Message Testing 203

Clipping services
Businesses that monitor print and
electronic media for mentions of
clients in local, national or interna-
tional outlets.
Version a Visitor randomly distributed Version b

Page Title Page Title

News Sign up Nav. Nav.

Block Form Bar Bar Content Body

Content Body Sign up News

Form Block

50 Signups 75 Signups

Version B is better than Version A

Figure 8.2  This example shows how different page layouts (independent variable) can be com-
pared to see which delivers more signups (dependent variable).
What other independent and dependent variables can be tested with A/B testing?

Media Monitoring Services

Monitoring media is another area of evaluation that has sped up consider-
ably in the digital age. In the days before Google (and Google alerts), interns
and other entry-level employees used to get paper cuts and calluses from
paging through stacks of newspapers and magazines every morning look-
ing for mentions of a client’s name or product. After finding a story, they
would review it to see how relevant it was and whether it was primarily
positive, negative or neutral (a very basic form of content analysis). Then
they would use scissors, a glue stick and a copy machine to create pages for
the clip book. The clip book was a three-ring binder that included all the
print media coverage they had found and categorized.
Evaluating TV coverage was another issue. In some offices, VCRs would
be programmed to tape-record the morning and evening news programs
whenever the public relations person expected coverage of his or her orga-
nization. Another option was to contact TV stations directly to request
copies of the coverage. The cassettes or transcripts would be saved for later
analysis, reporting and presentation.
But that was for do-it-yourselfers. Bigger agencies and organizations
with larger budgets subscribed to clipping services. Clipping services

204 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

 Coverage Over Time Sentiment Breakdown Media Type Breakdown
300k
OnlineNews 39.23%
200k PrintNews 4.14%
Positive 28.32% Blogs 12.38%
100k Neutral 49.30% Twitter 14.26%
Negative 12.54% PressRelease 10.01%
0k
Not available 9.83% Television 11.06%
Jan 01 Jan 04 Jan 07 Jan 10 Jan 13 Jan 16 Jan 19 Jan 22 Jan 25 Jan 28

30 Days 7 Days 24 Hours Radio 8.92%

Custom Date Range

Figure 8.3  Media monitoring services offer a variety of tools for the collection, analysis and reporting of media data.
Which of these charts indicates public relations outcomes beyond just media coverage?

monitored print and electronic media for mentions of clients in local, na-
tional or international media. Their menu of services included monitoring
coverage in different types of media, capturing related content, and con-
ducting content analysis of news and editorial mentions. They would also
Media monitoring services
calculate numbers like total number of impressions. In fact, they still do. Vendors that assist public relations
Fortunately, media monitoring services have evolved with digital practitioners in the collection, analy-
media and are among the most useful tools in digital public relations be- sis and reporting of media data for
evaluation.
cause of the way they support public relations professionals in the collec-
tion, analysis and reporting of media data for evaluation (Figure 8.3).
Aside from the obvious advantage of automating the process of scan-
ning, “clipping,” compiling and sorting media coverage, media monitoring
services have also expanded the range of evaluation available. While legacy
clipping services of the 20th century included opinion pieces and editorials,
the content was limited to what was published or broadcasted, not how
people responded to the content. Old clipping services measured earned
media and not shared media. They offered little evidence of what publics
were thinking, feeling or doing as a result of the coverage. Today’s media
monitoring services still measure publicity, but they also monitor online
conversations and facilitate the sharing of information. For some examples,
see Table 8.1.
As with the public relations industry in general, new media monitoring
technologies and startups constantly emerge, services converge, and Media monitoring
­companies merge. Search online for demos and you’ll find varying suites of
related services that include targeted search, report generation, analytics
services enable the
and consulting.
analysis of social
As defined in Chapter 5 on research, content analysis is the systematic media content that
analysis of any type of recorded communication. Media monitoring services is actively
enable large-scale content analysis of both traditional and social media. produced,
That said, many of the most important goals and objectives of public rela- discussed and
tions programs—affecting what people think, feel and do offline—cannot shared by publics
be measured with content analysis. online.
Media Monitoring Services 205
 TABLE 8.1   EXAMPLES OF MEDIA MONITORING FIRMS AND SERVICES

MEDIA MONITORING DESCRIPTION WEBSITE

FIRM

Agility PR “Monitor topics wherever you need with broad https://www.agilitypr.com/our-

content coverage of online, print, broadcast, and solutions/media-monitoring/
social media,” and “Stay up to date on coverage
& track all vital content sources with our easy-
to-use, self-serve monitoring tool.” They also
use artificial intelligence (AI) to track images.

Hootsuite “Capture more conversations with a wide selec- https://hootsuite.com/platform/

tion of monitoring apps, letting you do every- monitoring
thing from reviewing site ratings to tracking the
tone of voice being used for your brand.”

Cision “With more than 2 million stories delivered https://www.cision.com/us/

daily, Cision Communications Cloud’s ­monitoring products/monitoring/
capabilities allow you to cut through the noise
and understand the impact of your coverage
across the largest collection of online, social,
print and b­ roadcast channels under one earned
media cloud.”

BurrellesLuce “BurrellesLuce subscribes to every major online https://burrellesluce.com/what-we

publication and database . . . . Our PR software -do/media-monitoring/
and human search experts sort through every what-we-monitor/
possible keyword mention to ensure you
­receive every relevant article, and our verified
service means you have access to just those
stories that match your specific search
instructions.”

Metrics, Analytics and Data

Metrics and analytics are essentially synonyms for measurement and eval-
uation. It’s not unusual for people to append the words “real-time,” as in
Multivariate testing “real-time analytics,” to emphasize the immediacy of digital measurement.
A method of message testing to
compare how various combinations
Large media organizations with high-traffic websites can run countless A/B
of message factors (e.g., message tests in any given day to optimize their content. These simple experiments
selection, message placement, are just the tip of the analytics iceberg.
image selection, headline styles, Multivariate testing allows planners to compare various combinations
color) lead to various outcomes
(e.g., click-through rates, time spent of factors (e.g., message selection, message placement, image selection, head-
on page, sharing behavior). line styles, color) leading to various outcomes (e.g., click-through rates, time

206 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

spent on page, sharing behavior). A simple A/B test can be run with a Big data
Large amounts of data from tradi-
relatively small email list or low-traffic website. Statistically significant tional and digital sources that can
differences in results between the effects of an “A” version of a message and a be used for ongoing discovery and
“B” version could begin to show up with as few as 30 to 40 readers (15–20 analysis of media content and
human behavior.
people seeing each version), if the effects are strong. For example, if 12 out of
20 people open one email version and only 3 out of 20 open the other, this Cookie
would be a significant difference. Just by eyeballing those numbers you would A text file stored on a user’s com-
puter that is used to track and re-
know you were observing a real advantage of one version over the other. member the user’s activity online.
However, because multivariate testing involves countless versions of
messages that may change continuously over time, the amount of data First-party data
Data on user or consumer behavior
required is much larger. Now imagine you want to also account for other
that is collected by an organization
variables besides message design, such as the readers’ zip codes or their from the people who use the orga-
web-browsing histories. In no time, you might find yourself trying to make nization’s websites or online
sense of millions of possible data points. While the term big data means services.

many things to different people, this is one example of what people are Third-party data
talking about when they use the term. Forbes contributing writer Lisa Data on user behavior that is col-
Arthur defines big data as “a collection of data from traditional and digital lected or aggregated by one organi-
zation and sold to another
sources inside and outside your company that represents a source for organization.
ongoing discovery and analysis.”1 You can collect this information directly
from your organization’s or client’s publics through cookie or registrations.
This is known as first-party data because you collect the information
­yourself—the “first party” is you. You can also buy third-party data from
vendors who collect and aggregate data from other sources and then sell
you more data about your publics than you may even know what to do with.

Just because data are available doesn’t mean they are useful.
What are some specific uses for big data in public relations?

Metrics, Analytics and Data 207

Bounce rate That’s something to consider very carefully. There are so much data avail-
In online strategy, the percentage of
visitors who visit a site but then
able that people don’t really know what to do with it all.
leave the site instead of continuing Running a series of message-testing experiments that may have taken
toward other goals as defined by weeks or months to set up a few years ago can now happen almost instantly,
the strategist.
in real time, so to speak. The problem with running 45 A/B tests or multivari-
Conversion rate ate analyses in one day is that anyone doing that probably hasn’t put much
In online strategy, the number of thought into exactly what they’re testing and why. Testing messages with
goals reached divided by the
number of unique visitors to a site.
data from experiments is just one type of analytics. As defined in Chapter 5,
the term refers to any analysis used to describe, predict and improve how
organizations communicate with publics online. According to researcher
Seth Duncan, two common applications of analytics are particularly useful in
public relations: tracking visitor behavior and segmenting referring sources.2

Tracking Visitor Behavior

Specific goals that The first important use of web analytics in public relations is tracking the
behavior of website visitors. When someone visits your web page, searches
you can track for a word or phrase, or clicks on an ad or other link, all that information
include downloads, can be recorded and analyzed. The data available from this process include
registrations, number of unique visitors to a page, number of visits, number of page views,
completed forms, how long a user stays on a site and bounce rate, which is the percentage of
electronic petition visitors who go to your site but then leave the site instead of continuing
signatures, toward other goals you may have established. Specific goals that can be
donations and tracked include downloads, registrations, completed forms, electronic peti-
purchases. tion signatures, donations and purchases.
Once you have identified your measurable goals, you can calculate a
­conversion rate, which is the number of goals reached divided by the number
of unique visitors to your site. Let’s say you are trying to get people to sign an
online petition to make a statement to your local lawmakers. The goal is to
have people sign the online petition. You track 1,000 unique visitors to your
website. The data show that 700 visitors to your site leave right after seeing
the first page, but 150 of them actually click through to the petition and “sign”
it. Your bounce rate is 70 percent and your conversion rate is 15 percent.

Segmenting Referring Sources

A second important use of analytics is segmenting the referring sources for
web visitors. Web analytics enable you to know whether people found your
site online by directly typing in the URL (direct traffic) or as a result of organic
search results or paid search results (e.g., Google Ad Words). You can also find
out what keywords people used in those searches. Other referring sources
that public relations people track include clicks from email campaigns, banner
ads, native advertising, social media posts and coverage by news media.
Notice how these could be classified as owned, paid, shared and earned.

Parsing Big Data

Again, the availability of data in digital research and evaluation is usually
not the problem. It’s figuring out what to do with the data. Researchers
aren’t the only ones facing this challenge. Those working on the creative

208 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

side of public relations also can be overwhelmed by how to develop com-
munication strategies for large-scale campaigns when such huge amounts
of data are available.
Traditionally, campaign messages have been tailored for relatively
general demographic profiles. A political TV ad may be created for “soccer
moms” or “blue-collar workers.” But with the abundance of data available
now, demographic profiles easily can be segmented into hundreds, thou-
sands or even millions of unique profiles. Think about your own social
media profile. Are you a male in a relationship who shares certain Bark-
Box content, lives in New York, “likes” posts by Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez
and posts about craft beer? Instagram, which is owned by Facebook,
knows that. Or are you a female who lives in the Midwest who tweets
about coffee, reads National Review and goes to a state school? Twitter
probably knows that. Facebook and Twitter and all sorts of third-party
companies collect, buy and sell data that can be used for deciding which
media to use and which influencers to target in delivering targeted
messages.
Thanks to some particularly foresighted public relations practitioners
and researchers, we have guidelines for how to work with all these data. The
Barcelona Principles provide useful instructions for keeping it real when
it  comes to metrics (i.e., measurement), analytics (i.e., analysis) and
evaluation.

Barcelona Principles
By 2010, public relations had matured into a field that was global, digital
and relationship-focused. Social media was blowing up, and organizations
worldwide had to figure out what to do about it—how to demonstrate the
value of public relations in a new era of media. It was one of those
­opportunity-or-threat moments for the whole field. In order to earn and
keep their seats at management tables, public relations executives would
have to tackle the question of how to do research that would not only drive
success but also demonstrate public relations’ contributions to organiza-
tional missions. That was the stage for the 2nd European Summit on Meas-
urement in Barcelona. The group was convened by AMEC, the International
Association for Measurement and Evaluation of Communication, and IPR,
the Institute for Public Relations. By the end of that meeting, delegates
from 33 countries had agreed to the “Barcelona Declaration of Research
Principles,” which was billed as the first global standard of public relations
measurement.3
In 2015, AMEC updated the principles to “reflect the significant changes
we have seen in the media landscape and the emergence of integrated com-
munications,” according to David Rockland, past chairman of AMEC, and
these principles are still the standard today.4 The Barcelona Principles in-
clude seven key items. You may notice that most of these ideas resonate
with other key points we’ve covered in prior chapters on the RPIE process.

Barcelona Principles 209

Cognitive Principle 1: Goal Setting and Measurement Are
Having to do with mental processes
such as thinking, knowing, perceiv- Fundamental
ing, learning and understanding. You may recall from Chapter 6 that good goals are supported by SMART objec-
tives, and that the “M” in SMART stands for “measurable.” Measurable im-
Attitudinal
Having to do with affect, emotion, plies quantifiable. For example, you can count (i.e., quantify) the number of
favor or disfavor toward an organi- followers on Twitter, story views on Snapchat, people who physically attend
zation, brand, product, service, idea an event, dollars donated to a cause, or downloads of applications. However,
or any other attitude object.
the strategic importance of those metrics depends on what they tell you about
Behavioral your progress toward a goal. Is 5,000 followers a good thing? It depends on
Having to do with observable your organization and its goals. For a local nonprofit that started a campaign
human action.
two months ago with 25 followers, a count of 5,000 followers could be fantas-
tic news, showing evidence of exceeding goals. For an international coffee
brand or a national political candidate, a total of 5,000 followers may be a de-
pressingly low number. It’s the combination of the number and the goal that
yields actual strategic value. As stated in the original Barcelona Principles,

Fundamentally important, goals should be as quantitative as possible

and address who, what, when and how much impact is expected from a
public relations campaign. Traditional and social media should be mea-
sured as well as changes in stakeholder awareness, comprehension, at-
titude and behavior.5

Notice that the last part doesn’t focus on communication tactics or

media coverage, but on what people feel, think and do as a result of public
relations efforts. This leads us to a second principle. . . .

Principle 2: Measuring Communication

Tools like this Pinterest analytics Outcomes Is Recommended
dashboard allow you to track social As discussed in Chapter 6, outputs are tasks that you complete, but the
media activity.
outcomes of public relations programs are changes in knowledge, attitudes
Why is goal setting important in and behavior. Cognitive outcomes may include understanding an organi-
interpreting this type of data?
zation’s position, learning how to do something or comprehending a com-
plex issue. Attitudinal outcomes may be related to advocacy, reputation,
trust, commitment, satisfaction and feelings of control mutuality (see
Chapter 4). The last four (trust, commitment, satisfaction and control mu-
tuality) are key indicators of relational outcomes. If we define public rela-
tions as the management of relationships between organizations and
publics, these four outcomes are as important as any. Behavioral outcomes
include purchases, donations, healthy activities, volunteerism, public policy
actions, financial investment and so on.
Measuring outcomes requires defining them specifically. Measurement
forces you to think about what you are actually accomplishing with your
efforts. Measurement is an antidote for ambiguity. Think about the term
engagement, for example. There’s no doubt that engagement is of huge im-
portance in public relations. But the specific value of engagement depends
on how you define it. And how you define it determines how you measure it.

210 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

The Barcelona Principles 2.0 apply broadly to all sorts of communication, media and organizations.
How will applying these principles benefit the status of public relations as a field?

Barcelona Principles 211

Likert-type items Engagement can be defined as attitudinal and based on emotions—
Questionnaire items that ask people
to respond to statements with a
how your publics feel about your organization and what it is doing. This
range of defined response options kind of outcome might be observed with qualitative interviews or mea-
such as the range from “strongly sured with a quantitative questionnaire that includes Likert-type items,
disagree” to “strongly agree.”
which ask respondents how much they agree or disagree with statements
about the organization (Figure 8.4). For example, Charlotte-Mecklenburg
Schools in North Carolina includes items in their survey of employee en-
gagement that say, “I am proud to work for CMS” and “I would feel comfort-
able referring a good friend to work for CMS.”6
Engagement also can be cognitive and based on what people think, learn
and know. Can people recall your hashtag? Do they understand how to regis-
ter for your service? Will they remember your brand name when they do a
keyword search? Cognitive engagement can be measured with questionnaires
or even quizzes and tests. But cognitive engagement may also be inferred
from metrics like how much time people spend reading a web page (or how far
they scroll down), the number of people who watch a YouTube clip from be-
ginning to end, or the keywords they use when searching for information.
Beyond implying cognitive activity, reading, scrolling, viewing and
searching also can be considered behavioral outcomes because these activi-
ties indicate that people are doing something as a result of your public rela-
tions efforts. When you host a web page, curate information for a social
media presence, send a news release or post a Vimeo video, those are out-
puts. When people scroll and download information from the web page,

Please indicate to what extent you agree or disagree with the following statements about the relationship you have
with your organization.
Neither
Measurement agree
forces you to think Strongly Somewhat nor Somewhat
disagree Disagree disagree disagree agree
Strongly
Agree agree
about what you Whenever my organization makes an
are actually important decision, I know it will be
accomplishing concerned about people like me.

with your efforts. My organization can be relied on to keep

its promises.

I believe that my organization takes the

opinions of people like me into account
when making decisions.

My organization has the ability to

accomplish what it says it will do.

I am happy with my organization.

Both my organization and people like me

benefit from the relationship.

Figure 8.4  These Likert-type items were used in a survey of employees.

What types of public relations outcomes do they measure and not measure?

212 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

comment on and share your social media posts, write about your news or
watch and recommend your videos, those behaviors are outcomes. The Bar-
celona Principles remind us about the importance of measuring outcomes,
but we also need to remember that not all behavioral outcomes are equal
when it comes to achieving our goals. This leads us to a third principle. . . .

Principle 3: The Effect on Organizational

Performance Should Be Measured
Collecting data that show that 80 percent of people who open a video watch
it to the end or that people spend an average of four minutes reading your
story on Medium definitely indicate levels of attention and behavior as out-
comes, but these metrics don’t necessarily mean success in supporting your
organization’s goals and mission. When goals are marketing-based, the met-
rics should include the steps involved in the conversion funnel discussed in
Chapter 6. The funnel entails traceable steps like searching for key terms,
clicking on links, browsing product offerings and making purchases.
Programs like Google’s Brand Lift allow marketers to run A/B testing
with video ads on YouTube. As part of this service, Google randomly selects
two groups of people that fit the profile of campaign target demographics.
An “A” group is served a specific video ad from the campaign, and a “B”
group sees unrelated ads. In other words, A is the treatment group in the
experiment and B is the control group. Then Google tracks those same users
later to see which exact words they use when doing searches. Any signifi-
cant differences in searches between the groups can be attributed to the
campaign video. After a few days, if the “A” group searches for the specific
brand name or related keywords more than the “B” group, Google calls that
a “lift in brand interest,” and it’s one of many ways the company monetizes
its data by packaging it for marketers, advertisers and public relations
people who use their paid services.7
Programs like Google Analytics and Brand Lift are designed specifically Programs like
with marketers in mind, but there’s clearly a role for public relations in the
marketing mix, and the same measurement tactics can be applied on non-
Google Analytics
sales-driven organizational performance. “Our field is growing in its ser-
and Brand Lift can
vice to NGOs, charitable organizations, governments, the military; help measure both
organizations that fall outside the business perimeter,” said Ketchum’s sales- and non-
John Paluszek, who is a past chair of the Global Alliance for Public Rela- sales-driven
tions and Communication Management. “We should be talking about ‘orga- organizational
nizational results’ instead of only ‘business results.’”8 performance.
Principle 4: Measurement and Evaluation Require
Both Qualitative and Quantitative Methods
Principles 1 to 3 all emphasize the importance of developing measures in
evaluation, and measurement is essentially a quantitative endeavor. But we
know from Chapter 5 that qualitative research is also important in under-
standing public relations outcomes. Barcelona Principle 4 reminds us that
we need both quantitative and qualitative understanding of public rela-
tions outcomes to evaluate our work.

Barcelona Principles 213

 Case Study
Gillette’s “We Believe” Campaign Gauged
by More Than Just Numbers
When razor company Gillette introduced a minute-and-48-seconds-long
commercial titled “We Believe: The Best a Man Can Be” across all its social
channels in 2019, it struck a chord. The first part of the short film high-
lights boys and men being bullies and harassing women. One particularly
memorable cut of the video disturbingly frames an infinite line of white
males with crossed arms standing behind barbeque grills, all watching two
boys fight on a suburban lawn. In unison, the men repeat, “Boys will be
boys.” But then, about 40 seconds into the ad, the narrator proclaims that
“something finally changed, and there will be no going back, because we, we
believe in the best in men.” The latter half of the ad then presents an emo-
tional call to action against bullying and “toxic masculinity.” 9
As of this writing, the view count on YouTube is more than 31 million.
The Instagram post has nearly a half-million views with 31,000 comments,
and more than 246,000 Facebook users have shared the post. Those are
some impressive numbers for shared media. Released three weeks before

This Gillette ad drew a lot of attention.

What kinds of quantitative and qualitative methods should be used to evaluate it?

214 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

the Super Bowl, the ad gained almost as much attention as a Super Bowl ad
without the company ever paying for TV airtime.
But the ad’s success or failure as a public relations tactic lies as much in
how you read the qualitative feedback as in the sheer numbers of clicks,
views and shares. King Center CEO and Minister Bernice King tweeted, “This
commercial isn’t anti-male. It’s pro-humanity. And it demonstrates that
character can step up to change conditions.”10 Huffington Post Founder and
CEO Arianna Huffington tweeted, “.@Gillette’s new campaign thoughtfully
and critically examines what ‘The Best a Man Can Get,’ the brand's iconic
tagline, means today. A must watch.”11 Countless others praised the brand
advocacy across social media, mass media and in everyday conversations.
But not everyone liked the ad. For every “like” on YouTube there was at
least one “dislike.” In fact, at last look, there were 1.4 million thumbs down
compared to 794 thousand thumbs up, with many YouTube visitors to the
Gillette Channel noting that their negative comments were being deleted.
Top among the hundreds of thousands of comments at the time I checked:
• “I am deeply offended by your calling me a toxic masculine man. If you
put it out there you should be willing to take the backlash. Don't delete
anymore comments. I will NEVER use or buy another Gillette product
ever again. Yours truly a MAN who Shaves.”12
• “Hey Gillette, weren't you one of the companies that overcharged women
for the same product simply because you changed the color to pink?”13
PRNews called it a “close shave,” observing that the campaign had di-
vided audiences on whether it was genuinely an effort for social good, a
profit-driven rebranding, or both.14 The only way for Gillette’s parent com-
pany, Procter & Gamble, to evaluate the campaign is to take into account
both qualitative and quantitative measures. And that’s what they did. P&G
Chief Brand Officer Marc Pritchard wrote:

We respect different viewpoints and we're paying attention to all of them. But
it's important to distinguish between actual consumer sentiment and some of
the social media reaction that does not represent the majority opinion. Inde-
pendent research from multiple sources indicates a far more positive response
than what has been reported. Most consumers—men and women alike—
support the messages, particularly younger Millennial and Gen Z consumers.
The majority who've seen the film feel that Gillette shares their values and
indicate they feel better about the brand and are more likely to purchase its
products. If nothing else, we hope people take time to view the entire film, and
even if they don't agree, they will have a constructive conversation about it.15

Organizations like Procter & Gamble don’t take risks as big as this and
double down on them unless they have done their homework, including
both quantitative and qualitative evaluation.

Barcelona Principles 215

Advertising value equivalency Principle 5: Advertising Value Equivalencies Are
(AVE)
A calculation of the value of news Not the Value of Communications
or editorial coverage based on the When Nathan Kam, president of one of Honolulu’s largest public relations
cost of the equivalent amount of agencies, guest-lectured in Amy Hennessey’s public relations strategy class
advertising space or time.
at the University of Hawaii, the students apparently learned an important
Multipliers lesson: “AVEs must die!”
Formulas applied to circulation or “AVE” stands for advertising value equivalency, which is a calcula-
other media reach numbers based
on assumptions that more than one tion of the value of news or editorial coverage based on the cost of an equiv-
person will be exposed to each alent amount of advertising space or time. If a public relations person
copy of a message or that being places a story in a newspaper or magazine, she can measure the column
covered as part of a news story is
more valuable than paid advertising
inches and total space occupied by the story and then figure out what it
in the same media space. would have cost to buy an ad in the newspaper taking up the same amount
of space. Likewise, if her organization is covered in a TV news story that
lasts 30 seconds, she can look up the price of a 30-second advertisement
during the program. Then, when she’s ready to illustrate the value of her
campaign, our public relations pro can compute a dollar value for all the
publicity and—voila!—she shows success.
However, there are limits to the AVE approach of evaluating public re-
lations programs. While Kam may have been goofing around a little in the
classroom when he said that AVEs must die, he showed that he is serious
about measurement and evaluation. Kam’s success in running a major
public relations firm depends on his ability to show clients what they are
getting for their money.
The first problem with AVEs is that they falsely indicate reach based on
media placement and do not measure attitudes, knowledge or behavior.
Second, they use multipliers. Multipliers are formulas applied to circula-
tion numbers for print media based on the assumption that more than one

Students are being taught to avoid AVEs (advertising value equivalencies).

What was the original purpose of AVEs?

216 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

person on average will read each copy of a publication, or that being covered
as part of a news story is more valuable than paid advertising in the same
media space. So, for example, a public relations person might argue that for
each copy of a magazine that goes into circulation, four people will have the
opportunity to read it. He may also propose that editorial coverage in the
magazine is worth twice as much as advertising because of third-party
credibility. Such a practitioner would reason that since four people have an
“opportunity to see” (OTS) each magazine article and that each of those
four people is twice as affected by the editorial content than they would be
by a normal advertisement, then the multiplier should be 4 × 2 = 8. If his
organization, brand or cause is mentioned in a news magazine with a circu-
lation of 100,000, he would apply the multiplier of 8 and calculate the AVE
as the rate it costs to advertise for 800,000 impressions.
In addition to problems introduced in Chapter 6 with measuring cam-
paign success based on mere exposure/impressions, the assumption that a
mention in a print story has eight times the effect of a paid advertisement
is at best not supported by science and at worst seriously delusional. The
Barcelona group called multipliers flat-out silly unless they can be proven
valid for a specific set of circumstances.

Principle 6: Social Media Should Be Measured

Consistently with Other Media Channels
Of course, the scope of public relations is much larger than communication
on social media, but digital media and media monitoring services certainly
present new opportunities to use data to improve the evaluation of public
relations programs. As with the measurement of most public relations out-
comes, social media metrics should be tied to clearly defined goals and objec- Evaluation of
tives. Compared to other more traditional and one-way media communication, social media
social media measurement should focus more on conversations and commu- metrics should be
nities and less on coverage. Chapter 10 covers social media and the process clearly tied to
of listening in more depth. The Barcelona group also emphasized the impor- defined goals and
tance of technology-assisted analysis. objectives.
Principle 7: Measurement and Evaluation
Should Be Transparent, Consistent and Valid
The final Barcelona principle emphasizes the importance of maintaining in-
tegrity in the design, conduct and reporting of evaluation research.
­Transparency in research means that researchers are open and not secre-
tive about their methods. If someone says that a campaign generated 100
million media impressions or that they achieved a 30 percent lift in brand
interest, they should be open about how they calculated those figures. We
might be suspicious of a campaign that boasts 100 million impressions if we
learn that the researcher applied a multiplier of 8. On the other hand, if
someone uses well-defined methods of analytics to show how keyword que-
Transparency
ries in a treatment group differed significantly from a control group in an In research, openness in describing
A/B test, we would have more confidence in the researcher’s results. This is and explaining methods.

Barcelona Principles 217

Replicability especially true if we felt like we could run the same test and achieve consist-
The ability to perform a research
procedure or experiment repeatedly
ent results. Replicability is the ability to perform a research procedure or
to attain comparable results. experiment repeatedly to attain comparable results. While a lot of research
results in competitive business environments may be justifiably proprietary,
public relations researchers should still be able to explain their methods and
results clearly and transparently to those who are paying for their services.

Measuring the Right Outcomes

Writing about the Barcelona Principles in The Public Relations Strategist, Andre
Manning and David Rockland acknowledged that the wide array of tools and
services for measuring outcomes across different media may make measure-
ment decisions harder because of all the different approaches to choose from.
“If we don’t use AVEs,” they asked, “then what are the right metrics?”16
Measurement consultant and author Katie Delahaye Payne is widely
recognized as a pioneer in social media measurement as it relates to public
relations. Her answer to the question of how we can make sense of it all can
be gleaned from her book Measure What Matters. In the book, she advocates
measuring what people are saying, what people are thinking and what
people are doing (Table 8.2).
In a similar approach, social change agency Fenton recommends a see-
say-feel-do model for social media metrics (Table 8.3). Fenton represents
clients ranging from National Geographic to the United Nations Founda-
tion to the American Academy of Pediatrics to Patagonia.

TABLE 8.2   KATIE PAYNE’S “MEASURE WHAT MATTERS”

OUTCOME TO BE
EVALUATED DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENT

WHAT YOUR What people are saying about your orga- Media content analysis including analysis
­MARKETPLACE IS nization in print, broadcast or online in of visibility, tone, messages, sources and
SAYING.
social networks, blogs or communities. conversation type.

WHAT YOUR People’s opinions, awareness, prefer- Facebook likes and shares, retweets,
­MARKETPLACE IS ence, perceptions of relationship with email forwards, claps on Medium.
THINKING.
your organization or engagement.

WHAT YOUR Whether the behavior of your publics has Careful study of specific programs
­MARKETPLACE IS changed as a result of your efforts. ­conducted by your team and systematic
DOING.
analysis of changes in awareness, web
traffic and sales; analytics.

SOURCE: Adapted from Katie Delahaye Payne, Measure What Matters: Online Tools for Understanding Customers,
Social Media, Engagement, and Key Relationships (Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011).

218 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

 TABLE 8.3   FENTON’S “SOCIAL MEDIA METRICS THAT MATTER”

OUTCOME TO BE
EVALUATED DESCRIPTION MEASUREMENT

SEE Exposure to brand and messaging. Page views and likes on Facebook, followers on
Twitter, website traffic, email signups, RSS sub-
scriptions, advertising impressions, Medium
views and reads, and YouTube views.

SAY Sharing information within and across Facebook likes and shares, retweets, email for-
social networks. wards, claps on Medium.

FEEL When people “engage with your Facebook comments or shares with comments,
­messages or content, internalize your retweets with personalized messages, blog
messages, and add their two cents.” comments and YouTube comments.

DO The conversion goal: “the thing you Donations, advocacy actions, event attendance,
want people to DO.” membership, volunteerism and sales.

SOURCE: Adapted from “Social Media Metrics Guide,” Fenton, accessed June 14, 2019, https://www.sreb.org/
sites/main/files/file-attachments/fentonseesayfeeldo.pdf

These approaches are not too dissimilar from the basic psychology of
attitudes, cognition and behavior applied earlier in this chapter and the
discussion of engagement. The outcomes also align loosely with McGuire’s
steps in the persuasion process covered in Chapter 6.

Voices from the Field

Tina McCorkindale
TINA MCCORKINDALE, Ph.D., APR, is the President in corporate communication and analytics. She is a
and CEO of the Institute for Public Relations, a non- member of the Arthur W. Page Society, The Seminar,
profit research foundation that creates, curates and the Commission for Public Relations Education Steer-
promotes research and initiatives in the public rela- ing Committee, the PRSA Foundation Board, and the
tions industry. She taught as a professor for 15 years AMEC Academic Advisory Board.
and has more than 10 years of experience working
continues

Measuring the Right Outcomes 219

 continued

How are “big data” changing the way practi- insights and impact would be extremely beneficial. If
tioners do evaluation research? students can’t find a class, they can watch YouTube
Big data are having a significant impact on the profes- videos or take advantage of online learning classes
sion and how we do research throughout the whole from LinkedIn and Lynda.com.
cyclical campaign process—from inception to the
What isn’t changing in public relations evalu-
evaluation. Because of the technology and ease with
ation as a result of new technology?
which we can collect vast amounts of information
You should always operate from your overall goals
about our stakeholders, we can make stronger predic-
and strategy. You should always think about what
tions for future campaigns. Evaluation should not be
question you want to answer and then use the tech-
limited to just looking at what was done but also how
nology to help answer it, rather than the other way
we can help our organizations grow in the future. With
around. Sometimes, we get so caught up in the visu-
patterns in the data, we can build algorithms that can
als that we forget about ensuring our measures are
help people make more accurate predictions. And with
valid and purposeful.
better technology, smart learning machines can adapt
and help further refine our decision-making. What’s the coolest research result you’ve
seen recently?
What advice do you have for college students I’m fascinated by the area of behavioral economics
about preparing for public relations careers and science. Kahneman and Tversky posited in their
that will involve digital measurement? seminal work on System 1 vs. System 2 decision-
Measurement is just one component. Being success- making that 95 percent of the decisions we make are
ful in this field requires a combination of skills but System 1 levels of thinking—they are fast and
also smarts. Students should take not only research ­impulsive, and sometimes without much thought.17
methods, but go outside communication depart- However, many times in research studies we ask
ments to take research and statistics classes in other people to recall and explain their decision-making
areas, such as business, sociology and psychology. ­processes, which could be at the subconscious level.
In addition to having a solid understanding of the A new area of research uses MRIs and other
skills, classes that are more theory-based that allow ­physiological methods to study neural decoding or
students to apply critical thinking (and higher cogni- responses to see whether your attitudes and actions
tive) skills and to interpret the data to move to actually align with behavioral outcomes.

Ethics: Independence
“There are lies, damned lies, and statistics.” This quote, often attributed to
Mark Twain, was the source of sociologist Joel Best’s book title Damned Lies
and Statistics: Untangling Numbers from the Media, Politicians, and Activists.18
Statistics, then, have a bad reputation. We suspect that statistics may be
wrong, that people who use statistics may be “lying”—trying to manipu-
late us by using numbers to somehow distort the truth. Yet, at the same
time, we need statistics; we depend upon them to summarize and clarify
the nature of our complex society.19
Public relations can easily be lumped in with media, politicians and ac-
tivists in Best’s book title. In fact, one of the most critical books on public

220 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

relations is subtitled Lies, Damn Lies, and
the Public Relations Industry.20 Yet, at the
same time, we need statistics in public re-
lations; we depend on statistics in public
relations to summarize and clarify the
nature of our complex society.
Advocacy is a longstanding value in
the history and current practice of public
relations. As stated in the PRSA Code of
Ethics, “We provide a voice in the market-
place of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid
informed public debate.”21 The ethics sec-
tion at the end of Chapter 2 discussed the
tension between the ideal of advocacy in
ethical persuasion in public relations and
the elusive ideal of objectivity in journal-
ism. Transparency was recommended as a Ethical public relations requires balancing advocacy and loyalty with
way to deal with this tension, particularly independence.
in media relations and communicating How would you respond to a request like this?
with external publics. But public relations
people also have to avoid excessive advocacy in their roles as counselors to
clients and organizational leadership. In public relations counseling, prac-
titioners must balance advocacy and loyalty with Independence. As de-
fined in the PRSA Code of Ethics, independence means “we provide objective
counsel to those we represent” and “we are accountable for our actions.”
Summarizing and clarifying the nature of complex society and of the
data that we use to interpret human attitudes, knowledge and behavior are
essential parts of the internal counseling function. Remember that two-
way communication means public relations people interpret the organiza-
tion to publics and interpret publics to the organization.
There are many traps that a public relations person could fall into in the
interpretation and reporting of data to their clients and organizations:
• A computer program may code sarcastic comments as positive.
• Spambots and fake followers could inflate numbers for comments and
followers.
• Some channels could be left out and others included in analyses, making
public relations results look better.
• In global and cross-cultural campaigns, some languages or keywords
could be left out and others included in analyses. Independence
In public relations ethics, the value
• News releases could be counted as media coverage.
of autonomy and accountability in
• And, of course, AVEs and multipliers could be misused! providing objective counsel.

• As critics of public relations like to point out, unbridled advocacy and Spambots
Computer programs that automati-
subjectivity in collecting and analyzing data can lead to lies—even cally send unsolicited email or post
damned lies—and these traps only make it harder for a loyal advocate comments in online forums.

Ethics: Independence 221

 to keep numbers straight. Public relations researchers and ethicists have
hashed this out carefully and recommend industry-wide standards for re-
search to help practitioners perform “in a true counseling function rather
than simply as an advocate for whichever client is paying the bill.”22

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI

Digital technologies have not only ex- • Specific goals that you can track include down-
panded our options for communica- loads, registrations, completed forms, elec-
tronic petition signatures, donations and
tion, they have profoundly enhanced purchases.
our ability to track and analyze social
• Measurement forces you to think about what
media activity. Here are a few take- you are actually accomplishing with your
aways from this chapter: efforts.
• Programs like Google Analytics and Brand Lift
can help measure both sales- and non-sales-
• A/B testing can be used to quickly compare the
driven organizational performance.
effects of different digital content and
messages. • Evaluation of social media metrics should be
clearly tied to defined goals and objectives.
• Media monitoring services enable the analysis
of social media content that is actively pro-
duced, discussed and shared by publics online.

SUMMARY
8.1 Explain how evaluation research can be be used for message and strategy develop-
used in public relations program develop- ment throughout a campaign or program.
ment and message testing.
8.2 Describe how media monitoring services
Evaluation of prior programs can be useful at
work.
the start of a new program for formative re-
The process of monitoring media coverage has
search and benchmarking to understand the
sped up considerably. Traditional clipping ser-
current state of the organization, to assess
vices monitored print and electronic media for
their situation, and to set a baseline for meas-
mentions of clients in local, national or interna-
uring progress. Informal and formal message
tional media. Today’s media monitoring ser-
testing research, including focus groups, con-
vices still measure publicity, but they also
tent analysis and automated copy testing, can

222 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

 monitor online conversations and facilitate the require both qualitative and quantitative meth-
analysis and sharing of information all day, ods, (5) AVEs are not the value of communica-
every day, in real time. tions, (6) social media can and should be
measured consistently with other media chan-
8.3 Discuss how digital technology has ex-
nels, and (7) measurement and evaluation
panded our ability to track and analyze
should be transparent, consistent and valid.
data in evaluating public relations
programs. 8.5 Match appropriate metrics with the vari-
Data analytics are particularly useful in ous public relations outcomes they
public relations for tracking online visitor measure.
­behavior and segmenting referring sources. Tools ranging from traditional surveys and
Media monitoring services present new oppor- direct observation to advanced technology for
tunities to use data to improve the evaluation content analysis and behavioral tracking can
of public relations programs with social media be applied in the measurement of media con-
components. Compared to traditional media, tent, attitudes, knowledge and behavior as out-
social media measurement can focus more on comes of public relations programs.
conversations and communities and less on
8.6 Analyze the relationship between inde-
coverage.
pendence as a core value of public rela-
8.4 Evaluate public relations research prac- tions and the ethical conduct of research,
tices using industry standards for re- measurement and evaluation.
search (i.e., Barcelona Principles). Public relations professionals must balance ad-
Seven principles for evaluating public relations vocacy and loyalty with independence. Inde-
research, measurement and evaluation provide pendence in this context means providing
a working template for understanding industry objective counsel and being accountable for
standards: (1) goal setting and measurement actions including proper conduct and reporting
are fundamental to communication and public of research. Industry standards empower
relations, (2) measuring communication out- public relations researchers to conduct re-
comes is recommended versus only measuring search that is both transparent and replicable.
outputs, (3) the effect on organizational per- Abiding by such standards helps practitioners
formance can and should be measured where maintain their independence as counselors in
possible, (4) measurement and evaluation presenting research with integrity.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Discuss your experience with message testing. a) https://www.agilitypr.com/our-solutions/
If you haven’t been part of formal message media-monitoring/
testing, how have you seen it portrayed on TV b) https://hootsuite.com/platform/monitoring
or in movies, books and so on? c) https://www.cision.com/us/products/

2. How do media monitoring services assess monitoring/

d) https://burrellesluce.com/what-we-do/
publicity (mentions in news media)? Review
online services to identify at least one quantita- media-monitoring/
tive and one qualitative example. Here are 3. How do media monitoring services assess
some possible sites to check: online conversations? Review services to

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS 223

 identify at least one quantitative and one quali- the social media reaction that does not repre-
tative example. (See list in question 2 for sent the majority opinion.” What are the limita-
sites.) tions of gauging “majority opinion” from
4. Find a public relations case study online that responses on social media like Twitter, Face-
illustrates some or all of the Barcelona Princi- book and YouTube? What other types of quali-
ples and describe how each of the principles is tative and quantitative research would help?
(or is not) evident in the case. Here are some 6. Describe one tool or app for measuring atti-
possible sites to check: tudes or behavior online, and explain how it
a) https://www.prnewsonline.com/category/ can be used in public relations.
case-studies/ 7. Identify a case when an organization had to
b) http://prcouncil.net/resource/
release “bad news” (perhaps a news story
pr-case-studies/ about an organizational crisis). Discuss what
c) https://www.prweek.com/us/the_work
kind of research was involved and how you
5. CASE STUDY In the Gillette case, a P&G ex- think the public relations person balanced ad-
ecutive said, “It’s important to distinguish be- vocacy and independence.
tween actual consumer sentiment and some of

KEY TERMS
A/B testing 203 Cognitive 210 Likert-type items 212
Advertising value equivalency Conversion rate 208 Media monitoring services 205
(AVE) 216 Cookie 207 Multipliers 216
Attitudinal 210 Digital watermarking 202 Multivariate testing 206
Automated copy testing 203 Eye tracking 202 Replicability 218
Behavioral 210 First-party data 207 Spambots 221
Big data 207 Functional magnetic resonance imaging Third-party data 207
Bounce rate 208 (fMRI) 202 Transparency 217
Clipping services 204 Independence 221

224 CHAPTER 8   |   EVALUATION

 C HAP TE R 9

Writing

Writing compelling narratives is a great way to transport readers to

the places where your organization makes a difference. How does
World Bicycle Relief use storytelling to help farmers in Africa?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

9.1 List five key purposes of 9.3 Discuss the role of 9.4 Compare and contrast
good writing in public news media, social media business writing and social
relations. and search engines as media writing.
­intermediaries between
9.2 Analyze news and feature 9.5 Explain how expertise in
public relations writers and
styles of storytelling. public relations writing relates
publics.
to public relations ethics.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.7 DIVERSIT Y • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 4.2 BARRIERS TO COMMUNIC ATION
6.2 REPUTATION MANAGEMENT • 6.4 MEDIA REL ATIONS
 L
Listicle ove ’em or hate ’em, listicles are part of the online media landscape.
An online article presented in the
format of a numbered or bulleted
The term listicle is a portmanteau word, combining “list” and “article.”
list. (Spork is another portmanteau, combining spoon and fork.) You’ve no
doubt run across many listicles in your online browsing: for example,
Clickbait
Promotional and sensational inter- “10 New Year's resolutions that will make your online life a little better”1 or
net content designed primarily to “5 Creepy Things A.I. Has Started Doing On Its Own.”2
entice users to visit another Critics complain that listicles are lazy writing, that they simply recycle
website.
content, and that they encourage shallow reading and thinking in an age of
shrinking attention spans. If you look up “listicle” on Wikipedia, you
will  find the definition along with a cross-reference to clickbait.3 Like
­popsicles—another portmanteau, come to think of it—listicles can be
sweet and appealing, but not very substantive and nourishing.
But elsewhere, listicles get more love. Forbes contributor Steph ­Denning
writes that the rise of listicles “reflects a more profound reality that we
need a way to filter and process the information being thrown at us.”4
Taking the writer’s perspective, Arika Okrent describes listicles as lit-
erary form in The University of Chicago Magazine: “The true essence of the
list form is consecutive order, taking a mass of stuff and finding a way to
break it into pieces and lay it out in a line,” she writes. “That also happens to
be, in a way, the essence of language.”5
The debate over listicles draws our attention to the challenges of public
relations writing in a time when so much of what people read appears in
short bursts via endless social media newsfeeds. At times, we must draw
attention, but we don’t want to cheaply bait readers with fluff or spin. We
write to communicate important and useful information with both form
and substance. As representatives of complex organizations in society, we
also have a responsibility to curate important information. We are charged
with filtering and processing. We have to take a “mass of stuff” and make
sense of it.
Public relations practitioners use a number of writing tactics to do
their jobs. From features and factual news to tweets and texts, this chapter
will cover some of public relations’ most common writing assignments. But
why not start with a list?

Five Reasons to Write Well in Public

Relations
Writing is one of the most sought-after skills that employers screen for
when hiring public relations talent. Many aspects of public relations work
can be taught on the job, but writing takes a lifetime of learning and im-
provement. You probably had to demonstrate that you could write well to
The Ten Commandments may be
the greatest list of all time. Imagine
be admitted to college. If you’re enrolled in a public relations program, you
Moses on BuzzFeed! will have to write even better to earn your degree. The bar will be set even
Why do listicles remain popular higher after graduation. Why is writing so important in public relations?
as a style for online writing? What follows are discussions of five of the most important reasons.

226 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

Relationships
In any kind of writing, but especially in professional writing, the best writ-
ers have a good sense of who their readers are. A great news release speaks
to the journalist or the editor running the story as well as to the readers of
their publications. A clever tweet resonates with followers who may be in-
clined to retweet. A persuasive PSA (public service announcement) script
convinces a teenager to second-guess risky behavior. A thoughtful thank-
you note plants the seed for a donor to consider a larger gift in the future.
While writing tactics like these appear to be one-way communication,
two-way communication is the essence of their larger context. Each tactic
requires the writer to understand readers, listeners, watchers, fans or fol-
lowers. Remember that when you write for public relations, you are writing
to build and maintain relationships.

Influence and Persuasion

Simply because you engage in two-way communication doesn’t mean you
can’t use influence and persuasion. Think about your personal relationships
with friends and family. From small decisions, like where to eat lunch or
what to wear, to big decisions, like where to live and whom to associate
with, you and your closest friends and family influence each other. At times
you may be persuaded, and at other times you are the one doing the per-
suading. It’s the overall balance of your relationships, however, that deter-
mines whether or not they are symmetrical.
The same idea applies in public relations. The most influential influen-
tials in social media engage their publics. They don’t use megaphones. In-
stead, they interact with their readers, which helps them write in ways that
earn them respect and credibility. Good research in strategic planning, as
discussed in Chapters 5 and 8, is another tool that helps writers understand
their publics’ thoughts, feelings and behaviors, thereby making it easier for
writers to influence those publics.

Goals and Objectives

It takes clear writing to articulate your goals and objectives as part of a
public relations strategy. Write crisp, clean proposals and you’ll get busi-
ness. Write clear reports and you’ll demonstrate results. Sharp technical
writing convinces readers of the value of what you plan to do, the way in
which you are going to do it and the success that you will have when you’re
done. But you also have to do the work you propose. In order to achieve
those goals and objectives and to implement that brilliant strategy, you
have to pull off the tactics. In public relations, that means writing well.
OK—I know what some of you may be thinking now. “Wait, what? I’m
going to do most of my work in meetings and on the phone. I’m going to shoot
videos and shake hands and talk to people. Where’s the writing in that?”
There’s some truth to that. However, those meetings will lead to reports and
news stories. Those phone calls will be followed up with emails. Handshakes
may turn into deals that need to be formalized in writing. And those videos

Five Reasons to Write Well in Public Relations 227

Reputation management may need scripts and captions and written responses to the comments they
Acting and communicating—often
in writing—to influence an organi-
generate on YouTube. Go ahead and include that little “Excuse-my-typos-I-
zation’s reputation as part of a pro- wrote-this-with-my-phone” disclaimer on your email signature, but there’s
cess that includes planning, analyz- only so far you can go in achieving the communication goals and objectives
ing feedback and evaluating.
for your organization without doing some good writing.
Impression management
Process in which people influence Reputation Management
perceptions of themselves or their Professor Craig Carroll defines a corporate reputation as “a widely circu-
organizations by regulating and
controlling information in social
lated, oft-repeated message . . . revealing something about the organiza-
interactions. tion’s nature.”6 While the practice of reputation management includes
many activities such as planning, analyzing feedback and evaluating an
organization’s reputation, a major component also entails writing. Think
about the reputation of big brands like Apple or Toyota. Think about the
reputation of your school. And think about the reputation of smaller or-
ganizations to which you belong. No doubt a big part of those reputations
is based on their actions (Chapter 7), but what people write about these
organizations also is important.
Carroll says that reputation management can happen “through control-
lable media (advertising, marketing, public relations or sponsorships) or un-
controllable media (word of mouth, news
reports, commentary or social media).”
Given that search engines are primary
­portals for publics to learn about organiza-
tions, writing for search engine optimiza-
tion is an important part of reputation
management, too.

Impression Management
Social, mobile and multimedia venues pro-
vide us with new ways to communicate and
extra latitude in our writing styles. Some
contexts allow you to write less formally
than others, and some contexts have new
grammar that you’ll know better than your
professor or boss. That said, if your boss
messages you with a lunch invitation, you
may want to think twice before you respond
with “Yassss!” or a clever GIF that she doesn’t
relate to the way you and your friends do.
Closely related to the concept of
reputation management is ­
­ impression
management. Most college students don’t
talk to their parents the same way they talk
to their friends, which is quite different
Achieving goals and objectives in public relations still requires proper writing. from how they may speak during a class
In what contexts might emojis and less formal writing be appropriate or presentation or a job interview. Psycholo-
inappropriate? gists will tell you that this is all part of being

228 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

a well-adjusted adult. I can only imagine the response I would get if I spoke When presenting
with my dean in the same way I talk trash with my surfing buddies or play yourself in social
around with my 10-year-old after school. The same goes for writing. The most
effective writers understand the contextual difference between a text, a tweet,
media, balance
a cover letter, a news release, an annual report and so on. Successful public
being authentic
relations people also realize that how they present themselves in social media with being
requires a mindful balance between being authentic and being professional. professional.
Impression management involves presenting yourself in ways that help
you achieve your goals and aspirations in social interactions. When you work
in public relations, you are responsible for managing the impression of your
organization as well as your own impression. In face-to-face interactions,
this may come naturally, but it takes careful attention and deliberate practice
in writing. People will look to you for expertise in writing across all the media
that serve as channels of communication between your organization and its
publics. In order to be hired and promoted, you’ll need to demonstrate flu-
ency and flexibility in how you write across all the different contexts.

Storytelling
When you think of storytelling, you may think of sitting around a campfire, Excellence in social
reading to a child or even open mic night at a coffeehouse, but storytelling media requires
is serious business for anyone who works in professional communications. good
Journalists tell stories for a living, as do advertisers, social justice advocates
and international diplomats. In public relations we tell stories—­nonfiction
storytelling—
stories—that help us represent our organizations and build mutual under-
understanding
standing with publics. Brian Solis and Deirdre Breakenridge, authors of your
­Putting the Public Back in Public Relations, describe the importance of story- organization’s
telling. They write that excellent public relations in social media contexts stories and why
has less to do with the mechanics of online publishing and “more to do with those stories
storytelling, an understanding of what you represent, why it matters to matter to your
­certain people, and a genuine intent for cultivating relationships.”7 publics.

Case Study
A Virtuous (Bi)cycle: How the World Bicycle
Relief Organization Tells Stories with Purpose
“Esawo, a 59-year-old Malawian dairy farmer, carried 5 liters of milk on his head
to the milk collection center every day for almost 4 years.”8
Are you wondering what this opening sentence about a man in south-
eastern Africa has to do with public relations? What’s the purpose? Or are

Storytelling 229
 you more interested in finding out what happened to Esawo? Either way,
the goal is to get your attention and engage you. Telling a story is one of the
best ways to do that. As writing god William Zinsser wrote, one of the best
approaches to writing is to just tell a story. “It’s such a simple solution, so
obvious and unsophisticated, that we often forget it’s available to us.”9 But
success in public relations writing means telling stories with a purpose.
“As a father of 10, Esawo depends on his cows and milk sales to take care of
his family and send his children to school,” the story continues. “He became a
dairy farmer because it offered a source of stable income, regardless of the time of
year.” After presenting the setting, the narrative continues with the prob-
lem, describing Esawo’s hardship in trying to make a living at the risk of
not delivering the milk on time before it sours. Then the solution: “The Buf-
falo Bicycle changed all of that.” Buffalo Bicycles are rugged bikes manufac-
tured in Africa for the World Bicycle Relief Organization. They are
specifically designed for durability in rural African terrain. Completing the
arc of the story, the author explains that Esawo has doubled the amount of
milk he sells, takes his daughters to school by bicycle, and now even rides
just for fun.
But this story is not designed to sell you a Buffalo Bicycle. Rather it is
meant to encourage you to donate to support the World Bicycle Relief Or-
ganization. At the bottom of the page, right above a red “Give GO” button,
is a call to action. “With your help, Buffalo Bicycles can give entire commu-
nities the opportunity to GO the distance and thrive.”

On Writing Well author William Zinsser reminded writers of the power of “just telling a story.”
Why did World Bicycle Relief tell the story of a 59-year-old dairy farmer in Malawi?

230 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 Writing compelling stories candidly and credibly is tricky in any con- Feature story
A story that explores some angle of
text, but doing so as part of a deliberate communication strategy may be an event, a person’s life, an organi-
one of the toughest jobs in public relations. It’s easy to fall back to the rela- zation or a place.
tive safety of a corporate voice to conservatively deliver your organization’s
key messages. But ironically, writing conservatively can also be a risky
strategy. Writing trainer Ann Wylie advises public relations professionals
to drop the corporate “‘At XX, we . . .’ construction.” With tongue in cheek,
she outlines three reasons:

1. It’s patronizing. “At Wylie Communications, we don’t believe our

insurance company really understands us.”
2. It’s formulaic. “At Wylie Communications, we feel that this cliché
might make us vomit.”
3. It’s off target. “At Wylie Communications, we prefer that you write
about us instead of about your organization and its beliefs, under-
standing and knowledge.”10

Wylie recommends focusing on the reader. She says you should write
with more “you’s” and fewer “we’s.” This is pretty solid advice for any kind of
persuasive writing. Tell readers what’s in it for them. In public relations,
however, you inevitably will have to tell your organization’s story (or side of
a story) at times. When you have to do that, one option is to tell an interest-
ing story. Human interest is what’s in it for your readers.

Features
Feature stories have long been a primary tactic in public relations writing.
Rather than plainly reporting facts and information, a feature story digs
deeper into some angle of an event, a person’s life, an organization or a place.
Among the stories I’ve read in the past few days are a profile on the best
surfer in history in The New Yorker, “Kelly Slater’s Shock Wave,”11 and an AP
story posted on NBA.com about the first female player drafted into the
NBA 2K e-sports league.12

Case Study
The GOAT’s Surf Ranch: How a Feature Story
Helped Build a Wave of Interest in a New
Business Venture
As an aging surfer who grew up trying to ride small messy waves in Florida
before moving to Hawaii for most of my adult life, I have been in awe of
fellow Florida native and 11-time world champion Kelly Slater for decades.

Storytelling 231
 I’d argue that Slater is surfing’s GOAT (Greatest Of All Time). I also have
become a fan of New Yorker contributor and Pulitzer Prize–winning author
William Finnegan, who happens to surf too. I was reading Finnegan’s
10,000-word magazine article for pure enjoyment when halfway through I
realized it’s a fantastic example of a public relations tactic (a feature story)
supporting a long-term strategy to promote Slater’s wave pool business.
Slater’s corporate venture, The Kelly Slater Wave Company, has inno-
vated with technology to produce what looks to be the world’s best human-
made wave at a “surf ranch” wave pool. Located more than 100 miles from
the Pacific Ocean in a small California farming town, access to surf the
“perfect wave” is ultra-limited right now to world-class competitive surfers,
super-wealthy customers who can afford undisclosed amounts of money
for access, elite surf industry insiders and—as became apparent to me as I
read the story—influential storytellers. But the plan is to go big and in-
crease access with new locations. Finnegan interviewed K.S.W.C. president
Nick Franklin as part of the story.

Franklin spent eighteen years at Disney, most of them in the theme-park

division, where he was the executive vice-president for next-generation
experience. “This,” he said, meaning Surf Ranch, where we met, “it’s like
Walt created this little model of Disneyland. Do you want to replicate and
expand it around the world? Uh, yeah.”

To be clear, Finnegan does not work for Slater. But the access to the surf
ranch that he and photographer Ben Lowy were given that day was care-
fully orchestrated to help him write about the endeavor for the New Yorker’s
million-plus print and online readers. After watching an invitation-only
contest with many of the world’s top surfers, he observed that the wave
pool was kept open for select visitors.

I noticed Slater helping a group of Brazilians, which included a young

movie star who could surf and a television host who could not. The televi-
sion host, I was told, was the “Brazilian Oprah.” . . . There were cameras
rolling on all sides as he wobbled to his feet, arms out wide, bent at the
waist, in what is known as a poo stance. This was going to make great TV.

Finnegan’s New Yorker article was not the first I had heard about Slater’s
wave pool. Along with millions of other surfers and surf-interested You-
Tube and social media users, I had witnessed the slow drip of video clips
and photos of the mysterious perfect wave in the years prior. I was mesmer-
ized trying to figure out if it was even real. Where is it? How does it work?
Is this some sort of trick photography? It became real to me when Slater
posted to his Instagram account that he was planning a new wave park in
my old hometown: “Well . . . it’s official . . . we have a building permit in
Palm Beach County for #SurfRanchFlorida. I’m beyond proud and stoked to
see the first of our developments at @kswaveco going to my home state of
#Florida.”13

232 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 When readers and
Approvals for building permits at county commission meetings normally aren’t stories that go viral
on social media.
users have the
What made this one more sharable?
opportunity to
become part of the
storytelling
I checked the Palm Beach Post to confirm, then I posted the story to my process, stories
own Facebook page. Transmedia storytelling is an important context for
public relations writing. When shared/social media are added to the story-
have a better
telling mix, stories have more of a chance of going viral because readers
chance of going
and users have the opportunity to become part of the storytelling process viral.
as well.
The Finnegan story, however, was the first time I really understood how Transmedia storytelling
Telling a story across multiple plat-
it all worked. And as much as I think the wave pool is cool, I do worry forms like games, web pages, apps,
about  what this all means for surfing in general. Is standardization and social media and traditional media.

Storytelling 233
 A ten-thousand-word New Yorker feature story was part of a groundswell of interest in Kelly Slater
Wave Company.
Was this a deliberate public relations tactic?

commercialization good for the sport? That’s a longer story that F­ innegan
covers too, offering Slater a chance to address the concerns proactively:

The next iterations of the pool might be different. “It will democratize
surfing,” Slater said, about the technology. . . . Surf Ranch Florida, already
approved for construction in Palm Beach, will reportedly offer youth pro-
grams and lessons. . . .

In any case, there’s no way I or any other casual reader would have
read 10,000 words about the business if the story wasn’t interesting. By
allowing a great writer access to the elite insiders of the organization (and
to the pool to ride the wave itself!), the Kelly Slater Wave Company scored
a major media win. I imagine the Brazilian TV show turned out pretty
well too.

234 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 In Writing PR: A Multimedia Approach,14 Meta Carstarphen and Richard
Wells list the following as feature types that public relations writers may
produce:
1. How-to features
2. Personal profiles
3. First-person accounts
4. Opinion and editorial
5. Humor or satire
6. Historical writing
7. Round-up stories with perspectives from multiple sources
8. Photo essays
9. Stories about products or services
10. Trend articles

What they all have in common as basic elements, according to Carstar-

phen and Wells, are human interest and timelessness. Human interest
stories have a personal or emotional angle. By timeless, they mean that
these stories maintain their relevance and value long after they have been
told.15 Of course, features can have a chronology or be tied to particular
events in time, but they do not need to be timely in the same way that
breaking news does.
All sorts of organizations benefit from features to help tell their stories
in ways that draw interest and raise understanding on a personal level
without getting too technical. Feature stories work in public relations when
they are interesting and informative at the same time. People read feature
stories for enjoyment but then learn something important about the sub-
jects. That learning can be an important outcome in strategic public rela-
tions. While everyday gamers are well aware of the appeal of video games
like NBA 2K, general sports fans may not understand the greater impact
and significance of e-sports leagues as businesses and as cultural phenom-
ena. That was the case for me until I ran across a story about the NBA 2K in
browsing ESPN news. The story, which also was featured on the AP wire and
the NBA website, started with an interesting vignette:

After over three hours of sitting, waiting and stressing, Chiquita Evans
Human interest
heard her name called. She stood, smiled and put on a Warriors cap, strid- A personal or emotional storytelling
ing to the stage backed by the loudest applause of the night.16 angle that focuses on the human
condition.

Notice that the “why?” of this story is missing from the first few sen- Delayed lead
tences. The delayed lead is common in feature writing. The first sentence’s A style of beginning a story in a
way that entices readers to continue
job in a story like this is to make the reader want to read the second sen- reading without summarizing the
tence. Then, according to Zinsser, every sentence should do the same, “each story’s main points.

Storytelling 235
 tugging the reader along until he is
hooked.” Well, I was tugged along far
enough in this one to learn that Evans had
become the first woman ever drafted in
the e-sports league. She was also one of
only 126 players selected and offered con-
tracts between $33,000 and $37,000 plus
team housing and other benefits.
Although the story byline in this case
goes to AP sportswriter Jake Seiner,
public relations people working for NBA
2K likely did much of the legwork. When
you work in public relations, your role in
producing feature stories often happens
in the background. You may write queries
Chiquita Evans responded to media questions after being selected by the to media about their interest in the story,
­Warriors Gaming Squad at the NBA 2K League draft. Evans was the first
woman selected in the e-sports league. write the supplemental materials, set up
What role do you think public relations people played in helping tell
interviews and photo opportunities, or
­Evans’s story? even write full drafts of the story to send
to reporters to use as they wish.
The NBA 2K story ended up all over the world in all kinds of media,
including national newspapers and online-only media like ESPN.com.
The public relations team was likely thrilled about all the earned media
even though their names were not mentioned. This isn’t to say that you
never get credit for writing feature stories in public relations. You are
more likely to write your own stories with your own name in the byline
when you write for paid, owned or shared media (Chapter 7) such as
native advertising, internal newsletters or your organization’s social
media sites.
It’s difficult to nail down an exact definition of feature story. One ap-
proach is to define it with examples (as I’ve tried to do with the Kelly Slater
and Chiquita Evans features). Another is to distinguish features from the
second major type of storytelling in public relations: straight news.

News
Direct lead Whereas a feature writer may delay the most important points while ap-
A style of beginning a news story pealing to human interest and emotion, straight news stories get right to
that summarizes the story’s main
points (e.g., who, what, where, the business of reporting the news with a direct lead. Even if readers never
when, why, how) in the first sen- read past the first paragraph, they can get the gist of the content from
tence or two. direct leads. In the first sentence, reporters tell readers who, what, where,
Inverted pyramid when and why. This news style of writing is often called the inverted
A style of newswriting in which the ­pyramid because all of the most important information in the story is pre-
most important information is pre- sented at the broad top of the story, and the narrower supporting details
sented at the broad top of a story
and narrower supporting details are are written below as the story continues to the bottom. Figure 9.1 illus-
written below. trates the structure.

236 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 Consider the following two-sentence lead
for a news story:
Most important details
(who, what, where, when, why)
LOS ANGELES (AP) — “Jeopardy!” host Alex
Trebek says he has been diagnosed with ad-
vanced pancreatic cancer. In a video posted Important
online Wednesday, the 78-year-old said he was
announcing his illness directly to “Jeopardy!” Less important
fans in keeping with his long-time policy of
being “open and transparent.”17 Least important
With just 45 words, the lead answers all five
key questions. The inverted pyramid has played
an important role in defining an era of journal-
ism. Although the exact history of the inverted
pyramid is murky, most journalism historians
seem to agree that the convention grew with Figure 9.1  The inverted pyramid has defined a generation of journal-
istic style.
the rise of technologies for mass communica-
tion. One story maintains that reporters during How has communication technology influenced the way we tell
stories?
the U.S. Civil War learned to place all of the im-
portant information in the first line or two in
case telegraph lines were cut during wire transmission. The inverted pyra-
mid also made sense as multi-page newspapers grew in size and popularity
because many readers would not turn past the front page to finish reading
complete stories that continued on inside pages.
In any case, traditional mass media technology encouraged the telling
of succinct, fact-based stories without a lot of fluff or extraneous informa-
tion, and news readers came to expect that. Concise writing became a news
virtue, and if public relations people wanted to work with journalists to get
Online news feeds,
their stories out through mainstream media, they needed to understand blog rolls, email
the function of a good news lead and the type of information required to preview panes and
support it. The same values apply today when it comes to telling stories in search engine
direct news style. Online news feeds, blog rolls, email preview panes and results favor good
search engine results all favor writers who know how to write a good lead. leads.
As with features, sometimes the public relations person’s role in telling
news stories resides in the background, setting up the press conference or
interview, compiling the fact sheet, or even drafting the entire news story
with a direct lead and supporting details. In media relations, your job is to
help others tell your organization’s story (or your organization’s side of the
story) in their outlets. To do this, you need to understand news values and
the way that journalists write and organize their stories.
At other times, you will have the opportunity to tell your organization’s
news stories directly to your publics. The internet has increased these
­opportunities to serve as a direct source for news about your organization.
When Alex Trebek decided to share his news, he released a video via T ­ witter,
YouTube and Facebook. He addressed his fans directly with a carefully

Storytelling 237
 When “Jeopardy!” host Alex Trebek was diagnosed with Stage 4 pancreatic cancer, it made inter-
national news.
Why do you think “Jeopardy!” and Trebek himself communicated directly to publics during
this difficult time?

written and heartbreakingly personal message, even though the news cer-
tainly would have spread via intermediaries due to its clear newsworthi-
ness for Jeopardy’s international fan base.

Writing for Intermediaries

Public relations writers can earn attention online beyond their direct net-
works through three main intermediaries: (1) traditional news media gate-
keepers (i.e., earned media), (2) social media (i.e., shared media) and (3)
search engines. The three overlap considerably, but public relations writers
must use different writing strategies and tactics for success in each.

Writing for News Media

In the gatekeeping model of media relations, publics find stories based on
what editors and producers decide is newsworthy. Back when people
­obtained their news primarily by reading daily newspapers and watching
30-minute newscasts, publics relied on the editorial judgment of the

238 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

gatekeepers in these news organizations to decide what news they should
read or watch. In this model, people let others serve as the first filter of
what news and information they should pay attention to.
To some extent, this gatekeeping still happens online. People still go to
news websites without knowing exactly what the editors will deliver. They still
count on editors to decide what’s important. And that’s why news releases,
backgrounders and fact sheets written primarily for journalists and editors
are still key public relations tactics, even as their channels for delivery have
moved online. Writing for these media requires attention to traditional news
values, Associated Press (AP) style and other conventions of news writing.

NEWS RELEASES
A news release is basically a news story, written in news style, by a public
relations practitioner writing on behalf of an organization or client. News
releases are often referred to as press releases because historically they
were written for distribution to members of the press. With a news release,
a public relations writer drafts and edits a news story, pitches it to reporters
and editors, and hopes that various news media will retell the story. In
other words, news releases are tools for seeking earned media (Chapter 7).
Video news releases (VNRs) serve the same function for TV media, pro-
viding broadcast journalists with pre-produced news packages including
audio and video material. Social media releases adopt the conventions of
social media to include sharable online material such as useful chunks of
text, quotes, photos, infographics, suggested tweets, social media handles,
hashtags and embeddable multimedia elements.
Associated Press (AP) style
Online, releases are more likely to directly reach non-media publics Rules of writing (including grammar,
who find news directly from the organization. The “press” may or may not capitalization and punctuation) pub-
be involved as intermediaries in the distribution of an organization’s news. lished by the Associated Press
news agency.
Therefore, in today’s media environment, news release is probably a better
term than press release. In any case, public relations writers should keep two News release
key characteristics in mind when they produce news releases: format and A news story, written in news style,
by a public relations practitioner
newsworthiness. writing on behalf of an organization
Format is important, so that the news looks like news. In pitching a or client.
straight news story to journalists or editors in news organizations, public
Video news release
relations writers should do the following: A news release that provides broad-
cast journalists with pre-produced
• Start with a good headline and dateline. news packages including audio and
video material.
• Write using the inverted pyramid style.
Social media release
• Include important factual information that journalists would need to A news release that applies the
support the main points of the story. conventions of social media and
includes content designed for social
media distribution and sharing.
For traditional print news releases, public relations writers follow cer-
tain conventions, such as including “For Immediate Release” with a date at Dateline
the top. Many news release writers still include the word “-more-” at the Text at beginning of a news story
that describes when and where the
bottom of the page if the release continues to another page, and “-###-” or story occurred (e.g., “BEIJING, June
“-30-” at the end of the story to let journalists know they’ve reached the last 16—”).

Writing for Intermediaries 239

 page. These symbols are a bit archaic, but in the
right context, they signal that you understand the
news business and its traditions. Check with your
client or employer for templates, or work with them
and news media to develop a consistent format for
your news releases.
With most traditional news media, you’ll want
to write with AP style. If you ever have taken a
newswriting or editing course in a journalism pro-
gram, you know that journalistic training includes
some tough lessons on editing. In some of the best
J-schools, journalism students are slapped with
50-percent-off grade penalties for fact errors and
harsh point reductions for AP style errors. Students
who graduate from these programs are sharp writ-
ers, but they also are sharp critics of others’ sloppy
newswriting. Don’t let your news be discarded be-
cause you overlook simple AP style editing rules. As
discussed in Chapter 4, the best way to understand
the needs of journalists is to develop solid working
relationships with them.
The more important factor in whether your news
release gets traction with third-party media is the
actual newsworthiness of the information it delivers.
Newsworthiness, also covered in Chapter 4, means
that a story includes elements of timeliness, proxim-
ity, conflict and controversy, human interest or rele-
vance. But there’s no direct formula for calculating
news value. To understand which news from your
organization is newsworthy, you need to understand
the perspective of journalists and their audiences.

FACT SHEETS
Organizations often create templates for news releases.
Fact sheets can accompany news releases or be pre-
What are the advantages and disadvantages of writing with
templates? sented on their own. They present factual informa-
tion about an organization or its events, people,
products or services. They may be presented as frequently asked questions
(FAQs), advice sheets, infographics or even listicles. But rather than apply-
ing a news story or feature narrative style, they focus more on the delivery
of useful information. With just one or two clicks or taps, a reporter—or
anyone else interested in the story—can access all sorts of related facts and
background information written by people working in public relations.

BACKGROUNDERS
Fact sheet Imagine practicing public relations before the internet. If you sent a news
Short (often one-page) document
that presents factual information in release to a journalist, she may have needed additional information on your
concise format. organization or its key people. Without Google, she could have gone to the

240 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

Although not a substitute for the actual AP Stylebook, the @APStylebook Twitter feed offers timely
tips, such as this thread of advice leading up to Valentine’s Day.
Why is AP Style important for public relations writers?

library or to her news organization’s morgue (storage space for archived

files), but chances are she wouldn’t have had that background information
at her fingertips unless she regularly covered your organization. So you
would have provided it, or at least had it available upon request.
For bigger media events, public relations people developed (and still
develop) media kits that include news releases, fact sheets and back-
grounders, as well as photos, graphics, position papers and anything else Regardless of the
that might be useful for a reporter researching and producing a story. As medium, you
technology advanced, public relations people began producing electronic should package
media kits on CD-ROMs that could include all of that plus audio, video and background
interactive components. Today, all this information is shared online, but information in an
reporters still need background information for context. Regardless of the easily accessible
medium, it still makes sense to package background information in an format.
easily accessible format for whoever is writing about your organization.
Three useful tools are backgrounders, bios and profiles. Morgue
Backgrounders provide the stories behind the straight news stories. Storage space for archived files of
old stories, notes and media materi-
They often are written as features and give depth and context to news sto- als kept by news organizations.
ries by explaining the history—or background—of an organization or one
of its events. Like fact sheets, backgrounders deliver information that will Media kits
Packages of information assembled
be useful to anyone writing a story about the organization, but background- by public relations people for news
ers use a narrative structure that connects the factual information in a media. Common contents include
meaningful way that explains context. For example, the National Oceanic news releases, fact sheets, back-
grounders, position papers, photos,
and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) regularly issues press releases, graphics and so on.
such as one with this lead:
Backgrounder
Writing tactic used to give depth
NOAA, working with private industry partners and the U.S. Navy, has and context as background informa-
confirmed the location and condition of the USS Independence, the lead tion for news stories.

Writing for Intermediaries 241

 ship of its class of light aircraft carriers that were critical during the
American naval offensive in the Pacific during World War II.18

That’s the start to the news release. The website with the news release
also included high-resolution maps and images and links to information
from industry partners such as a fact sheet on Boeing’s unmanned under-
water vehicle called the Echo Ranger that was used in the search. But what
if a reporter wasn’t familiar with NOAA in the first place? An NOAA back-
grounder told the story, starting with this lead:

October 1970. President Richard M. Nixon was on his way to the Middle
East when Egyptian President Nasser died. The Pittsburgh Steelers were
putting a lot of faith in their new rookie quarterback, Terry Bradshaw.
The top grossing movie of the month was Tora! Tora! Tora!—and the Na-
tional Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, a new federal agency to
observe, predict and protect our environment, was born.19

Note that this backgrounder offered historical context for the founding
of NOAA. The writer used a delayed lead to generate readers’ interest and
then transitioned into background on NOAA itself, which would apply to
any NOAA-related story. The USS Independence news was presented spe-
cifically by NOAA’s National Marine Sanctuaries. It’s mission “to serve as
the trustee for the nation’s system of marine protected areas, to conserve,
protect, and enhance their biodiversity, ecological integrity and cultural
legacy” is posted on its “About” page, along with “information about our
history, the steps taken in designating a marine protected area, and the
legislation that helped to create our marine sanctuaries.”20 Background in-
formation on the USS Independence is also available as a resource for
media.

BIOS
A biographical profile, or bio, is essentially a backgrounder for a person.
“After 64 years on the seafloor, Independence sits on the bottom as if
ready to launch its planes,” said James Delgado in the NOAA news release.
Who’s James Delgado? Delgado is identified in the release as the chief sci-
entist on the Independence mission and maritime heritage director for the
National Marine Sanctuaries, but his longer bio is also available on the
NOAA website:

James P. Delgado, PhD, FRGS, RPA, has led or participated in shipwreck

expeditions around the world. His undersea explorations include RMS
Titanic, the discoveries of Carpathia, the ship that rescued Titanic’s survi-
vors, and the notorious “ghost ship” Mary Celeste, as well as surveys of
USS Arizona at Pearl Harbor. . . .21

The bio goes on to outline Delgado’s professional career and

accomplishments.

242 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

Writing for Social Media
With social media, people find organizations online via links and referrals
from other people. They can then read, comment, share or create their own
stories related to these organizations. They can participate, and they can
interact. This is the essence of social media. Public relations writers must
observe carefully before diving in. You wouldn’t just walk into a room at a
party and try to lead a discussion without first getting to know who was in
Before jumping
that room, what they are talking about and how they are communicating.
into an online
The same goes for online communication. You must work to understand conversation, first
both the social and technological contexts first. Then, you can join the con- you need to know
versation. “The most important lesson in social media,” write Solis and how people are
Breakenridge, “is that, before engaging anyone, you must first observe and talking and what
understand the cultures, behavior, and immersion necessary to genuinely people are talking
participate in the communities where you don’t already reside.”22 about.
BLOGS AND LONGER FORM
Blogs were among the first social media writing forms adopted on a wide
scale by public relations practitioners. They remain primary vehicles for
longer-form writing in social media. Blogs are sort of the old-timers of
social media, but in 2004, they were a hot new thing. Blog was the most
sought-after new word in Merriam-Webster’s online dictionary that year.
Webster’s 2004 Word of the Year was defined as “a Web site that con-
tains an online personal journal with reflections, comments, and often hy-
perlinks provided by the writer.”23 Compared to other forms of published
writing, blogs were easy to update. The reverse-chronological order of most
blogs made it easy for writers to regularly add new posts and accumulate
serial content. Linking enabled blogs to be more social, too. Public relations
writers quickly recognized the potential utility of blogs for communicating
with stakeholders and publics. However, to realize that potential would re-
quire some adaptation of traditional corporate writing. Dave Winer, who
developed much of the software that enabled blogging to catch on in the
1990s, suggested that the only real requirement in identifying a blog was
that the “personalities of the writers come through.”24
Writing with personality was—and still is—a big part of blogging well.
It is also still a tough challenge for many businesses and other types of or-
ganizations. Technology journalist Erica Swallow has outlined 10 tips for
successful corporate blogging:25

1. Establish a content theme and editorial guidelines. While you can

write about anything you want on your own personal blog, readers
of an organization’s blog should know what to expect, and the gen-
eral theme should be closely related to what your organization
does. Guidelines will help different writers from within the organi-
zation work together to support this theme. Blog
Online post (or web log) with re-
2. Choose a blogging team and process. This team does not have to all flections, comments and often links
come from the communications department. You want good provided by the writer.

Writing for Intermediaries 243

 The Warby Parker blog provides a forum for employees to write about new styles of glasses, but
also community service projects, travel and books that employees recommend.
How do corporate blogs help “humanize” a company?

writers, but you also want authentic voices that represent different
parts of your organization.
3. Humanize your company. As Dave Winer advised, let the personali-
ties of writers come through. Let your team tell their stories (and
their co-worker’s stories) as they relate to the theme of the blog.
Use the blog and its “Comments” section to have real conversations.
4. Avoid PR and marketing. Um, yeah, about this one, it depends on
how “PR” is defined. Swallow equates PR with salesmanship. You
do want to avoid that on blogs. It’s a different story altogether,
however, if you define public relations as building and maintaining
relationships.
5. Welcome criticism. Criticism is part of human communication,
and it’s also a great opportunity to respond to constructive
feedback.
6. Outline a comments policy. Of course, not all criticism is construc-
tive. Guidelines for handling comments will make it transparent to
both bloggers and readers which comments will be deleted and why.

244 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 7. Get social. Take advantage of social media affordances to connect Microblog
A shorter blog post limited by space
your blog to your organization’s other social media activities and
or size constraints of the delivery
to encourage sharing among your publics. platform.
8. Promote your blog. Even if your blog has great content, you’ll still
need to drive people to it via other channels. Post new blog head-
lines to your other feeds with links back to the blog. Promote the
URL in your email signature. Remind employees about it when you
see them face-to-face.
9. Monitor mentions and feedback. Comments and feedback on your
blog are not limited to the comments section of the blog. People
will also comment on their own blogs and other forums. Google
alerts and other search services can be set to monitor for specific
terms and links, and notify you when your blogs get mentioned.
10. Track everything. In other words, use analytics. While number 9
on Swallow’s list refers mainly to qualitative feedback, this last
item reminds us to set up systems for tracking quantitative data.
“At the minimum, make sure you’re tracking site traffic, where re-
ferrals are coming from, and traffic-wise which posts are doing
best,” advises Swallow.

Most, if not all, of this advice applies to microblogs as well.

MICROBLOGS AND SHORTER FORM

Microblogging, according to Oxford Dictionaries, is simply “a social media
site to which a user makes short, frequent posts.” Under that definition, you
can count Instagram, Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and China’s Weibo,
which had reached nearly 500 million users by the end of 201826, as micro-
blogging platforms. But before you dive in
to reach all those users, you’ll want to
think about your public relations strategy
and the technology and culture of each.
For example, let’s compare Twitter to
China’s Sina Weibo. Like Twitter, Weibo
used to limit users to 140 characters per
post but dropped that limit in 2016. Al-
though the change allows longer messages,
readers still only see the first 140 charac-
ters unless they click through to see the
rest of the content. Because Chinese char-
acters convey so much more information
than Roman characters, that character
limit is less of a constraint on Weibo than
Twitter. And perhaps the most obvious dif- The 140-character limit on Twitter and Weibo allows for very different styles of
ference between Weibo and Twitter is that writing.
most Twitter users log in from countries What cultural differences would you research before starting a Weibo
like the United States, Brazil and Japan, account?

Writing for Intermediaries 245

 while most Weibo users are in China. But before you hire a translator to
expand your social media reach into China, consider some of the cultural
differences.
In comparing the two social media platforms, Edelman China’s Cathy
Yue noted that Weibo and Twitter present content differently, follow differ-
ent business models and attract different demographics. Censorship is also
a big factor. You would want to do a lot of research and work with people
who really understand both the technology and the context of a platform
like Weibo before representing your organization there. Yue concludes, “In
order to successfully engage on Sina Weibo as a brand, it’s important to
keep in mind a classic Chinese saying, ‘Precise knowledge of self and pre-
cise knowledge of the threat leads to victory.’”27

Writing for Search Engines

Sometimes, we have to write for robots.
As public relations writers, we must understand newsworthiness and
the conventions for newswriting, if we plan to get our stories out via news
media. We must understand the cultures and contexts of social media, if we
plan to write for social media. And, if we want publics to find our organiza-
tions and stories when they do internet searches, we must understand how
to write for search engines. Whereas journalists act as gatekeepers in news
media, and everyday internet users serve as influencers in social media,
computers are the intermediaries when we write to reach publics via search
technology.
Search engine optimization (SEO) was defined in Chapter 7 as “the pro-
cess of affecting the online visibility of a website or a web page in a web
search engine's unpaid results—often referred to as ‘natural,’ ‘organic,’ or
‘earned’ results.”28 In the same way that people rely on news media to select
the most newsworthy information in the day’s news or friends in their
social networks to provide feeds of interesting information, they count on
search engines to filter for the content that is most relevant to their search
queries. So what do these robots look for?
Although all search engines operate differently, with different rules
(i.e., algorithms) for how search results are produced, some common ele-
ments that factor into most searches are: keywords (of course!); headlines,
page titles and descriptions; meta tags and URLs; links and content.

KEYWORDS
If you want your page to be found when people search for keywords, include
those words on your page. It sounds obvious, but it takes planning to inte-
grate keywords with your writing. If your company sells beach umbrellas,
your decision would be fairly straightforward. You would want to make
sure you mention “beach umbrellas” on your page. On second or third refer-
ences, you would want to write “beach umbrella” instead of “our product.”
Research on other words that people use also will help. Maybe “shade” and

246 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

“sun protection” make sense as keywords too. But don’t go overboard to the
point of ridiculous repetition. If you mention beach umbrellas 15 times in
two paragraphs, you’ll come across as annoying to human readers, and the
computers will figure out your trick too. There’s a point of diminishing re-
turns—search engine algorithms actually punish excessive repetition.
Google calls it “keyword stuffing,” and warns against filling your pages with
duplicate words because it “results in a negative user experience, and can
harm your site’s ranking.”29

HEADLINES, PAGE TITLES AND DESCRIPTIONS

In print media, headlines capture attention and make the difference be-
tween whether someone reads a story or not. The same applies online,
except potential readers have to go through the extra step of clicking or
tapping on your headline from all the other ones that are going to be really
similar in search results. The headline also helps you distinguish your page
from others with similar keywords but different purposes.

META TAGS AND URLS

Meta tags are the snippets of text that you use to describe a web page to
search engines. When you post a web page you should enter the page title
and description as meta tags. Your webmaster or IT people can help if you
are not the one who actually uploads the web pages, but you will want to
work with them to make sure they include the right words. For titles, avoid
default tags like “Untitled” or “New Page 1.” The page description and spe-
cific keywords also should be entered as meta tags. Google recommends
using different titles and descriptions for each page.
Another recommendation is to include keywords in the URL. Remem-
ber that the URL also shows up in search results pages, and many people
decide whether to click based on the URL structure. There’s a lot of informa-
tion about the broader website’s content with a URL.

LINKS Meta tags

Like public relations itself, linking is a two-way street. Search engines Text used to describe a web page
to search engines.
reward pages that have good relationships with other pages. When you link
to other pages, avoid generic anchor text like “click here.” Instead, choose Anchor text
Clickable text that provides a
the words carefully that you use to link to other pages (including other hyperlink.
pages on your own website).
On the other side of the street are inbound links, or backlinks, which Backlinks
Incoming links that direct web users
are links on others’ pages that direct people to your pages. Search engines to a web page from another web
count these kinds of links as votes for your page, and the more you have, page.
the higher your pages will rank in search results. That said, search en- Natural links
gines are designed to sift out “unnatural links,” which are “placed there Hyperlinks to a web page that are
specifically to make your site look more popular to search engines.” 30 provided by other people who see
Earning natural links means nurturing relationships with other sites by value in the content of the page, as
opposed to links that are posted for
offering information that the writers and designers of those sites will the primary purpose of manipulating
find valuable. This brings us back to the core of good writing: useful and search engines.

Writing for Intermediaries 247

To earn natural original information and good storytelling. Even in writing for robots, we
links, nurture have to think about the humans who will take interest and see value in
what we write.
relationships with
other sites by CONTENT
offering Google and other search engines change their algorithms so often it might
information they feel like you would need to make it your full-time job just to keep up. While
will find valuable. it is true that Google changes its algorithms thousands of times a year, and
that gaming algorithms and social media strategy for SEO has become a
career track in and of itself, one of the best “strategies” is also one of the
simplest. Focus on good content that matters to your publics.
One of the best After Google released a “broad core algorithm update” in 2018, SEO
SEO “strategies” is strategists scrambled to adjust strategies. But Google recommended they
also one of the keep calm and focus on content rather than trying to game the system. Via
simplest. Focus on its @SearchLiaison Twitter account, Google referred concerned digital strate-
good content that gists back to an earlier set of tweets. “As with any update, some sites may
matters to your note drops or gains,” Google advised. “There’s no ‘fix’ for pages that may per-
publics. form less well other than to remain focused on building great content.”31

Google updates its algorithms all the time, but recommends strategic communicators focus more
on content than computer science.
Should organizations trust Google’s advice to just focus on content?

248 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

Business Writing
While not unique to public relations, emails,
memos, proposals and old-fashioned letters
on letterhead are a major part of the writing
you will do in public relations. Every time
you write something as an employee of your
organization, you are managing your own
impression as well as that of your employer
or client. Business writing often calls for
more formal structure and style. As with
any of the types of writing mentioned in We present ourselves differently in different contexts—this social media
graphic was used to welcome new students both personally and professionally
this chapter, you’ll want to observe the
and features yours truly.
norms. Train yourself with practice, peer
What are the major contexts for which you write in an average day, and
feedback and adaptation. how do you adjust your style for each?
Being able to code-switch from the
syntax of text messaging and Instagram to
the formalities of an interoffice email or a client status report is a critical
career skill. If you have a vacation planned that is going to delay a client proj-
ect, you probably don’t want to LOL about it or include #SorryNotSorry in the
email to your boss or client. And u r smart 2 not get too cute w txt punctua-
tion and emojis!!! With careful observation and practice, you may notice
other, more subtle conventions that apply, depending on the context. A few
examples are contractions (“we will” or “we’ll”?), salutations (“Hi Tom,” or
“Dear Dr. Kelleher:”?), formal titles (“Ole Miss” or “University of Missis-
sippi”?), and punctuation (“.” or “!!”?). When in doubt, the AP Stylebook is an
excellent fallback, but many organizations also publish their own style guides
for consistency in organizational communication. In fact, public relations
writers often are tasked with developing these style guides for in-house use.
Just because you are writing formally does not mean you have to sacri-
fice your voice. As Zinsser reminds us, “It’s what stockholders want from
their corporation, what customers want from their bank, what the widow
wants from the agency handling her social security. There is a deep yearn-
Code-switching
ing for human contact and a resentment of bombast.” Write for clarity. Be Alternating between two or more
concise. Remember your reader. languages or cultural styles.

Voices from the Field

Cornelius Foote

CORNELIUS FOOTE has worked at The Miami Herald, newspaper reporter, Foote has led advertising sales
The Washington Post, The Dallas Morning News and teams, helped develop strategy and launch websites,
the Tom Joyner Morning Show. In addition to being a and developed and managed public relations for Tom

Business Writing 249

 Joyner and his media company. President of Foote Two- to three-page press releases. I know publicly
Communications LLC, a Dallas media consulting firm, traded companies are required to have certain lan-
Foote is also chairman of the National Kidney Foun- guage and boilerplates. The problem is too many
dation Serving North Texas, president of the National other releases are written in such a cumbersome,
Black Public Relations Society Inc., past chairman of wordy style that is a throwback to the old days. As
the National Association of Minority Media Execu- a former newspaper reporter, I used those kinds of
tives and a longstanding member of the National As- press releases to generate story ideas, and then I
sociation of Black Journalists. did all my original reporting, fact gathering and
interviews to gather quotes. The only benefit com-
Has public relations writing become easier panies get from these traditional, lengthy press
with the rise of social media or harder? releases is coverage, because many news websites
Public relations writing has gotten harder. You must publish feeds from PR Newswire or Business Wire.
now learn how to tell your clients’ stories in multiple But these sorts of releases don’t guarantee quality
ways. You’ve got to learn as many facets of the story stories about companies’ new products or
to develop pitches that will resonate in print, in services.
broadcast, on the internet and in social. You now
need to think through headlines, subheads, leads How is new technology helping or hurting the
and keywords to hook readers—and to cater to quality of writing you see from new gradu-
search engines. In addition to being a strong writer, a ates and young practitioners?
public relations professional today must know how to What I’ve found is that it’s hard for many students to
take that 600-word press release and convert it into think critically and write long articles or essays be-
a Facebook and Twitter campaign. Good PR profes- cause they’re so used to writing for the moment. The
sionals suggest ideas for posts, tweets and hashtags lack of critical thinking has stunted curiosity for many
rather than relying on the social media team. who are only thinking about what’s in front of
them—literally—their smartphones! In other ways,
What role does writing play in social media technology is enabling these new graduates and
success? young practitioners to use their devices to help their
There’s an expectation that any “younger person”— clients—and co-workers—understand the impor-
21 to 28 years old—already knows social media and tance of creating and producing content that’s
can pick up this kind of writing on the fly. That’s mobile-friendly.
really not the case. Good, short writing tied to a
social media campaign is not random. It requires skill. What’s your favorite new convention in
It also requires the ability to understand the analytics, public relations writing? What annoys you
measuring and tracking which posts and tweets are most?
resonating most with the customers. Quite often, I’ll There’s no single “new convention” that’s my favorite.
get requests in my PR consulting business from cli- What is exciting is that now we can tell a client’s
ents who want my help to launch their social media story without solely relying on a straightforward
efforts. Often, they want an instant viral campaign press release. What annoys me the most is when
instead of a consistent, sustainable campaign that companies and agencies try to adapt to the new
requires a well-thought-out editorial calendar tied to world order of social media by creating a series of
themes and involving various levels of engagement hashtags that are too long and not relevant.
from the customer. While I’m always eager to gain Overall, one of the most important characteristics
new business, I’ve ended up talking clients out of of good public relations writing today—as it was
pursuing this strategy when they’re not ready. yesterday—is the ability to tell a good story. If any-
thing, public relations professionals must work that
Are there any forms of public relations writ- much harder to get their clients to realize that their
ing that have become obsolete in recent story has to stand out above the rest.
years?

250 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

Ethics: Expertise and Writing
for Mutual Understanding
The most effective writers know their readers. Public relations writing, in
particular, depends on expertise in fostering mutual understanding. By
definition, public relations is building and maintaining mutually beneficial
relationships between organizations and publics. But this expertise is not
just a matter of effectiveness; it’s also a matter of ethics. Along with advo-
cacy, honesty, independence and loyalty, the PRSA Code of Ethics lists ex-
pertise as a core value of the profession:

EXPERTISE
We acquire and responsibly use specialized knowledge and experience. We
advance the profession through continued professional development, re-
search, and education. We build mutual understanding, credibility, and
relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences.32

Media ethics scholars Jay Black and Chris Roberts note that almost every
major world religion, political culture and philosophical system includes
some version of the ethic of reciprocity, or the golden rule.33 In Christian-
ity, “Do unto others as you would have them do to you.” In Confucianism,
“Do not do to others what you would not like yourself.” In Islam, “Hurt no
one so that no one may hurt you.” In Judaism, “Love your neighbor as
yourself.”
We all know the golden rule, and we learn it very early in life: “How
would you feel if someone did that to you?” It’s an important lesson on the
kindergarten playground, and just as important in the business of manag-
ing relationships between organizations and their publics. In public rela-
tions, you have an ethical responsibility to work hard to understand
publics.

Case Study
Words Matter: A Strange Choice for an
Agency Name
As one Texas-based public relations firm learned, reciprocity takes research Golden rule
and planning, and getting one important turn of phrase wrong can spell Ethic of reciprocity—treat others as
disaster, especially if you make that turn of phrase the name of your firm. you would like to be treated
yourself.

Southern trees bear strange fruit,

Blood on the leaves and blood at the root,

Ethics: Expertise and Writing for Mutual Understanding 251

 Black bodies swinging in the southern breeze,
Strange fruit hanging from the poplar trees.34

These haunting lyrics from a 1937 poem

by Abel Meeropol about racism and lynch-
ing in the U.S. South entered the Ameri-
can psyche on the voice of jazz legend
Billie Holiday, who recorded the song
“Strange Fruit” in 1939. Throughout the
century that has followed, “Strange Fruit”
has served as a painfully important cul-
tural reminder of one of the nation’s ugli-
est memories. More than seven decades
later, two public relations practitioners
starting a firm in Austin, Texas, “thought
the name would be perfect for a hospital-
ity PR firm that specializes in food and
drink.”35
It’s hard to imagine a scenario in
which “strange fruit” would be an appro-
priate name for anything outside of seri-
ous racial dialogue. Of course, not
everyone is familiar with the reference
and history, and it would be understanda-
This Twitter user mocked @StrangeFruitPR for lack of expertise in public relations. ble if someone used the term in everyday
conversation without awareness of its
What does expertise have to do with public relations ethics?
deeper cultural significance. But if you are
naming a new business, that is not every-
day conversation. That single word or
phrase should be as carefully conceived as
any you ever write.
Strange Fruit Public Relations found-
ers claimed they Googled the term when
they thought of the name and found the
Billie Holiday song, but figured it was not
at all related to their firm and that “it
wouldn’t be top of mind in the public con-
sciousness.” For a period of time after they
The @StrangeFruitPR account on Twitter was removed, as were the firm’s named the firm that reasoning appeared
website and Facebook page.
to hold up. But then @StrangeFruitPR
In what ways does removing the accounts help rectify the problem? In
what ways is damage from an incident like this irreversible online?
became a thing on Twitter.36 As Twitter
user @BlackGirlDanger, put it: “You named
your hospitality PR firm after a song about black people hanging from trees,
@StrangeFruitPR? Really?”
The firm first tried to explain on Twitter: “Our passion is telling the
stories of hospitality professionals. We chose our name bc these incredibly

252 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

talented artists stand out in a crowd.” They also tried to ingratiate on Twit-
ter: “We believe in hospitality. Including all. No exclusion. The author & its
famous singer hoped for a world where that would be a possibility.” Ulti-
mately, however, the company’s principals shut down the @StrangeFruitPR
Twitter account along with the company’s website and Facebook page.
They eventually emailed a longer statement to the Austin American-
Statesman: “We were wrong. . . . We extend our deepest and sincerest apolo-
gies for the offense caused by the name of our public relations firm. . . . We
now know we were naïve to think that, and should have known better.”37
Words matter.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
While principles of good writing apply • Online news feeds, blog rolls, email preview
across all media, writing for social panes and search engine results favor good
leads.
media requires understanding both
• Regardless of the medium, you should package
technology and culture. Here are a
background information in an easily accessible
few takeaways from this chapter: format.
• Before jumping into an online conversation,
• When presenting yourself in social media, first you need to know how people are talking
balance being authentic with being professional. and what people are talking about.
• Excellence in social media requires good story- • To earn natural links, nurture relationships
telling—understanding your organization’s with other sites by offering information they
stories and why those stories matter to your will find valuable.
publics.
• One of the best SEO “strategies” is also one of
• When readers and users have the opportunity the simplest. Focus on good content that mat-
to become part of the storytelling process, ters to your publics.
stories have a better chance of going viral.

SUMMARY
9.1 List five key purposes of good writing in persuade, (3) to strategize (to identify and
public relations. achieve goals and objectives), (4) to manage
Five of the most important reasons to write your organization’s reputation and (5) to make
well in public relations are: (1) to build and your own impression as you build your profes-
maintain relationships, (2) to influence and sional identity.
SUMMARY 253
9.2 Analyze news and feature styles of Instagram and Snapchat. With respect to
storytelling. searches, publics count on search engines and
In straight news writing, writers report on the algorithms to filter for the content that is most
facts of a story (who, what, where, when, why, relevant to their queries. Writing for SEO re-
how), usually in inverted-pyramid style with the quires thinking about keywords, headlines,
most important information in the lead and the titles, meta tags and links, as well as original
narrower supporting details later in the story. content that others will find valuable.
Feature writers dig deeper into some angle of
9.4 Compare and contrast business writing
an event, a person’s life, an organization or a
and social media writing.
place. Feature stories are more likely to be told
Although writing for social media requires un-
with a delayed lead.
derstanding many conventions (hashtags, re-
9.3 Discuss the role of news media, social posts, etc.), writing for social media is generally
media and search engines as intermediar- less formal than business writing. Both benefit
ies between public relations writers and from clarity, conciseness and authenticity.
publics.
9.5 Explain how expertise in public relations
In news media relations, publics find an organi-
writing relates to public relations ethics.
zation’s stories based on what editors and pro-
As a core ethical value of public relations, ex-
ducers decide is newsworthy. Tactics for news
pertise means being able to “build mutual un-
media include news releases, fact sheets,
derstanding, credibility, and relationships
backgrounders, bios and so on. In social
among a wide array of institutions and audi-
media, people find organizations online via
ences.” Practicing moral reciprocity (i.e., the
links and referrals from peers or others in their
golden rule) at the level of organization-public
social networks. One way to think about tactics
relations requires writing for mutual under-
for social media writing is to consider longer-
standing. Working to understand diverse pub-
form blogs and shorter-form microblogs that
lics is part of that expertise.
are common on platforms like Twitter,

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. How would it help or hurt your job prospects if relations person had a role in writing that you
a potential employer reviewed all your social would judge to be relatively “timeless.” What
media profiles online right now? kinds of strategy, goals and objectives does it
2. CASE STUDY Browse through the website and serve?
social media channels for World Bicycle Relief 4. Imagine you are announcing your own gradua-
(https://worldbicyclerelief.org/) or one of your tion and getting hired at your dream job. Write
favorite charities. What kinds of stories do they (a) a text to your best friend, (b) a post to one
tell, and how do those stories help advance of your personal social media accounts, (c) the
their mission? headline for a blog entry on LinkedIn or an-
3. CASE STUDY Human interest and timeless- other job-focused site and (d) the headline for
ness are said to be key elements of good fea- a news release to send to your hometown
ture stories. Do you think the Kelly Slater and newspaper. How are the four similar and how
Chiquita Evans stories still meet these criteria are they different?
now that some time has passed? Find an inter- 5. Do you feel like you are sacrificing authenticity
esting feature story that you think a public when you change your voice for different

254 CHAPTER 9   |   WRITING

 contexts (e.g., texting, blogging, business writ- What might the writer have done differently to
ing)? Why or why not? avoid the mistake?
6. Will AP style be important to you in your 8. CASE STUDY Suppose you were interning for
career? Will you write in inverted pyramid the founders of Strange Fruit Public Relations
style? Why or why not? when they first proposed the agency name.
7. What’s the worst public relations mistake And suppose they asked you to register their
you’ve seen written online? (You can search name for Twitter and other social media ac-
for one if none comes to mind.) Was informa- counts. What specifically would you have done
tion removed from the web, and did that help? or recommended to help them?

KEY TERMS
Anchor text 247 Direct lead 236 Meta tags 247
Associated Press (AP) style 239 Fact sheet 240 Microblog 245
Backgrounder 241 Feature story 231 Morgue 241
Backlinks 247 Golden rule 251 Natural links 247
Blog 243 Human interest 235 News release 239
Clickbait 226 Impression management 228 Reputation management 228
Code-switching 249 Inverted pyramid 236 Social media release 239
Dateline 239 Listicle 226 Transmedia storytelling 233
Delayed lead 235 Media kits 241 Video news release 239

KEY TERMS 255

 C HAP TE R 10

Social Media and Mobile

One fast-food restaurant is using mobile to get ahead of the

competition. Can a mobile app make you think twice about where
you’re grabbing lunch?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

10.3 Explain how social and

10.5 Describe how public
visual listening can help public
10.1 Assess the strategic r­ elations professionals can
relations professionals better
value of mobile tactics. use social media to build
understand and communicate
community.
10.2 Discuss how publics’ with their publics.
uses and gratifications of 10.6 Apply privacy as an
10.4 Evaluate how different
mobile media may help drive ­ thical value to consider in
e
forms of social media content
public relations strategy. handling data gleaned from
can be created to engage
mobile media.
publics.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.2 RESEARCH (APPLIC ATIONS) • 1.8 IMPLEMENTATION • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR
2.4 PRIVAC Y ISSUES • 2.5 OTHER LEGAL ISSUES • 6.5 NET WORKS
E
ven in the days when most news was printed on paper, when tweets Selective attention
Process of filtering information by
were sung by birds, when a snap meant something had broken, and focusing on some stimuli in the
when chatting was something you did with the person in front of you, environment while ignoring others.
your average human couldn’t pay attention to all of these stimuli at the
same time. The internet hasn’t helped matters.
It may appear that people focus intently as they stare into their smart-
phones but, actually, as they swipe and tap on their devices, they must rap- In-demand
idly make decisions about what to pay attention to and what to ignore. They communicators in
must also decide whom to communicate with and whom to ignore. This is public relations
selective attention, and every time you scroll and stop on a news feed, understand
click on a YouTube video, or watch a story on Instagram, you select what to current and
pay attention to in the virtual world. emerging
So how do public relations professionals get and keep people’s atten- technology but
tion in this environment? How do we maintain relationships and engage also grasp the
in  ­interactive communication without being annoying? As discussed in
­Chapter 9, telling a compelling story is one way. Sophisticated use of tech-
importance of
nology is another. But knowing what will make a story compelling and what
writing, strategy,
will make technology sophisticated from the user’s perspective hinges on and global issues.
understanding publics and their use of media.
No doubt you already have experience creating and communicating with
mobile and social media. You’ve more than likely snapped Insta-worthy food
photos, written your candid thoughts on Twitter, or gone on a “streak” (send-
ing snaps back and forth for at least three consecutive days) with your friends
on Snapchat. Depending on your experience,
you may be a step ahead of some of your profes-
sors or more senior public relations colleagues
Understands social
when it comes to mobile and social media. media and analytics
However, there is so much more to effec- and results
tive public relations than personal experience
with emerging platforms and technology (see
Figure 10.1). Mobile and social media are chan-
nels through which to communicate with your Focuses on
publics. In the bigger picture of effective public Writes well goals and
results
relations, the channels you select are driven by
strategy, and strategy is designed to achieve
goals and objectives that are developed from
research (see Chapters 5 and 6). Without
proper management and strategy, pumping
out how-to videos, livestreams and mobile app
notifications is no more indicative of effective- Thinks Tunes into
global issues
ness or relationship quality than emailing strategically
and trends
press releases or placing flyers on car wind-
shields. Some of the most in-demand commu-
nicators in public relations are those who Figure 10.1  Young public relations professionals may be at an advan-
understand current and emerging communi- tage in experience with emerging media and technology, but that’s only
cation technologies but who also have a firm part of the recipe for career success.
grasp on writing, strategy and global issues. 1
How can you improve in other areas?

SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE 257

 Mobile First
In a parody of their hit song “Year 3000” on The Late Late Show with James
Corden, the Jonas Brothers gave a hilarious and accurate portrayal of mobile
use today. They sang (cue music), “He said I’ve been to the year 2019. TV has
changed now it’s all on your cell phone. You can filter any photo. Look I’m a
dog, a sexy dog.”
But there’s more to this example than a funny song lyric. The parody
first aired on the late-night show, which amasses approximately 1 million
TV viewers each week.2 The YouTube video of the parody garnered more
than four times that many views in less than five days.3 This isn’t surprising;
Nielsen reports that when looking solely at mobile data, YouTube reaches
more adults each week during prime time than any cable network.4
More than 5 billion people, or 66 percent of the global population, have
mobile phones. Of that 5 billion, more than half access the internet through
their phones.5 Businesses across industries, from cable networks to air-
lines, have shifted to accommodate the profound increase in communica-
tion via mobile devices and the rise of “mobile only” users.
Mobile provides organizations with the opportunity to be part of the
daily lives of the individuals in their publics, from customers to employees
and shareholders. It is ubiquitous, social, personal and local—and the most
successful mobile tactics reflect most of these characteristics.

Ubiquitous
If you have a smartphone, it’s probably within arm’s reach as you read this
chapter. Your screen is likely lighting up with notifications—an alarm, a text
from a friend or a “like” on your latest Instagram photo. We keep our smart-
phones nearby at all times of day, no matter where we go.
This means we’re consuming more digital content, too. Mobile users
consume more than two times the digital minutes that desktop users con-
sume.6 And according to Nielsen, smartphones alone accounted for 65 per-
cent of total digital usage in 2018.7
What does this mean for the organizations trying to reach and connect
with mobile consumers? It means they must walk a fine line: keep their
mobile consumers interested and engaged 24/7/365 but avoid being intru-
sive or pushy. Understanding consumers’ journeys is critical. What are
their daily digital habits? When are they using specific apps? What content
are they seeking from organizations? Even though 63 percent of millenni-
als agree to allow push notifications from an app, 71 percent say they get
annoyed when they get too many notifications.8 It’s up to you and your or-
ganization to find the right balance to maintain that relationship and build
trust over time.

Social
Mobile apps are the go-to method for accessing social networks. In 2017,
social networking and instant messaging apps accounted for nearly

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25 percent of time spent on mobile apps, and seventy percent of adults in-
dicated using mobile apps to log in to their social networks. What’s the
number one app by far? Facebook. It even surpassed functional apps like
Google Maps or Gmail.9 Add to that the growth of mobile-first social net-
works, like Instagram and Snapchat, and you can see how it would be diffi-
cult to develop a mobile strategy that doesn’t build on social uses of the
technology.
Communication via social media means considering not just how you
will reach your organization’s followers, fans and subscribers but also how Consider how you
they will reach back to your organization and how they will share content will reach people
with one another. Think about how your organization can become part of on mobile and
the social conversation. What content will people respond to and share, social media but
and why? How will your organization respond to what people are saying also how they will
online? Social means interactive, and interactive means that individuals
in your organization have the opportunity to communicate with individu-
reach back to your
als in your publics. That back-and-forth communication is very likely to
organization and
happen on a mobile phone, so make sure any tactics you plan and any con- how they will
tent you publish make sense for the devices on which the communication share content with
will happen. one another.

Personal
Mobile media also allow for a tremendous amount of personalization. When
you use your mobile device to shop for plane tickets, download an audiobook
or put in a coffee order for pickup, there’s a good chance that the app you use
will give you options based on your prior purchases and browsing history.
Marketers were among the first to mine user data—from apps, registrations
and browsing histories—to reach mobile consumers with messages tailored
to their individual profiles.
Public relations practitioners can work with app developers and mar-
keters who have access to consumer data to obtain a better understanding
of their publics’ uses of mobile and to coordinate on communication strat-
egy. Spotify’s “Wrapped” is one example of a brand using consumer data to
provide a personalized experience. Each December, Spotify listeners can
look back at their year on the music-streaming platform, find their top
songs and explore new music recommendations, specially tailored to their
preferences.10 In just one week in 2018, Spotify’s year-in-review initiative
brought in 28 million users, illustrating the power of personalization to
drive behavior.11
We know consumer demand for personalized content is at an all-time
high.12 Yet, people are also concerned about how their data is tracked and
used to deliver this personalized content. In a study of Facebook users, the Spotify Wrapped gives you more
than your top artists and songs—it
Pew Research Center found that more than half of those surveyed said they gives you a reason to share.
were “not very comfortable” or “not at all comfortable” with Facebook
How might this type of personal-
tracking their activities to create a list of their interests and traits.13 In an ization be used to support public
interview with The Atlantic, researcher and Professor Benjamin Johnson, relations goals?

Mobile First 259

 who studies how people share their music tastes to influence how
others view them, explains that Spotify avoids the “creepiness
factor” that may come with data collection by giving users control
over if and how they share their results.14

Local
Localization is basically the geographic version of personalization.
Unless you deliberately disable geolocation functions in your
mobile apps, many apps you use will track your location and apply
that to your communication preferences. Geolocation makes apps
like Uber or Yelp much more convenient as you try to arrange a ride
across town or find a local restaurant when traveling.
In developing public relations strategies, you should know where
you plan to reach your publics and communicate with them. Mobile
media offer the opportunity to engage publics almost anywhere they
go, provided they opt in to communication that they feel is worth-
while. You’re likely familiar with Snapchat’s geofilter, which allows
individuals and organizations to create a photo filter for users in a
specific geographic location.15 For example, if you were planning a
fundraiser for a local nonprofit, you could set up a geofilter for every-
one using Snapchat in that area at that time. Those who attend the
fundraiser and use the geofilter would then share their photos with
Snapchat’s geofilters allow users to share
place-themed messages and promote events
their friends, increasing the reach of your event. The service is free
in specific geographic locations. for public places such as parks and landmarks and can be purchased
What kinds of organizations can benefit for businesses and brands.
from the combination of social and local
mobile content?

Case Study
Burger King Uses Mobile App to Troll
Competitors
The right message at the right time can be the difference between someone click-
ing a notification or swiping it off the screen. With mobile devices and localiza-
tion technology (e.g., GPS), we can engage publics almost anywhere they
go—even a competitor. Burger King did just that with its “WHOPPER® Detour”
Geofencing stunt. By relying on mobile Geofencing, which uses GPS-like technology to alert
The use of localization technology, when a mobile device enters or leaves an area, Burger King tried to lure custom-
like GPS, to create a virtual geo-
graphic boundary for a real-world ers away from McDonald’s and to its mobile app. The news release announced:
area. Triggers can be set up to alert
when a mobile device enters or Today, the BURGER KING® brand is turning more than 14,000
leaves that area. ­McDonald’s into BURGER KING® restaurants. Sort of. For a limited time,

260 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

 when you go within 600 feet of a McDonald’s restaurant you can order a Geolocation
Function of communication devices
flame-grilled WHOPPER® sandwich for only 1¢ on the newly revamped that identifies the specific geo-
BK® App. It’s what we call a WHOPPER® Detour.16 graphic location of the device.

Geofilter
Basically, when customers with the BK® App (with location settings
Feature of social media (particularly
turned on) got close to a McDonald’s restaurant, they would be able to order Snapchat) that encourages commu-
a Whopper® from the BK® App for only 1 cent. Then, the app would redirect nication among users within a spec-
them to the nearest Burger King to pick up their order. ified geographic area by allowing
users to post images with location-
With the “WHOPPER® Detour” stunt, Burger King sought to increase specific overlays.
downloads of its newly revamped mobile app. And it worked. According to
Restaurant Brands International Inc. (Burger King’s parent company) CEO
José Cil, the brand “generated over 1.5 million downloads from the initiative,
making the Burger King app the number one most downloaded app in the
Apple store for several days in a row.”17
Why the push for app downloads? QSR Magazine reports that 6 out of 10
restaurant digital orders are on mobile apps. Of those mobile app orders, the
majority are coming from restaurants’ apps, as opposed to third-party apps
like Uber Eats or Postmates. Simply put, restaurants that want to capitalize
on the growth of digital orders must have their own mobile apps.

Burger King gave customers a step-by-step guide to redeeming the “Whopper Detour”
­promotion—and it all started with downloading the BK® App.
What would prompt you to download one restaurant’s mobile app over another?

Mobile First 261

 Rewards, convenience and savings are the top reasons people are drawn
to restaurant mobile apps.18 Burger King counted on this when it took a
swipe at its next target: Starbucks. In March 2019, Burger King launched a
BK® Café Coffee subscription, which lets BK App® users pay a $5 monthly fee
to receive one daily coffee at participating restaurants. Its main message?
“Enjoy BK® Café Coffee for a month for the price of a large cappuccino from
Starbucks.”19
Quick-service restaurants, like Burger King, are using mobile apps to
meet the growing demand for convenience from millennial and GenZ con-
sumers, who don’t want to wait in long drive-thru lines. The success of initia-
tives like the “Whopper Detour” stunt shows that Burger King understands
that it’s more important than ever to intercept mobile customers at the right
moments, not all the time. In addition, although a national initiative, the
stunt was also local and personal by enabling customers to order and locate
the nearest Burger King restaurant all in one app. Mobile devices are allowing
organizations like this one to provide more value to their publics, but the
pressure is on to innovate quickly.

Uses and Gratifications of Media

Because mobile media lets organizations be part of people’s lives, it’s critical to
understand what people do with media. Do they use it for information? Enter-
tainment? Staying in touch? When communication scientists want to under-
stand what people do with media, they have applied an approach called uses
In developing and gratifications, which focuses on how people use media and the gratifica-
strategy for mobile tions they seek from media.20 The user-oriented approach of uses and gratifi-
media, consider cations is particularly well suited to the study of new communication
asking what technologies.
people are doing Public relations researcher Ruth Avidar and her colleagues explored
with mobile media how and why 21- to 31-year-old Israelis were using smartphones.21 They
instead of what found that uses and gratifications such as staying in touch with friends
mobile media will and family, sending personal messages, and acknowledging others were
do to people. most important. In other words, relationships were the top reason these
young Israelis used smartphones. Information, such as obtaining news up-
dates, was the second-highest rated reason found in this study. This was
followed by amusement and diversion, which included gaming, relaxation
and passing time.
Think about your own use of mobile devices. What kinds of apps do you
Uses and gratifications use for maintaining relationships, obtaining information, amusing your-
Approach to studying communica- self and seeking diversion? And what role do organizations practicing
tion that focuses on how people
use media and the gratifications public relations have in those experiences? How do you communicate di-
they seek from media. rectly with them via mobile?

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 While thinking about your own expe-
riences with organizations is a good exer-
cise to help you develop questions to drive
your planning, it’s not normally a good
idea to think of yourself as representing
your organization’s publics. It takes re-
search to understand your publics from
their perspectives (see Chapter 5). As dis-
cussed earlier in the chapter, analyzing
mobile data is one way to do so. Listening
to what they have to say on social media is
another.
It seems like anywhere people wait, mobile media are being used.
How do you use mobile media when you’re waiting in line or commuting
to school? What kinds of organizations attempt to communicate with you
Social and Visual in that time?

Listening
Social media are much like digital focus groups that we can access all day,
every day. David Shadpour, co-founder of Social Native, writes for Forbes
that “social media users have the freedom to express their unfettered,
­unsolicited opinions.”22 As a result, social media provide public relations
professionals with a wealth of valuable data about their brands, publics,
competitors and industries. It’s up to us to listen and make sense of
that data.
But why spend our time and energy listening, when we can be creating
#trendy content instead? The answer to this question lies in understanding
what social and visual listening are, the benefits they reap and the simple
ways you can get started.

What Is Social Listening?

Think about the last time you searched a hashtag on Twitter. Maybe you
searched for the last show you binge-watched on Netflix or your favorite
Social listening
sports team. You probably wanted to know what other Twitter users thought reveals broad
about it, and you may have even replied to a few tweets or posted one of your trends and themes
own. If that sounds familiar, then you’ve done basic social listening. that can inform
Social listening allows you to track, analyze and respond to conversa- public relations
tions about specific topics, such as a company or industry, online. Individu- strategy.
als in your publics are probably already talking about your brand or your
competitors on social media. Some of them might even tag the brand. You
want to know what they’re saying—the good, the bad and the ugly—so you
can act on your findings. Social listening lets you do this; it reveals broad
trends and themes that can inform public relations strategy.
Social listening
Brands like music-streaming platform Pandora use social listening to
The process of tracking, analyzing
monitor conversations and engage and interact with users online. But and responding to conversations
Pandora isn’t only a music-streaming platform. It’s also a jewelry company about specific topics online.

Social and Visual Listening 263

 and a Disney theme park hotspot. Syso-
mos, one of several social media monitor-
ing and analytics tools, helps Pandora not
only to distinguish mentions of its music
services from mentions of other same-
name brands, but also to determine sen-
timent and interact and engage with
fans.23
Some companies have invested heav-
ily in social listening, even creating in-
house social media command centers to
monitor and listen to conversations in real
time, 24/7. Dell, Gatorade and The Ameri-
can Red Cross are a few examples. Karen
Quintos, Chief Customer Service Officer at
Dell, explained the power of social listen-
Peek inside Dell’s Social Media Listening and Command Center, complete with ing for the company:
multiple screens to monitor real-time conversations, track customer profiles
and uncover global trends.
Through Dell’s Social Media Listening
How can Dell use social listening to tailor its public relations strategy
and Command Center, we aggregate
across the globe?
and find our way through the 25,000
conversations about Dell every day
(more than 6 million every year). And that’s just conversations happening
in English! We’re monitoring conversations in 11 languages 24/7, and each
one is an opportunity to reinforce our brand.24

What Is Visual Listening?

If you post a picture of a Starbucks drink on Instagram but don’t mention
Starbucks in the caption or tag it in the image, will the brand ever know you’re
a fan of its Nitro Cold Brew? If we listen only to mentions of a brand or topic
in text—such as hashtags, captions or comments—we are seeing only a por-
tion of the total conversation.
Visual listening uses image recognition to identify visual “mentions,”
such as logos or products, in images and videos. This is especially important
because approximately 80 percent of images shared on social media that
include brand logos do not directly mention the brand in the text.25 In fact,
a study by social media listening and analytics company Talkwalker found
that Starbucks would miss more than 30,000 logo mentions each week
without visual listening.26 The only way to know if and how your brand is
being “talked about” is by understanding the context of the image.
Visual listening
The use of image recognition to
track and analyze logos or products What Are the Benefits of Social
in online images. and Visual Listening?
While social monitoring lets you track social media mentions and conversa-
Social monitoring
The process of tracking social tions, social and visual listening take this one step further. Listening requires
media mentions and conversations. that you act on your findings and use them to inform your social media or

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Natural, candid photos of your product or logo on social media can be just as valuable as those
that are styled and posed.
How might the composition and style of visual content help brands learn about their
customers?

public relations strategy. It’s part research (Chapter 5), part implementation
(Chapter 7) and part evaluation (Chapter 8). The benefits abound for those
who invest time and resources in doing it right.

MANAGING BRAND REPUTATION

An organization’s biggest fans and biggest haters will be the loudest on
social media. According to Apptentive (a company that helps organizations
engage with their customers on mobile), this “vocal minority” only makes
up 1 percent of the total customer base.27 Still, this group can heavily influ-
ence sentiment on social media. Social listening allows organizations to Sentiment
track positive, ­negative and neutral sentiment and set benchmarks. If sud- A measure of the tone or emotion
behind social media mentions or
denly you notice a negative shift, you can quickly react and mitigate the comments, typically categorized as
effects of a brewing crisis. positive, neutral or negative.

Social and Visual Listening 265

Newsjacking
“The art and science of injecting
your ideas into a breaking news
story so you and your ideas get
noticed,” as defined by David
Meerman Scott.

Several brands were tagged in this tweet, but only one responded: Hulu. @hulu_support is a dedi-
cated social media account for customer service, used to reply to customer complaints and ideas.
Can you describe two ways Hulu benefited from finding this tweet?

DISCOVERING NEW PRODUCT OR SERVICE IDEAS

Your customers can be your best product developers and creative geniuses.
Sometimes they’ll even tell you exactly what they want. Social media teams
should be ready to respond and take note. For years, Frito-Lay has used social
media to crowdsource new Lay’s chip flavors, asking fans to pitch their flavor
ideas and vote for their favorites with the #DoUsAFlavor campaign.

JOINING RELEVANT CONVERSATIONS

Brands don’t always need to be the subject of a conversation to join the con-
versation. Newsjacking, a term coined by David Meerman Scott (an online
marketing expert and author), “is the art and science of injecting your ideas
into a breaking news story so you and your ideas get noticed.”28 Social listen-
ing lets you monitor what’s trending, so you can determine if it makes sense
for your organization to participate in a trending topic. You may have seen
brands do this: Panera jumped on the popularity of Netflix’s “To All the Boys
I’ve Loved Before” when it tweeted: “To All the Bread I’ve Loved Before.” Poor
attempts at newsjacking, however, can damage an organization’s reputation.

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Brands that have tried to capitalize on natural disasters, tragedies or days of
remembrance have been met with swift backlash from social media users
who’ve deemed them tone-deaf and insensitive. That’s exactly what hap-
pened when Florida State University’s football recruiting Twitter account
(@FSU_Recruiting) posted an edited image of Dr. King appearing to do a
tomahawk chop (the university’s sports celebration) while wearing a football
glove. The tweet, which included the hashtag #MLK2019, was posted on a
Martin Luther King Jr. Day of Service. While it was quickly removed and an
apology was issued, the blunder still made headlines on media outlets like
Sports Illustrated and USA Today.

How Do You Conduct a Social Listening Search?

Social listening efforts would be futile if we listened to everything on every plat-
form. Before you start listening, you have to know what to listen to and where
to listen to be most effective. Where are people talking about your organiza-
tion? Is it on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram? Or is it on YouTube? If you’re not
sure, start broad. Conduct social listening searches across multiple social media
platforms to better understand where these conversations are happening.
To set up a basic social listening search, public relations professionals
must identify relevant keywords for their organizations, such as:

• The organization’s name, social media handles or branded hashtags, and

those of their competitors
• Specific products or services offered

• The organization’s slogan or tagline

• Names of key people in the organization, like the CEO or spokesperson

• Specific campaign names or hashtags

• Industry buzzwords or topics

To make social and visual listening easier, public relations profession-
als can invest in tools, like Brandwatch and Critical Mention, which provide
dashboards with real-time metrics and analytics. Word clouds and colorful
graphs synthesize listening data, making even the most complicated infor-
mation easy to understand. There are also a few free resources, like Tweet-
Deck and Hootsuite, for those who can’t invest in more sophisticated tools
right away. The downfall is that most of these free resources are limited and
can only monitor mentions on Twitter.

Creating Engaging Content

The ability to combine media elements in meaningful ways is one of the most
powerful aspects that drove early growth of the internet and the web.29
Today, in societies in which mobile communication technology is widely

Creating Engaging Content 267

With TweetDeck you can take social
listening one step further and com-
ment, like or retweet other posts— available, digital content is changing the very nature of interpersonal com-
right from your dashboard. munication as well as communication between organizations and publics.
What hashtags or keywords could But, what is content? Is it a simple 280-character tweet? A 20-minute
you monitor to stay up to date video on Facebook? A photo on your Snapchat story? Yes, yes and yes. ­Content
with the public relations
has been difficult to define because it is broad and seemingly ­all-encompassing.
industry?
Social media thought leaders vary in their definitions:

• Derek Halpern (Founder, Social Triggers): “Content comes in any form

(audio, text, video), and it informs, entertains, enlightens, or teaches
people who consume it.”
• Joe Pulizzi (Founder, Content Marketing Institute): “[Content is] Compel-
ling information that informs, engages or amuses.”
• Joan Damico, APR (Communications Manager, Accenture): “Content is
any communication in any medium that serves a purpose, whether it be
to influence, educate, inform, warn, express one’s self or spark conversa-
tion within a given context.”
However, what’s consistent in these definitions is that content has a
form and purpose. Content can take the form of text, graphics, images,
Multimedia videos or audio—or a combination of these, known as multimedia. A meme
The combination of any two or more
forms of media such as text, graph- is multimedia because it combines images and text. Regular old television is
ics, moving images and sounds. multimedia because it combines audio and video. Content also has a

268 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

purpose, and how effectively content accomplishes How can you improve in other areas?
its purpose is often measured by engagement
(how often others interact with your content and
how they do so).
Today, anyone with a smartphone can capture
and consume content just about anywhere that their
devices will function. You can even plan and sched- Who is your key public?
ule content for delivery on mobile devices using
social media management tools, like Buffer and
Sprout Social, which are available as apps. The key to
creating content on social media is to understand What matters to them?
the main forms—text, images and video—and how
they can engage users. It’s equally important to
know the value of curating content to complement When do they want to see
the original content you’re creating (Figure 10.2). your content?

Text
Where are they (e.g,
Text may be the last thing we think of when we
think of social media content. But it’s the most per- location and platforms)?
vasive. Nearly every tweet, image or story we post is
­accompanied by text. Robert Wynne, principal of a Why are you creating this
public relations firm in Manhattan Beach, Califor-
content (the purpose)?
nia, and regular Forbes contributor on public rela-
tions topics, explained the importance of words and
text in multimedia:

You are trying to convince the media, the public, Figure 10.2  Before you start creating content, have a clear grasp
your employees, your vendors, shareholders, some- of your publics and who this content is meant to reach. Start by
one, to do something—change their opinion, rein- asking yourself these 5 W’s.

force their attitudes, write about or film your What other questions could you consider before you create
content?
client, vote for your issue or candidate, or purchase
your service or product. Sometimes this is done in
person, sometimes over the phone. But the majority of communications
are done via words, whether in email, Twitter or online media. It all
starts on the page or screen. With words.30

Sometimes you write words to explain other elements of multimedia

such as an image or a video. Other times words play the leading role, like
when you thread tweet after tweet to tell a story—because sometimes 280
characters simply isn’t enough.

USE CAPTIONS TO COMPLEMENT YOUR IMAGE

When you post a picture on social media, the words you use to describe that
image enhance the context and the meaning. As Wall Street Journal’s ­Elizabeth Engagement
Measure of how (likes, shares, com-
Holmes put it, “A picture may be worth a thousand words, but on social media ments, etc.) and how often others
you need a caption.”31 Part of the beauty of mobile photo-sharing apps like interact with your content.

Creating Engaging Content 269

 Facebook and Instagram is that they allow users to tag people and indicate
locations without using the caption for that basic descriptive purpose. How-
ever, this has “put creative pressure on photo sharers” to tell stories and add
meaning, says Holmes.
Your goal for captioned pictures should be for the image and the writ-
ing to complement each other. If the image gets viewers’ attention, they
will look to the caption for more information. If the caption is written well,
they will look again at the image, perhaps from a different perspective with
new focus on a particular part of the image or a new understanding of what
they see. A good caption encourages this loop of engagement.

ADD SUBTITLES AND “FEED PROOFING”

In addition to captions presented below or alongside images and videos, the
growth of digital and social media has led to an increase in captions placed on
top of images and video content. Snapchat and other apps make it easier than
ever to add stylized words, stickers and GIFs to images.32

The United Nations uses feed proofing to share important messages with its video viewers, even if
they’re watching with the sound off.
When might audio be an integral part of delivering an organization’s message?

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 Closed captioning (text that presents spoken words on screen during a As more people
video) has always been recommended for accessibility for hearing-impaired view video on
viewers. However, as more people view video on mobile devices in noisy or
public places, subtitles have become crucial for helping viewers understand
mobile devices
what they’re watching, especially when the sound is off. But subtitles that
with the sound off,
transcribe the audio aren’t usually enough. Feed proofing a video means subtitles have
using text, typography and graphics to communicate a message without become crucial for
the need for audio. helping viewers
understand what
Images they’re watching.
Text may be everywhere, but the rise and power of images on social media is
undeniable. Snapchat, Instagram and Pinterest wouldn’t exist without
images. And the vast majority of the images shared via these platforms
wouldn’t exist without mobile devices.
Every day, people share and upload more than 3 billion visual posts on
social media. Even though we often scroll quickly past these images, we are
likely still processing them. A study by MIT researchers found that the human
brain can process images in as little as 13 milliseconds!33 But we’re not only
paying attention to images—we’re engaging with them, too. Twitter found
that tweets with images received 150 percent more retweets than tweets
without images.34 Public relations professionals using images on social media
as a tactic to engage with publics should consider these essential tips:

CREATE A CONSISTENT LOOK AND FEEL

Consistent visual aesthetics allow social media users to quickly recognize an
organization’s images and connect with the brand. Hootsuite’s graphic de-
signer Jocelyn Aarnoutse explains:

When you first go to a brand’s Instagram page, for example, you’re judging
it based on the entire grid. You aren’t looking at individual images as much
as you are seeing the overall look and feel of the page. Make sure this im-
mediately conveys the tone and visuals of your brand.35

Keep in mind, though, that not every social media image needs to be
the same style (e.g., a photograph, graphic or cartoon) to create consistency.
Sometimes similar themes, colors, filters or typography can do the trick.
For example, Twitter recommends limiting your color palette, not only be-
cause it will distinguish your images from others, but also because it will
make future design decisions easier.36
Consistency is important across platforms, too, even in something as
simple as the images an organization selects for its profile pictures. But be cog-
nizant of the written and unwritten rules on each platform. The types of images Feed proofing
you share on Facebook should be different from those you post on LinkedIn. In Using text, typography and graphics
discussing LinkedIn profile pictures, Entrepreneur.com’s Kim Lachance Sand- in a video to communicate a mes-
row writes, “Here’s a friendly reminder, particularly for the 39 million students sage without the need for audio,
making it easy to understand and
and recent college grads lurking on LinkedIn: It’s not for Man Crush Monday, watch without sound in a user’s
not for swiping right and not for stalking your 8th grade crush.”37 feed.

Creating Engaging Content 271

 MAINTAIN HIGH QUALITY
Even though hastily snapped selfies have
found a place in social media culture, high-
quality imagery is still important, ­especially
for organizations. Fortunately, advances in
digital camera technology have made do-it-
yourself photography more accessible.
As  Apple’s #ShotoniPhone campaign set
out to prove, your average smartphone
camera can generate image quality that
used to be reserved for only those willing
to invest heavily in expensive digital cam-
eras.  Today  #ShotoniPhone photos are
­featured  not  only across social media but
also  on  ­
billboards and TV commercials
internationally.
However, just because the camera
phone in your pocket can capture amazing
images at high resolution doesn’t mean
you should capture all photos on your
own—or that photos will be the only
types of images you use. Freelancers can
be paid by the hour or hired by the project
for photography, graphic design or illus-
trations. Free and easy-to-use tools like
Canva can also help beginners create
graphic designs.

USE IMAGES WITH PERMISSION

Sometimes, the best image for your social
media needs already exists, but be careful
Even though they’re captured by users all over the globe, photos shared on @
not to repost it without permission. Chap-
ihavethisthingwithfloors on Instagram all have one thing in common: they’re ter 11 discusses common copyright issues
over-the-head shots of feet on really cool floors. in more detail, but the good news is that
What organizations do you immediately recognize on social media? there is an abundance of great imagery
available online, if you pay attention to
Freelancers copyright and permission requirements.
People who work on a project-by-
project basis instead of working
Public domain images are “free” images, including images produced by
more permanently for a single em- government entities (e.g., an image of a fish from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
ployer (e.g., freelance writers, pho- Service), those that are so old that the copyrights have expired (e.g., the
tographers, video producers). Mona Lisa), or those that the original creators have explicitly released for
Public domain public use. Be careful, however, in making unchecked assumptions. Use of
Works of intellectual property for government logos or seals such as the logo for the Fish and Wildlife Service,
which the copyright has expired, the a photograph or modified version of the Mona Lisa as it is presented in a
creator has forfeited rights, or copy-
right laws do not apply, making the copyrighted book, or certain types of Creative Commons licenses are
works freely available for public use. restricted.

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To break beauty stereotypes, Dove partnered with Getty Images and Girlgaze to launch the
#ShowUs project, a library of stock photos taken by women and non-binary individuals. The library
has 5,000 images featuring 179 women from 39 countries.
iPhone cameras can capture detail
Why is it important for organizations to select stock images that represent diversity? and depth, like in this iPhone photo,
but photographers should also con-
sider other important factors, like
lighting, composition and angles.
Many images are available for sharing as long as you obtain permis- When might you choose to hire a
sion, properly attribute the image to its source and, in some cases, link back freelance photographer instead
to that source. Even Getty Images, one of the world’s largest for-profit of taking your own photos?

stock image providers, permits free use of its images online, as long as the
images are embedded with the proper HTML code. 38

Video
The growth of services like YouTube and Vimeo catapulted the movement to
online video in the early 2000s, making it easy for users to convert, upload,
share and watch video material online. By the end of the first decade of the
millennium, billions of video streams were being watched by hundreds of Creative Commons
Nonprofit organization that encour-
millions of unique users each month, and the largest video service by far was ages fair and legal sharing of con-
YouTube. In 2019, the service claimed more than 1.9 billion monthly users.39 tent by helping content creators
In March 2019, Twitter also reported impressive numbers: more than make their work available with clear
terms and conditions.
2 ­billion video views on Twitter each day, a growth of 67 percent from the
previous year.40 Stock image
Public relations professionals can create videos for social media that Image that is professionally pro-
duced for selling or sharing, com-
captivate their publics and relay their messages. Like social media, how- monly available in searchable
ever, video creation is not one-size-fits-all. databases.

Creating Engaging Content 273

 USE VERTICAL VIDEO WHEN POSSIBLE
The age-old advice to always shoot video in a
landscape orientation (or horizontal) for
best viewing on TV and computer screens
has changed. In fact, doing so may indicate
that your content was not produced for
mobile and social media (a classic example is
when an organization takes a 30-second TV
commercial and posts it on Instagram,
though the ad wasn’t created for that plat-
form or its audiences). While horizontal
videos have a place when capturing b-roll or
even recording a typical YouTube video, ver-
tical videos have claimed their rightful spot
in social media content thanks to vertically
oriented smartphones, tablets and social
Several major sports leagues, like the NFL, NBA and MLB, have partnered with
media apps like Snapchat. To help organiza-
Twitter in the last few years to livestream key moments, games and interviews tions adapt to these changes, companies like
on the social media platform. Snapchat have even created how-to YouTube
Why might an organization choose to stream content on social media? videos to show how to transform a horizon-
tal video into a vertical one.41
THINK BEYOND BASIC RECORDED VIDEO
If you’re feeling creative and are comfortable with the software, you might
consider creating animations or video infographics. Even if you’re a novice,
tools like Vyond let you easily create animated videos for a monthly fee. An-
other option is live-streaming video, which allows online viewers to watch
whatever you point your camera at in real time. And though it’s been around
since the early 2000s, mobile-friendly services like Facebook Live and Insta-
gram Live have led to renewed interest among public relations practitioners
in live video. One example is NASA, which has given social media users an
insider’s look at space with Facebook Live videos of spacewalks with its astro-
nauts.42 Other organizations have created weekly live shows, while others
have used live videos to launch new products or engage in Q&A with their
fans.

CAPTURE ATTENTION EARLY, WHETHER YOU GO SHORT OR LONG

Landscape orientation
Images or video framed so that Remember the days of Vine? Organizations and influencers sought to make
width is greater than height, like short, snackable content to capture our decreasing attention spans. And
traditional movies. The aspect ratio while 6-second videos are highly effective,43 it turns out that length isn’t the
is 16:9.
determining factor in whether we choose to watch a video or even how long
Vertical video we stay glued to the screen. The not-so-secret secret is to capture the viewer’s
Video framed in an orientation in
attention in the first three seconds. According to Facebook, “65% of people
which height is greater than width.
The aspect ratio is 9:16. who watch the first three seconds of a video will watch for at least ten sec-
onds and 45% continue watching for thirty seconds.”44
Snackable content
Easy-to-consume pieces of content
But even videos longer than only a few minutes are engaging viewers,
that are available on the go. too. A quick scan of the trending videos on YouTube substantiates this,

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with most falling in the 15- to 30-minute range, which is more akin to a TV Ephemeral content
Images or videos that are available
show than a commercial. for a limited time and then disap-
How do you know whether to use a long or short video? Jason Bercovici, pear, like Instagram and Snapchat
Director of Creative Strategy for Exponential, recommends understanding stories.
your objectives with the video: If you want people to click and visit your Linear story arc
website, keep it short, but if you want people to watch, then go long, with Storytelling that follows a logical
2 to 6 minutes being ideal.45 sequence or chronology.
Shorter videos continue to reign in Instagram and Snapchat stories. Non-linear story arc
Both platforms allow users to capture continuous video, but that video is Storytelling that portrays the story
segmented into smaller “snackable” pieces that are available for 24 hours. seemingly out of order.
This ephemeral content reminds us that we must catch viewers’ attention Boomerang video
quickly, lest they swipe away and skip the rest of the story. Bursts of photos combined into
very short videos that play forward
and backward.
CREATE A COMPELLING STORY ARC
A story arc gives your story—and its viewers—a clear path to follow. Gener- Looping video
ally, there are two types of story arcs to consider: linear and non-linear. Videos that play and repeat multiple
times, in a loop.
Videos that have a linear story arc follow a logical sequence or chronology
(think: beginning, middle and end), while
videos with non-linear story arcs portray
the story seemingly “out of order.” Face-
book found that video ads using non-linear
story arcs were more successful than those
using linear story arcs in terms of number
of views and interaction rates.46 Though
videos should challenge the viewer to piece
together the story, they should still be easy
to digest.47
You may be familiar with two simple
non-linear storytelling formats: boomer-
ang videos and looping videos. Boomer-
ang videos, which originated on
Instagram’s Boomerang app and are inte-
grated with Instagram stories, are bursts
of photos combined into very short videos
that play forward and backward.48 Loop-
ing videos are videos that play and repeat
multiple times, similar to GIFs.
Curated Content
Social media users can experience adven-
ture through the GoPro lens with GoPro’s
“Photo of the Day” on its Instagram page.
And if they want a peek inside vacation
homes from the perspective of the guests,
they can explore Airbnb’s Instagram page. Tagged photos on Instagram and other social media platforms, like these from
Any time an organization reposts a OPI (a nail care company), are a great source for user-generated content.
fan photo, retweets a relevant article or How else can organizations engage with tagged content?

Creating Engaging Content 275

Content curation shares a trending meme, it is curating content. Content curation, which is
The process of gathering and shar-
ing content from reputable sources
the process of gathering and sharing content from reputable sources or
or users. users, should complement an organization’s original content creation. Gen-
User-generated content (UGC)
eral guidelines encourage a healthy mix of created and curated content: 40
Content voluntarily created by percent should be created by your organization and 60 percent should be
online users. curated from other sources.49
Successful content curation relies on identifying content that is both
valuable to your audience and aligned with your o ­ rganization’s values. User-
generated content or UGC is content voluntarily created by online users,
and it’s a prime source of curated content for brands. UGC gives public rela-
Successful content tions professionals the opportunity to tell their organizations’ stories from
curation relies on the public’s point of view, and its inherent authenticity creates trust. Accord-
identifying ing to an Ipsos study, millennials trusted UGC 50 percent more than other
content that is media.50
both valuable to Some organizations proactively ask users to share their content, creat-
your audience and ing a continuous content stream. GoPro tells users to share with #GoPro.
aligned with your Airbnb writes in its Instagram bio, “Share your stories with @airbnb.” With
organization’s permission from the user, who owns the rights to the content, organiza-
values. tions can repost, retweet and share with their own followers.

Building Relationships and Community

Social media are uniquely positioned to allow organizations to build rela-
tionships and community with their publics. Emerging technologies
scholar Jan Kietzmann and his colleagues outlined the building blocks of
social media, which included relationships and groups. The relationships
between social media users determine what information they exchange
and how they do so.51 People can voice their opinions about anything and
everything—from their cult favorite lipstick to serious calls for public
policy and reform—with their online audiences. And others, including or-
ganizations, can participate in those conversations and take action as a
result. Depending on the organization’s use of social media, the two-way
communication (see Chapter 2) may be mostly balanced, or symmetrical,
with the organization as likely to change its attitudes or behaviors as its
publics are.
Social media users can also connect with each other to form communi-
ties. Kietzmann et al. identified two types of groups: those you self-create
(like Twitter lists) and those that are like real-life clubs (like Facebook
groups). Organizations have also turned to social media to create their own
communities. Research has found that social media–based brand commu-
nities have positive effects on the members of these communities, making
them feel united and even enhancing brand loyalty.52 Community manage-
ment and influencer and brand advocate engagement are two ways public
relations professionals can use social media to build relationships with in-
dividuals and connect with niche groups.

276 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

Community Management
Jay Baer, author and founder of Convince & Convert, said, “We are in an era
now where customer service is a spectator sport.”53 Every time someone
praises an organization or complains about a product on social media, those
comments are amplified for the world to see (depending on privacy settings,
of course). In the same way, organizations’ responses to those comments—if
they respond at all—are also watched closely. Choosing not to respond to a
comment sends a message, albeit a negative one, too.
Those who reply to customer complaints, praises and questions on
social  media are partaking in community management. Community
­management is what happens after you hit “publish” on your social media
content. It requires that you listen to the individuals in your publics on social
media and engage them, often responding to customer service inquiries or
participating in online groups. Whereas content creation is generally fo-
cused on a one-to-many approach, where organizations reach multiple
people with the same message, community management is generally focused
on one-to-one communication.54 Successful community management begins
Community
with thorough social and visual listening, discussed earlier in this chapter.
managers must
Beyond listening, community managers must also effectively engage their know when and
communities to build relationships and moderate their social media pages. how people are
talking about their
ENGAGING YOUR COMMUNITY organizations on
If you’ve ever received a response from a brand on social media, you’ve en- social media to
gaged with a community manager. Community managers are the people find opportunities
behind the screen, and they set the example for other members of their social to join
media communities. They start conversations, answer questions, address conversations,
complaints and thank fans, and they empower others to do the same. answer questions
But it’s not an easy job, especially if an organization receives a high and empower their
volume of mentions on social media. Some organizations are even using
artificial intelligence to automate responses, while others have set up
publics.
chatbots to answer customer questions on Facebook Messenger. If the or- Community management
ganization has global reach, then it must employ community managers The process of listening to, engag-
ing and moderating online commu-
who are fluent in various languages, too. Amazon has a separate @Amazon-
nities and those who make up those
Help Twitter account to answer customer support questions in nine lan- communities.
guages seven days a week.55 A quick scan of its replies shows not only
One-to-many content (1:many)
personalized responses in a multitude of languages, but also an average re- Content from one sender that is
sponse time of 10 minutes or less, much faster than most customers’ expec- designed to reach mass audiences
tations. Eighty-three percent of people expect a response within a day,56 with the same message.
which can still be challenging for smaller organizations. Artificial intelligence (AI)
Community managers can also use social media—and online groups, A machine’s ability to mimic human
forums and blogs—to tap into existing fandom and connect with niche behavior and intelligence, like learn-
ing or solving problems.
groups. Video game company SEGA recognized the power and fandom behind
Sonic the Hedgehog and created a Facebook page dedicated to the character to Chatbots
connect with its devoted fans. The page has more than 5.5 million followers,57 Artificial intelligence programs de-
signed to mimic human conversa-
three times as many followers as SEGA’s own Facebook page.58 Fitbit took a tion. Chatbots receive and automati-
slightly different approach, opting for Facebook groups to bring fitness cally respond to messages.

Building Relationships and Community 277

 @GoogleDocs replies to tweets about customer issues and new ideas with personalized, detailed
and timely responses.
Why would an organization want to personalize a response with the user’s name?

enthusiasts together in their local communities. Fitbit’s groups are tailored to

people in U.S. cities, like Miami, San Diego and Washington, D.C., giving them
an opportunity to share workout events, tips and motivation with each
other.59 These tight-knit groups, sometimes with just a few thousand follow-
ers, help organizations engage their publics in highly relevant and relatable
ways.

Public relations
professionals often MODERATING YOUR PAGES
Imagine that someone decides to use your social media page to spew hate and
have the racist rhetoric. Do you allow it? Public relations professionals often have the
responsibility of responsibility of deciding what is and isn’t allowed on their organizations’
deciding what is social media pages. Moderation features and filters on the social media plat-
and isn’t allowed forms allow users to hide and block specific words or users, and many organi-
on their zations even outline their community guidelines on social media. But
organizations’ organizations must be careful what and who they choose to hide. Blocking
social media users simply because they have posted a negative comment may raise con-
pages. cerns of censorship and deception.
Generally, organizations will hide spam or overly offensive comments
and users who repeatedly post this kind of content. In 2019, YouTube found
itself in the middle of a child exploitation scandal when YouTuber Matt
Watson posted a video on how to find soft pedophilia rings. Pedophiles who
were leaving inappropriate comments and timestamps on videos of children
were being served even more videos of young children by YouTube’s

278 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

recommendation algorithm, exacerbating
the crisis. In response, YouTube deleted
hundreds of accounts, disabled comments
on millions of videos and reported illegal
comments to law enforcement.60 This exam-
ple raises the question: Whose responsibil-
ity is it to moderate offensive, fake or illegal
comments or content on social media? Does
that responsibility fall solely on the social
media platforms or also on the individuals
and organizations that use them?

Influencer and Advocate

Engagement
The word “influencer” has earned a bad rap
recently. Influencers are trusted individu-
als who can influence the opinions of their
established social media audiences. Some or-
ganizations have had to cut ties with influ-
encers because of controversy. Others have
opted to work with trendy influencers with
high follower counts, only to be “called out”
by the same people they were trying to reach.
And some organizations have wrongfully
used influencer content without permission. Individuals and businesses can manually block specific users or words from
But if done right, with permissions and their Instagram pages, or they can opt to automatically hide potentially offen-
agreements in place, engaging influencers sive comments.
can help organizations build trust and re- What words might you want to block from appearing on your social media
pages?
latability with their key publics. Influencers
don’t need millions of followers to be influ- Carefully vet and
ential. Some of the most influential people may be the brand advocates or select the
employees who champion a brand. Public relations professionals must care-
fully vet and select the influencers who can authentically connect with their
influencers who
audiences and who genuinely love the organizations they will represent.
can authentically
There are different types of influencers, from high-profile celebrities to connect with their
brand advocates. Here are some of the most commonly used terms to cate- audiences and who
gorize influencers: genuinely love the
organizations they
• Celebrities: Celebrities and the Kim Kardashians of the world have mas- will represent.
sive reach but generally low engagement. That means a whole lot of
Influencer
people will see the content, but few of them will do anything about it.
Trusted individual who can influ-
Partnering with a celebrity is also going to cost your organization big ence the opinions of established
bucks. One #sponsored Instagram photo from Kylie Jenner can cost social media audiences.
more than $1,000,000.61 Brand advocate
A person who is loyal to your brand
• “Top-Tier” Influencers: This is what most people think of when they hear and speaks favorably about your
the word influencer. Top-tier influencers are those social media person- brand to others.

Building Relationships and Community 279

 alities who’ve amassed large followings, usually in the hundreds of thou-
sands or millions of followers. Video game streamer Tyler “Ninja” Blevins,
whose popularity skyrocketed in 2018, is one example.
• Opinion Elites: Opinion elites are subject matter experts, or SMEs, and
professionals who also have large, dedicated followings. Their credibility
lends itself to mutually beneficial partnerships. Opinion elites may be
world-renowned doctors, lawyers and thought leaders.
• Micro-Influencers: Micro-influencers are becoming increasingly popular
because, despite their low follower counts (often in the lower thousands),

Brands like T-Mobile and Honda have partnered with Hispanic social media influencer LeJuan
James to reach and connect with Hispanic consumers in the United States.
Why else might brands choose to partner with diverse influencers?

280 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

 their audiences tend to be more dedicated and engaged. Working with
micro-influencers can be up to seven times more effective than working
with top-tier influencers.62
• Brand Advocates: Brand advocates are the everyday people who love a
brand. They can be fiercely loyal customers or even employees. Southwest
Airlines spotlighted these loyal customers with its “Behind Every Seat Is a
Story” campaign, which featured the individual stories of 175 passengers
(also the number of seats on its Boeing aircraft).63 The result? Even more
people shared their experiences with #175Stories on social media.
Sure, the possibility of reaching millions of followers with a message is
alluring—but what if those followers don’t care about the message? What if
they think the influencer is “selling out” by partnering with an organization?
Instead of looking solely at reach, public relations professionals must also
consider how audiences engage with the influencers they follow. This is espe-
cially important because some “influencers” may have bought fake followers
to boost their numbers and grow their communities quickly (see Chapter 6).
A smaller but dedicated and engaged audience base is more valuable than a
large audience that’s disengaged. It’s important to ask how the influencer or
advocate aligns with the organization’s values, too. Someone who hunts deer
may not be the right influencer for PETA, but he or she may be the perfect fit
for the Mule Deer Foundation. To maintain the trust of publics, influencers
must follow Federal Trade Commission guidelines and disclose their partner-
ships with organizations clearly and conspicuously, using a hashtag like #ad
or #sponsored at the beginning of a post or superimposed on a story.

Case Study
Millions Share Their Mickey Mouse
Ears for Charity
Disney-related wishes are the number one most requested wishes by Make-
A-Wish® Foundation children.64 Since 1980, Disney and the Make-A-Wish®
Foundation together have granted more than 130,000 wishes for children
with critical illnesses.65 And in 2016, Disney Parks invited its fans to join this
spirit of giving with a simple social media call to action: #ShareYourEars.
The classic Mickey Mouse ears became a means for social good with
three easy steps: snap, share and smile. Disney Parks around the globe asked
fans to snap a photo of themselves wearing a pair of Mickey Mouse ears—
or with their own creative “ears”—and share the photo with the hashtag
#ShareYourEars on Facebook, Twitter or Instagram. In its first year, Disney
pledged to donate $5 for each photo shared publicly, up to $1 million.
Fans were already sharing photos of their Mickey Mouse ears on social
media; but the question was “how do you get fans to share with the hashtag?”

Building Relationships and Community 281

 To encourage participation, Disney used its size and scale to strategically
seed the message globally across multiple channels, including but certainly
not limited to social media. Disney’s various social media accounts—@Disney,
@WaltDisneyWorld, @DisneyParks, etc.—shared the call to action with photos
of guests and celebrities sporting their Mickey Mouse ears. The brand also
partnered with celebrity influencers, like Neil Patrick Harris and Gwen Ste-
fani, to share photos donning their own Mickey Mouse ears and encouraging
fans to do the same. It tapped TV and radio shows on Disney Channel, ABC
and ESPN to encourage viewers and listeners to snap and share photos, too.
Even reporters rocked their ears on the evening newscasts. (Disney Television
Studios owns ABC Studios and ESPN, making it easier for these crossovers to
happen.) In its theme parks and cruises across the globe, Disney set up #Shar-
eYourEars photo walls and booths, prompting engagement from guests. It
even created a #ShareYourEars cheeseburger. Disney’s 360-degree approach
accounted for the many ways consumers interact with the brand in their daily
lives, both online and offline, and made sharing easy and fun.
And the response was overwhelming. In the first year alone, more than
1.77 million photos were shared on social media with #ShareYourEars in a
three-week span. This was eight times more than the 200,000 photos needed
to reach the initial $1 million donation, prompting Disney to double its dona-
tion that year to $2 million. Make-A-Wish® also saw an increase in audience
size, jumping 15 percent and 13 percent on Facebook and Instagram, respec-
tively.66 The campaign has continued driving photo shares and community
engagement since then.
Jon Stettner, president and CEO of Make-A-Wish® International, said, “We
Disney fans shared their photos of
support for Make-A-Wish® and the are so grateful to Disney, and its guests and fans worldwide, for their ongoing
#ShareYourEars campaign, encour- support. Disney’s continued generosity strengthens our global organization
aging others to participate. and allows us to grant life-changing wishes in more than 50 countries.” Each
Have you supported a cause by year, Disney grants more than 10,000 wishes.67 #ShareYourEars has given fans
posting social media content with
the opportunity to share in the magic of these thousands of wishes, too.
a particular hashtag?

Voices from the Field

Shane Santiago

SHANE SANTIAGO is president and chief experience FleishmanHillard agency—developing interactive

officer at Bravely. Santiago honed his craft at various campaigns for a wide range of clients before found-
agencies—including Ogilvy Interactive and GMMB, a ing SBS Studios in 2006. SBS Studios cultivated

282 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

relationships with brands such as Marriott Interna- communities if they did have more awareness of
tional, Discovery, the NBA, Disney, the Ad Council, public relations as a job option.
ADCOLOR, Comcast, Axe and Sony Pictures. St. John
& Partners acquired SBS Studios in 2013, and after How is mobile media changing the way prac-
4 years, he started Bravely, an innovation-focused titioners develop strategy? How is it making
creative consultancy. Santiago served as an AD- it easier? Harder?
COLOR advisory board member and was named an It makes things more accessible. Mobile puts every-
ADCOLOR Innovator in 2012. thing at your fingertips. Research. Participants. Social
channels. The list goes on. Mobile is the c­ ost-of-entry
Are you seeing more do-it-yourself multime- as a tool for job performance today and it’s expected
dia tactics in public relations now? Why of colleagues and clients for you to be accessible by
would you recommend or not recommend a mobile device.
that public relations people produce more of
their own multimedia? What advice do you have for college students
I think we’re seeing it more in terms of a blur of tra- about leveraging their familiarity with digital
ditional public relations and social channels. As and mobile media for public relations career
such, many tactics come across as more authentic if success?
it feels as if it’s coming straight from a brand/ Embrace technology. Students are digital natives, yet
source/advertiser. I do recommend a general knowl- just because you are active on digital/mobile/social
edge base or capability for public relations practitio- channels doesn’t make you an expert. Use it as a
ners to produce their own multimedia—they’re differentiator when job seeking. Learn to code, learn
already likely great writers, so creating content how it works, learn how/why your peers are sought
today should just be an extension of that. Especially on these channels and use the technology to ad-
with all the access afforded to technology to pro- dress behavioral tendencies.
duce high-quality content, it’s easier/more acces-
Internet of Things (IoT)—cool or creepy?
sible than ever.
What does all this connectedness mean for
How is the technology of multimedia and public relations?
mobile media helping or hurting diversity in IoT is typically an opt-in experience, so in my opinion,
public relations? it’s cool. When done right, with security and privacy
Diversity is an issue regardless of technology when kept at a premium, it can empower a relationship
it comes to public relations, advertising and media. with technology to provide experience AND utility
I think in terms of many communities of color, access and does so in a way that makes it relevant to an in-
to technology is actually not an issue that hurts di- dividual. Connectedness means public relations prac-
versity since those communities typically index titioners need to understand all the various
highly with mobile and social use. It’s more of access use-cases and experiences in which they can reach
to public relations as a practice in those communities their publics, and that goes so much deeper today
as a viable career path that is the issue. If anything, than before. Truly understanding “a day in the life” of
technology would better prepare diverse their publics and all the relevant cross sections of
experience and technology is vital to success.

Ethics: Privacy and Safeguarding

Confidences Internet of things (IoT)
Global network of physical objects
that are connected to one another
It’s not just our tablets and phones on which we communicate. We also com-
in a way that enables them to com-
municate more than we realize on the Internet of Things (IoT). Although municate with one another and the
experts haven’t yet agreed on a single definition, the basic idea of IoT is that internet at large.

Ethics: Privacy and Safeguarding Confidences 283

End-user license agreements more and more objects in our environment are connected to each other in a
(EULA)
Legal agreement between a soft-
way that enables them to communicate via a network, and by extension the
ware provider and the person using internet at large.
the software. “The premise behind the IoT,” according to eMarketer, “is that any
object, whether natural or manufactured, can gain the ability to transmit
data over a network.”68 Cars with built-in GPS are on the IoT. Home security
systems that can be activated remotely and that report activity are on the
IoT. My running watch can transmit data about my workout over the inter-
net, and I can share that with other users including running groups and
organizations that may want to advertise running-related products and
services to the group and me.
As members of publics, we often communicate without even trying. When
was the last time you checked your privacy settings for location services on all
your apps? Do you actually read the end-user license agreements (EULA)
you agree to when you register for new apps? Most of us skim those EULA
screens and trust that the organizations won’t do anything evil with our data.
From a public relations standpoint this trust may indicate a healthy relation-
ship between the end user and the organization using the data. But it also
raises the stakes for the organization we entrust.
Safeguarding confidences is a key provision in the PRSA Code of Ethics.
The provision is commonly read to mean keeping client information confi-
dential, but the larger intent also applies to publics: “To protect the privacy
rights of clients, organizations, and individuals by safeguarding confiden-
tial information.”69
Media ethicists Jay Black and Chris Roberts frame privacy issues as ques-
tions of competing values. We weigh the value of privacy with the values of
information, entertainment and
convenience. “The bottom line,”
they write, “is that while a great
deal of information about mil-
lions of us is conveniently and
centrally available for a multitude
of uses, do we want corporations
and government to know this
much about us?”70 Your answer
may depend on how much you
trust the organizations.
Apple Computer Inc. is as
big a player as any in the global
arena of mobile, multimedia,
big data and the Internet of
Things. That company knows
more about its customers than
These apps offer a lot of information, entertainment and convenience, but they their customers know about
require trusting organizations with private information. themselves. Think of all the
Which organizations do you trust with your private data and why? data it holds from people

284 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

running apps, using Apple Pay, making purchases with their Apple IDs, and
working on their desktops, laptops, iPads and iPhones.
In 2016, Apple came head to head with data privacy when it received an FBI
order to unlock an iPhone used by a gunman in a San Bernardino, California,
mass shooting. Until that point, Apple had provided data to comply with search
warrants and subpoenas. But Apple refused to unlock the phone, stating that
doing so would “build a backdoor” that would weaken its safeguards. In a mes-
sage to its customers, Apple CEO Tim Cook wrote, “The same engineers who
built strong encryption into the iPhone to protect our users would, ironically,
be ordered to weaken those protections and make our users less safe.”71
As publics, we make decisions every day about which organizations we
trust with our personal information. Organizations have to earn that
trust—not just with speeches, but with everyday management. When ethi-
cal public relations is part of an organization’s management function, orga-
nizations must take safeguarding confidences and protecting the privacy of
their publics seriously.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
The use of mobile and social media • Social listening reveals broad trends and themes
for public relations must be driven by that can inform public relations strategy.
research and strategy. These emerg- • As more people view video on mobile devices
with the sound off, subtitles have become
ing and ever-changing platforms and
crucial for helping viewers understand what
technology are transforming commu- they’re watching.
nication between organizations and • Successful content curation relies on identify-
their publics. Here are some take- ing content that is both valuable to your audi-
aways from this chapter: ence and aligned with your organization’s
values.
• Community managers must know when and
• In-demand communicators in public relations how people are talking about their organiza-
understand current and emerging technology tions on social media to find opportunities to
but also grasp the importance of writing, strat- join conversations, answer questions and em-
egy and global issues. power their publics.
• Consider how you will reach people on mobile • Public relations professionals often have the
and social media but also how they will reach responsibility of deciding what is and isn’t
back to your organization and how they will allowed on their organizations’ social media
share content with one another. pages.
• In developing strategy for mobile media, con- • Carefully vet and select the influencers who can
sider asking what people are doing with mobile authentically connect with their audiences and
media instead of what mobile media will do to who genuinely love the organizations they will
people. represent.

Ethics: Privacy and Safeguarding Confidences 285

 SUMMARY
10.1 Assess the strategic value of mobile Today, anyone with a smartphone can capture
tactics. content just about anywhere that their devices
The evaluation of mobile tactics requires ex- will function, and mobile allows us to consume
amining how well the tactics achieve objec- content just about anywhere, too. But not all
tives and goals as part of strategies to content is created equal. Public relations pro-
advance the organization’s mission and its re- fessionals must understand the main forms of
lationships with key publics. Mobile is ubiqui- social media content—text, images and
tous, social, personal and local—and the most video—and how they can be used to capture
successful mobile tactics reflect these attention, tell stories and drive action.
characteristics.
10.5 Describe how public relations profession-
10.2 Discuss how publics’ uses and gratifica- als can use social media to build
tions of mobile media may help drive community.
public relations strategy. Though social media can be used to reach
Major uses and gratifications of mobile media large audiences, the ability to reply to com-
include relationships, information, diversion ments immediately and create and join groups
and amusement, and participation. Mobile can help organizations create a sense of com-
media also offer excellent opportunities to munity with their key publics. Engaging with
obtain feedback from publics. Research influencers and brand advocates can also help
should be conducted to understand publics organizations establish relationships and trust
from their perspectives. with these publics.
10.3 Explain how social and visual listening 10.6 Apply privacy as an ethical value to con-
can help public relations professionals sider in handling data gleaned from
better understand and communicate with mobile media.
their publics. In exchange for information, entertainment
How an organization is perceived on social and convenience, mobile media users entrust
media goes beyond the number of followers, organizations with tremendous amounts of
likes or shares. Social and visual listening private information. Safeguarding confidences
allows an organization to track, analyze and and protecting privacy are key ethical values
respond to conversations about specific that public relations professionals and their
topics, such as a company or industry, online. organizations must honor, if they are going to
maintain public trust.
10.4 Evaluate how different forms of social
media content can be created to engage
publics.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Select one app you’ve downloaded on your mobile media: ubiquitous, social, personal and
mobile phone. What’s the organization behind local. Does the app you selected meet these
the app? Think about the characteristics of characteristics? How?

286 CHAPTER 10   |   SOCIAL MEDIA AND MOBILE

 2. CASE STUDY Burger King’s “Whopper Detour” content might you create? Explain how you
stunt led to more than a million downloads of would create this content and apply the recom-
its BK® App. What can Burger King do to keep mendations shared in this chapter.
customers engaged and retain app users? 6. Identify an organization partaking in community
Consider the characteristics of successful management on Twitter or Facebook, and com-
mobile tactics in describing your suggestions. pare how the organization responds to positive
3. How have you used mobile media to communi- comments versus negative comments. Take a
cate with an organization? What were your stab at drafting your own responses to com-
“uses and gratifications”? What were the or- ments, too. Is the organization effective in its
ganization’s objectives? Why was (or wasn’t) one-to-one communications?
their strategy effective? 7. CASE STUDY Disney’s #ShareYourEars cam-
4. Imagine that you want to discover what people paign inspired people to create and share con-
are saying about your college or university. tent to support the Make-A-Wish® Foundation.
What keywords might you want to listen to on Think about a nonprofit organization you sup-
social media? If you had the ability to conduct port and imagine you’re the organization’s
visual listening, what visuals would you moni- public relations director. How could you use
tor? Explain how you could use this information social media to rally the support of others?
to learn more about your college, its students 8. Thinking more about your experience interact-
and faculty. ing with an organization via mobile media,
5. Think about the best paper or essay you have what specific information do they now have
ever written. Now suppose you were asked to about you? What makes you confident (or not
share it on social media. You couldn’t share the confident) that they will handle it properly?
whole essay—instead, what kinds of snackable

KEY TERMS
Artificial intelligence 277 Freelancers 272 One-to-many content 277
Boomerang video 275 Geofencing 260 Public domain 272
Brand advocate 279 Geofilter 260 Selective attention 257
Chatbots 277 Geolocation 260 Sentiment 265
Community management 277 Influencer 279 Snackable content 274
Content curation 276 Internet of Things (IoT) 283 Social listening 263
Creative Commons 273 Landscape orientation 274 Social monitoring 264
End-user license agreements Linear story arc 275 Stock image 273
(EULA) 284 Looping video 275 User-generated content (UGC) 276
Engagement 269 Multimedia 268 Uses and gratifications 262
Ephemeral content 275 Newsjacking 266 Vertical video 274
Feed proofing 271 Non-linear story arc 275 Visual listening 264

KEY TERMS 287

 C HAP TE R 11

Legal

When federal regulators took Tesla CEO Elon Musk to court

over Musk’s tweets, a judge told them to “put your
reasonableness pants on.” Why is this type of legal
“reasonableness” important in public relations?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

11.1 Discuss the importance 11.4 Identify common types 11.7 Identify legal concerns
of understanding national laws of intellectual property and related to privacy in public
in international contexts. how they are protected. relations.
11.2 Apply principles of free 11.5 Summarize the role of 11.8 Discuss the ethical bal-
speech and the First Amend- public relations professionals ance between safeguarding
ment to the practice of public in providing public information. organizational confidences
relations. and respecting the privacy of
11.6 Identify key federal
individual social media
11.3 Describe limits to free agencies responsible for regu-
accounts.
speech, including libel and lating communication to pro-
slander as forms of defamation. tect publics.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 2.3 FIRST AMENDMENT ISSUES • 2.4 PRIVAC Y ISSUES
2.5 OTHER LEGAL ISSUES • 5.3 ORGANIZ ATIONAL STRUC TURE AND RESOURCES
W
here did you get this textbook? If you’re a student at a U.S. college or
university, you probably purchased it from your campus bookstore
or directly from the publisher. Or perhaps you borrowed it from a
library or from a friend. In any case, the price of the “first sale” book printed
and sold in the United States is based on the idea that written materials can
be sold by those who hold the U.S. copyright. If you are studying in Thailand
and purchase a textbook at a local bookstore or from the publisher’s global
website, you may pay considerably less than students in the United States
pay for the same text, depending on a range of global economic factors.
But what if someone buys textbooks that were printed and first sold in
Thailand at a much lower cost and then ships the books to a relative in the
United States or sells them online to students in the United States at a
higher price? When Supap Kirtsaeng moved from Thailand to the United
States to study mathematics at Cornell University, he realized the textbooks
he purchased were much more expensive in the United States than the same
books in Thailand. So, he asked family and friends to purchase copies in
Thailand. He then sold those books in the United States at a higher rate.
After reimbursing his friends and family, he kept the profit. Is that legal?
According to the U.S. Supreme Court, yes, it is legal. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., the book’s publisher, sued Kirtsaeng, but Supreme Court Justice
­Stephen Breyer wrote in Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. that “the ‘first
sale’ doctrine applies to copies of a copyrighted work lawfully made
abroad.”1 The first sale doctrine holds that if you purchase a copy of a work
from a copyright holder, you can do what you want with your copy, includ-
ing selling it to someone else.2
As Justice Breyer observed in his 2015 book The Court and the World:
American Law and the New Global Realities, the Kirtsaeng case indicates a
new reality that has implications for public relations. “At a moment when
ordinary citizens may engage in direct transactions internationally for ser-
vices available only locally before,” Breyer wrote, “it has become clear that,
even in ordinary matters, judicial awareness can no longer stop at the
border.”3

International Legal Contexts

At the heart of Kirtsaeng is the idea of intellectual property—who owns
the ideas in books, websites, videos, poems, blogs, photos, graphics, soft-
ware and so on. Intellectual property is any product of the human mind
that is protected by law from unauthorized use by others. Also central to
the case is the question of the reach of U.S. laws in determining how this
property is bought, sold, copied and shared across borders. The Wiley text-
books were hard copies of printed materials, but think of the implications
for everyday public relations when all it takes for international distribution Intellectual property
Any product of the human mind that
is a couple of keystrokes to copy and paste and the tap of an icon to upload is protected by law from unauthor-
digital property for global distribution. ized use by others.

International Legal Contexts 289

Privacy Like intellectual property, personal information also can be shared
The right to be let alone; or, the
right to control access to your per-
easily across borders, and that means privacy is another legal concept that
sonal information. must be considered as an international concern. In 1890, Samuel Warren
and Louis Brandeis (before Brandeis became a Supreme Court Justice) fa-
mously defined privacy as “the right to be let alone,”4 but in the context of
data protection, privacy also can be defined as someone’s right to control
access to and use of their personal information.
As discussed in Chapter 3, the General Data Protection Regulation
(GDPR), a European Union regulation to protect individuals’ privacy, im-
mediately became an issue of global impact beyond Europe when it went
into effect in 2018. Organizations like Facebook, Google and the vast ma-
jority of international online service providers found it impossible to
comply with GDPR regulations in Europe without changing policies for
users in other parts of the world because they exchange users’ personally
identifiable information across borders all the time. Any enterprise with a
significant number of users, employees or even computers processing data
in Europe, regardless of where their headquarters are located, is required to
comply with the regulations.
Intellectual property and privacy are just two of many legal concepts
that communications professionals run across in day-to-day public rela-
tions. Those working in public relations also need “judicial awareness”—as
Justice Breyer put it—to determine what’s legal. For instance, consider the
following:

• Defamation: Can you sue when someone from another country tweets
something mean and nasty about you or someone else in your
organization?
• Sunshine laws: If you work for the government, do you have to share the
It’s easier than ever to buy, sell,
reproduce and share intellectual results of that survey you ran with anyone who asks?
property across international
borders. • Business regulations: Can you tell your buddies that the value of your
Why would public relations pro-
company stock options is about to double?
fessionals be concerned with
laws related to intellectual
• Appropriation: Can you use that picture of Priyanka Chopra on your
property? Facebook event page?

These questions provide just a small sample. While you will not become
a legal expert as a result of reading this chapter, you will gain an aware-
ness of some common legal issues that apply to your work in public rela-
tions. Many legal issues are based on laws written by local, state and
federal governments and interpreted in court cases. Others are regula-
tions enforced by federal agencies. If you work in public relations, you may
even play a role in communicating legal information, such as when you
write social media policies or handle media inquiries related to your orga-
nization’s legal disputes. Even though this chapter focuses largely on law
and policy in the United States, this awareness must extend across inter-
national borders.

290 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

The First Amendment Clear and present danger
Circumstance that may limit rights
to free speech in the interest of
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or preventing “substantive evils.”
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech,
or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to pe-
tition the Government for a redress of grievances.

At its core, the practice of public relations in democratic societies is a

communication function, dependent on free speech. Sometimes that speech
is primarily political, as when practitioners engage publics about ideas,
policy and laws that involve their organizations (e.g., public affairs, political
campaigning). Other times that speech is primarily commercial, as when
practitioners communicate strategically in support of their organizations’
financial goals (e.g., integrated marketing communication, investor rela-
tions). Over the years, U.S. courts have ruled that the Constitution protects
political speech more than commercial speech. For example, courts are
more likely to uphold laws and regulations that prohibit false advertising
for products and services than laws that restrict political campaigning.
As introduced in Chapter 2, the PRSA Code of Ethics identifies advo-
cacy as one of its core values: “We serve the public interest by acting as re-
sponsible advocates for those we represent. We provide a voice in the
marketplace of ideas, facts, and viewpoints to aid informed public debate.”5
The First Amendment generally guarantees the right to exercise such advo-
cacy, but the right to free speech has its limits.
In a classic 1919 Supreme Court opinion, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes
wrote that you cannot falsely yell “Fire!” in a crowded theater and cause a
panic. Some circumstances present enough of a possibility of harmful out-
comes that they justify limits on First Amendment freedoms—this is
sometimes called the clear and present danger doctrine. Let’s hope you
never find yourself in a situation in which your work in public relations puts
you at risk of causing such danger, but you may well face situations in which
you need legal counsel to understand your rights (and the limits on those
rights) as a professional communicator. Working with the press and com-
municating on behalf of an organization requires understanding your role
in the marketplace for ideas that the First Amendment serves to protect.

The First Amendment protects free speech, but courts have ruled that some forms of speech are more protected than others.
Which of these signs gets the least legal protection and why?

The First Amendment 291

 Case Study
Amazon v. NYT: A Case in the Court
of Public Opinion
If you’ve ever shopped online for a book or movie or even a selfie stick or
Halloween costume, you’re probably well aware that Amazon is one of the
world’s largest marketplaces for physical goods and digital products. Its
founder, Jeff Bezos, has been widely heralded as an entrepreneur extraordi-
naire and a visionary in marketplace innovation. The company has rede-
fined how people buy, sell and recommend books. It has even changed how
people read books (think Kindle).
Along with its enormity in the world’s marketplace of physical and digi-
tal products, Amazon also has grown into a formidable voice in the market-
place of ideas. As such, the company invested heavily in its public relations
firepower when it hired former White House press secretary Jay Carney as
senior vice president for corporate affairs.
Less than six months after Carney’s hire, David Streitfeld and Jodi
Kantor published a lengthy New York Times article calling Amazon a “bruis-
ing workplace,” based on dozens of anecdotes about the harsh working con-
ditions. One of the most damning stories was a vivid vignette from an
interview with former Amazon employee Bo Olson. “You walk out of a con-
ference room and you’ll see a grown man covering his face,” Olson was
quoted. “Nearly every person I worked with, I saw cry at their desk.”6 Sev-
eral other former employees relayed tales of hostile peer evaluation sys-
tems, 8 ­ 5-hour workweeks and pressure to work through holidays and
vacations.
At this point in the case, we can already see the First Amendment in
action. As journalists, Kantor and Streitfeld exercised their right to free
speech, as did many of the sources cited in their article. Though the story
would certainly offend Amazon management, expose some of its execu-
tives to public criticism and possibly even hurt its recruiting and profits,
the article was protected speech under the Constitution’s First
Amendment.
Of course, Amazon and Carney also have the right to respond. And re-
Obtain permission spond they did. In a roughly 1,300-word retort posted on his page (https://
(or seek legal medium.com/@jaycarney/) on the self-publishing platform Medium.com
titled “What The New York Times Didn’t Tell You,” Carney disputed many of
counsel) before the claims.7 Carney wrote that Olson’s “brief tenure at Amazon ended after
publicly discussing an investigation revealed he had attempted to defraud vendors and conceal
private it by falsifying business records” and that Olson had admitted this and re-
information about signed immediately after being confronted with the evidence.
any current or Again, we see the First Amendment in action in that Carney is allowed
past employee. to publish his opinions and advocate strongly on behalf of his employer.

292 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

The New York Times Executive Editor Dean Baquet speaks at the National First Amendment Con-
ference in Pittsburgh in 2018.
Why would high-power communicators like Baquet and Amazon spokesman Jay Carney take
to a self-publishing platform like Medium to air their differences?

Another First Amendment question emerges—what gives Carney the right

to discuss the terms of a former employee’s resignation? It seems likely that
Carney would have cleared his Medium piece with Amazon’s legal depart-
ment before publishing, and this illustrates the importance of public rela-
tions people working well with attorneys.
Amazon’s response was designed as much to make a case in the court
of public opinion as in the court of law. As Krishnadev Calamur wrote in
The Atlantic, Amazon’s pushback “illustrates the level to which Amazon is
trying to correct the narrative that depicted Amazon as a brutal place to
work.”8
The battle in the court of public opinion raged on. Later in the very
same day that Carney published his piece on Medium, New York Times Ex-
ecutive Editor Dean Baquet responded with his own Medium piece defend-
ing the accuracy of the journalism. Carney responded again, criticizing the
journalists’ fact checking. It may never end.
Who wins in this battle? You do, concluded Fortune’s Matthew Ingram.
He wrote that both sides in the Amazon-NYT case are guilty of some degree
of spin, “but at least we can see it happening and judge for ourselves whom
to believe.”9 That’s what the marketplace of ideas is, and always has been,
all about. Social media and platforms for self-publishing like Medium help
the process. It’s remarkable that some of the most privileged voices in the
world are now using platforms like Medium to exercise their free speech.
You can too.

The First Amendment 293

Defamation Limitations on free speech kick in when your right to free speech
False communication that injures
someone’s reputation.
­infringes on others’ rights. In public relations, you may run into situations
in which your right to free speech infringes on someone else’s reputation,
Slander intellectual property, financial interests or privacy.
Oral communication that is false
and injures someone’s reputation.

Libel
Written or otherwise recorded false Defamation
communication that injures some-
one’s reputation. One of the ways that someone can hit the legal limits for free speech is to
infringe on someone else’s reputation. Defamation is a statement that in-
jures someone’s reputation. Slander and libel are both forms of defamation.
Slander refers to spoken communication, while libel refers to written or
recorded communication that can be reproduced and shared repeatedly.
This means that Facebook posts, Instagram posts, and tweets are subject to
libel laws. In fact, there’s even an informal term for Twitter libel.
The word “twibel” rose in public consciousness after fashion designer
Dawn Simorangkir sued punk rocker and actress Courtney Love Cobain for li-
belous Twitter statements. Following a dispute over payments for wardrobe
items, and according to the libel complaint filed by Simorangkir, Love Cobain
tweeted to her tens of thousands of followers that Simorangkir was a “nasty
lying hosebag thief,” and that police should “haul her desperate cokes [sic] out
ass to jail” because “she has a history of dealing cocaine, lost all custody of her
child, assault and burglary.”10 The parties later settled out of court for $430,000.
Had Love Cobain spoken these statements in person instead of tweeting them,
the defamation case would have been one of slander instead of libel.
Before you sue the first person who writes something mean and nasty
about you or about someone else in your organization, however, keep in
mind that courts are rather strict on what counts as defamation.11

1. The statement must actually be false and hurt someone’s reputation.

Truth is a fantastic defense in libel cases. And even false state-
ments have to do more than just hurt someone’s feelings. They
have to actually cause damage to the person’s reputation in a way
that can be proven.
2. The statement must be published or spoken to at least one other person
besides the person who is the subject of the statement. Other people
must also be able to identify the subject of the statement. For ex-
ample, a private text probably would not count, but a tweet men-
tioning someone’s recognized Twitter handle would.
3. The false statement has to be factual. Name-calling and hyperbole
can’t really be proven true or false and, therefore, cannot be the
basis of a defamation suit.
4. The statement must be made with fault. This concept of fault means
that the defendant was either careless and negligent in making the
statement or the defendant actually knew the statement was false
and hurtful and made it anyway. If the subject (plaintiff) is just a

294 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

 private citizen in the context of the
case, he or she would need to show
only that the defendant was negli-
gent and acted carelessly. If the
plaintiff is a public figure, he or she
has to prove that the d ­ efendant
knowingly made a false statement.

The fourth point is an important one for

this book because public relations people
often represent public figures in their work.
Public figures may include celebrities, politi-
cians and business leaders. Although the
exact definition of who counts as a public
figure depends on the legal context and deci-
sions of courts, the general idea is summa-
rized well in the landmark Supreme Court
case of Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc. in 1973. The Courtney Love Cobain became the first celebrity sued for defamation on
Court held the following: Twitter (“twibel”) in 2009. In this photo, she arrives at court for an unre-
lated case.
Because private individuals characteristically Why do you think she settled out of court in the twibel case?
have less effective opportunities for rebuttal
than do public officials and public figures, they are more vulnerable to injury If you work for a
from defamation. Because they have not voluntarily exposed themselves to public figure, the
increased risk of injury from defamatory falsehoods, they are also more de- standard for
serving of recovery. The state interest in compensating injury to the reputa-
tion of private individuals is therefore greater than for public officials and
claiming libel is
public figures.
much higher than
if you represent a
Basically, if you work for a politician, a celebrity, a CEO or any other private citizen.
famous person, you may have to deal with quite a bit more flak before you can
sue for libel than you would if you were representing a private citizen.12 The
courts have said that public figures just have to deal with libelous comments
unless they can prove actual malice. According to the Supreme Court in New
York Times Co. v. Sullivan, another landmark First Amendment case, actual
malice means “that the statement was made with knowledge of its falsity or
with reckless disregard of whether it was true or false.”13 If you work for a
public figure, the standard for claiming libel is much higher than if you repre-
sent a private citizen.
Public figure
Someone “of general fame or noto-

Intellectual Property riety in the community” who is sub-

ject to less protection in libel cases
than a private individual.
When you communicate on behalf of an organization, you often must ask
who owns the information being exchanged and whether you, or someone Actual malice
When a defamatory statement is
else, have the rights to the words, images, music or multimedia being ex- made with knowledge of its falsity
changed. As discussed in Chapter 10 on social media and mobile, digital and reckless disregard for the truth.

Intellectual Property 295

When you share convergence has made it much easier to acquire, mix, mash, share and re-
someone else’s share content online. In many cases, re-pinning on Pinterest, sharing posts
on Facebook or retweeting on Twitter are great ways to build social capital.
intellectual Often, the people who created the content might even be excited that you
property without are helping them go viral and obtain more exposure. But not always. When
permission or you share someone else’s intellectual property without permission or
proper proper attribution, you run the risk of legal trouble.
attribution, you
run the risk of Copyright, Trademarks and Patents
legal trouble. Three major types of intellectual property that can be claimed are copy-
right, trademarks and patents. Copyright is a claim to authorship of an
original work, including the rights to reproduce, distribute, perform, dis-
play or license the work. These “works” include literature, music, drama,
choreography, pictures, graphics, sculptures, music and even architecture.
Copyrighted works are often indicated with the symbol ©, but the symbol
is not necessarily required for the owner to claim copyright.
Trademarks are any words, names, phrases, symbols or designs used
to distinguish a product or service from others in the competitive market-
place. Registered trademarks are indicated with the symbol ®.
Patents cover inventions. With patents, the United States grants patent
holders “the exclusive right to exclude others from making, using, import-
ing, and selling the patented innovation for a limited period of time.”14
The U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) authorizes both trade-
marks and patents. Trademarks and patents are particularly important to
startups as they are used to develop organizational identity (e.g., trade-
marking logos) and to innovate with new products and services (e.g., pat-
enting inventions).

Plagiarism
As a student, you’ve learned the importance of proper attribution. If you
present someone else’s specific ideas or words as your own, that’s
Copyright ­plagiarism. Digital media have made it much easier to “borrow” someone
Claim to intellectual property rights
of an original work of authorship
else’s words, but that same technology makes it easier to identify plagia-
including rights to reproduce, dis- rism. Just put quotes around a sentence or excerpt of text and run a web
tribute, perform, display, license search for that quoted material, and if the words have been plagiarized,
and so on. there’s a good chance you’ll uncover an earlier source. Services like Turnitin,
Trademark which boasts the ability to search more than 67 billion web pages, 929 mil-
Word, name, phrase, symbol or lion student papers and 178 million academic articles, offer automatic
design used to distinguish a prod-
uct or service from others in the
checking for possible plagiarism.15 However, building on the contributions
competitive marketplace. of others is essential to good scholarship. The key to avoiding plagiarism,
then, is proper attribution. When words or specific ideas are not your own,
Patent
Claim to intellectual property rights
you must let your instructors and anyone else reading your work know
of an invention. where those words and ideas come from. Give credit where credit is due!
Plagiarism is an issue outside of the classroom too. When an executive
Plagiarism
Presenting someone else’s words or
or organizational leader uses someone else’s words without attribution in
ideas as one’s own. public communication, plagiarism can become a public relations problem.

296 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

You may have read about high-profile politi-
cians or commencement speakers who have
been called out for lifting major parts of
their speeches from other sources without
attribution. When this happens, an oppor-
tunity for public honor turns into a case of
public shame.
Easy sharing and reposting of others’
ideas, words, images and works of art are es-
sential parts of what makes social media
work, but that spirit of sharing and free-flow-
ing information doesn’t excuse plagiarism.
Skye Grove, a rising “celebrity Instagrammer”
in South Africa who had reached more than
40,000 followers on her Instagram account, This photo by Stephen Ball was downloaded from Flickr and published here
with the express written consent of its owner.
was featured on national TV and successfully
Do you like it when people repost your content on social media? When
began selling her photography online. That all
is it OK, and when would you consider it to be plagiarism?
came to a stop when another Instagram user
contacted the internationally popular technology news website Memeburn to The key to
report suspicions that Grove had plagiarized many of her images, including
some that she sold.16 Memeburn investigated and found evidence of several
avoiding
suspected instances of plagiarism.
plagiarism is
A week later, Grove’s Instagram and Twitter accounts had disappeared, proper
although it is unclear whether she deleted them voluntarily or whether attribution. Give
they were removed for violating terms of service. Grove also was suspended credit where credit
without pay from  her job as a communication manager for the  NGO is due!
Cape  Town Partnership. Before ­deleting her Instagram account, Grove
17

explained:

For a long time I didn’t believe my work was good enough. I wanted to im-
press people with my photography but didn’t believe I was good enough. So,
from time to time, I posted photos that didn’t belong to me but that I claimed
as my own. The more I honed my skill, the more I became compelled to be
true to myself. …18

In an email to Memeburn, Cape Town Partnership CEO Bulelwa

Makalima-­Ngewana explained that she had no reason to believe that
Grove’s mistakes were made as part of her official duties at the organiza-
tion, but she also noted, “Personal and professional reputations are inter-
twined in the current social media climate.”19 With that hard lesson learned,
Grove returned to both social media and her job later in the same year.
While attribution of words or ideas to a specific source is often enough to
avoid plagiarizing, plagiarism is different from copyright ­infringement. If
you want to include the full lyrics to a Maya Angelou poem on your for-profit
Etsy page, use a Jack Johnson song as the soundtrack to a surf video you will Copyright infringement
Use of protected works without
distribute via paid downloads, or take an image from ESPN.com to put on T- proper permission from the copy-
shirts to sell at homecoming, attribution is not enough. Even if you make that right holder.

Intellectual Property 297

Fair use attribution clear on the web page or video or T-shirt, you need permission to
An exception to copyright laws that
allows for the use of otherwise
use the copyrighted material, because that material is someone else’s intel-
copyrighted material for purposes lectual property. Profiting from someone else’s work or taking it out of context
such as educational use, criticism without permission can be treated as a form of stealing. You can get in trouble
or commentary.
for copyright infringement even if you’ve cleared yourself of plagiarism.

Fair Use
If you’re essentially selling someone else’s property for a profit, chances are
they are going to want a cut. But, you may ask, doesn’t the First Amend-
ment protect our free speech? And what if we’re not trying to make a profit?
How can we participate in the marketplace of ideas if the only way to work
with someone else’s ideas is to obtain their permission and pay for the
right? The concept of fair use helps answer some of these questions.
­According to the U.S. Copyright Office, the following four factors are often
taken into consideration in determining whether use of copyrighted mate-
rial without permission qualifies as fair use:20

1. The purpose and character of the use. Is it transformative? Have you

transformed the original work in some way to give it new mean-
ing? Or have you added something to the work that serves the
public interest? Parody, exaggerating or humorously ­imitating the
work or style of another may be considered fair use. In a way, ridi-
culing a work actually makes it more likely to be c­ onsidered fair
use. Using material with significant ­commentary or criticism for
the purposes of education or ­research also may qualify as fair use.
2. The nature of the copyrighted work. Published works and works that
primarily consist of factual material are more likely to qualify for
fair use. Repeating facts and spreading knowledge serves a public
benefit. But to encourage original imaginative and creative works,
courts are more protective of original creative expression—for ex-
ample, a screenplay or a song would be more protected than a news
item in a financial report or traffic update.
3. The amount and substantiality of the portion taken in relation to the
copyrighted work as a whole. Quoting a few lines from a 500-page
book or sampling a few notes from a symphony might be more
likely to be seen as fair use than quoting four lines from a six-line
poem or playing the entire chorus from a pop song.
4. Effect of the use upon the potential market for or value of the
c­ opyrighted work. According to the copyright office, courts ­“consider
whether the use is hurting the current market for the original
work (for example, by displacing sales of the original) and/or
whether the use could cause substantial harm if it were to become
widespread.”

The 2nd U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals applied this four-part test to
decide whether a media monitoring company called TVEyes could claim

298 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

that their service, which allowed subscribers to view, download and share
segments from TV news shows, was protected by fair use.
Recall from Chapter 8 that media monitoring services assist public re-
lations practitioners in the collection and reporting of media data for eval-
uation. For a $500 monthly fee, TVEyes recorded and tracked the content
of more than 1,400 radio and TV channels, allowing subscribers to search
for, download, archive and share segments of up to ten minutes in length.
Besides tracking media material related to their own clients and organiza-
tions, many news and political organizations also use media monitoring
services to track and criticize competitors. Many political operatives, for
example, used TVEyes to search Fox News for clips they found to be dispar-
aging and then replayed or reposted these videos. Not surprisingly, Fox
didn’t like competitors using their own material against them. But Fox also
held that TVEyes was illegally exploiting their content for profit, and Fox
sued TVEyes for copyright infringement.
In ruling on the case, the court went through the four-part test:

1. On the first factor (purpose and character of the use), the court
favored TVEyes “slightly” because judges found the service “some-
what transformative” in that users could search for clips and view
them in different times, places and contexts.
2. The court said the second part (nature of the copyrighted work)
was not a significant factor in this case.
3. On the third factor (amount and substantiality of the portion
used), the court found that TVEyes provided whole news segments

Fox sued a media monitoring company for copyright infringement and won.
Why did the company not pass the “fair use” test?

Intellectual Property 299

 that included “virtually the entirety of the Fox programming that
TVEyes users want to see and hear” and “therefore both extensive
and inclusive of all that is important to the copyrighted work.”
4. Finally, on the fourth part (effect of use on potential market), the
court said that when TVEyes charged users for the service without
payment to Fox, they were depriving Fox of revenues.

After weighing all of the factors, the court ruled that TVEyes’ service
did not constitute fair use.21 TVEyes still offers its media monitoring ser-
vices, but the court ruled against the part of their business model that al-
lowed subscribers to repost entire news segments.
Sports leagues are notoriously zealous about protecting copyrights. If you
watch sports on TV often, you are probably quite familiar with the disclaim-
ers. For baseball, it’s “Any rebroadcast, retransmission, or account of this game,
without the express written consent of Major League Baseball, is prohibited.”
For football, it’s “This telecast is copyrighted by the NFL for the private use of
our audience. Any other use of this telecast or of any pictures, descriptions, or
accounts of the game without the NFL’s consent, is prohibited.”
Therefore, when sports websites D ­ eadspin and SBNation used Twitter
­accounts (@Deadspin and @SBNationGIF) to post short GIF clips of key plays
in NFL games, the NFL did not see that as
fair use. Rather than trying to take Dead-
spin and SBNation to court, however, the
NFL and other sports organizations like
the Ultimate Fighting Championship
(UFC) went straight to Twitter with a take-
down notice. They demanded that Twitter
“immediately disable access to the individ-
ual who has uploaded the copyright in-
fringing content” and to “terminate any
and all accounts this individual has
through you.”22 The UFC further demanded
that Twitter take down the two accounts
within 10 minutes of receiving the email!
We can’t be sure how the courts would
have ruled on the posting of animated GIFs
of sporting plays on Twitter, because Twit-
ter complied with the takedown notice.
While both @Deadspin and @SBNationGIF
went back online within a few days, and
they both continue to post GIFs, they
clearly had to work out legal issues with
SBNation posts animated GIFs of NFL games and other sporting events on its
both Twitter and the original copyright
Twitter account. holders to continue the practice. Publishing
What fair-use questions come into play here? Bonus question: How many content is an important part of public rela-
trademarks can you identify in this picture? tions. So is maintaining relationships with

300 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

other content providers. This case illustrates how legal issues may come into
play in both functions.

Intellectual Property Issues

The @Deadspin and @SBNationGIF case raises another interesting point
about intellectual property in the digital age. In addition to the NFL’s and
UFC’s claims to original copyright on one side and arguments that could be
made for fair use on the other side, we must also consider the role of Twitter
and other social media platforms. Now—as you’re thinking about legal
issues—may be a good time to review the terms of service for your Insta-
gram, Facebook, and Snapchat accounts. Take Twitter, for example. Here’s
what you’ve agreed to if you have a Twitter account:

• By tweeting anything at all to your account, you grant Twitter “a

­ orldwide, non-exclusive, royalty-free license (with the right to subli-
w
cense) to use, copy, reproduce, process, adapt, modify, publish, transmit,
display and distribute such Content in any and all media or distribution
methods (now known or later developed).”
• At the same time, everything tweeted “is the sole responsibility of the
person who originated such Content.”23
So, basically you need to assume that anything you post on Twitter can
be used against you or your organization if something goes wrong, but that

Kaiser Health News, “a national health policy news service that is part of the nonpartisan Henry J.
Kaiser Family Foundation,” encourages other organizations to republish its content.
How does the organization benefit from the Creative Commons license?

Intellectual Property 301

Creative Commons Twitter also has all the rights to anything you post when things are going
Nonprofit organization that encour-
ages fair and legal sharing of content
well. In an age of participatory media, user-generated content and global
by helping content creators make memes, we have to balance enthusiastic participation in a culture of shar-
their work available with specific ing with respect for intellectual property. Use caution when posting any-
terms and conditions for sharing.
thing that may be seen as offensive or illegal.

Balance CREATIVE COMMONS

Sometimes intellectual property holders want to put their content out there
participation with for everyone to use, share, mash up and redistribute. Other times they
respect for want to claim their content and protect it like a financial asset. In public
intellectual relations, you (or your organization) may face these issues as the owner of
property; use intellectual property in some cases and as the party who wants to use some-
caution when one else’s intellectual property in other cases. The nonprofit organization
posting anything Creative Commons serves to assist both sides.
that may be seen as Creative Commons offers free legal tools at http://creativecommons.
offensive or illegal. org/that make it easy for content creators (i.e., licensors) to designate the
permissions that they want to allow. For ex-
ample, by answering a series of questions, a
licensor may determine that he would like
to offer an “Attribution-­ NonCommercial-
ShareAlike” license. This license gives others
permission to share and adapt the work, as
long as they give appropriate credit (attribu-
tion), don’t use the material to make money
(noncommercial), and distribute any remix
or transformation of the original with the
same license as the original (ShareAlike).
Once the licensor has agreed to the terms,
the Creative Commons tool generates a
nifty little graphic and link, which will
clearly indicate the permissions that the li-
censor can use to post on a web page.
Kaiser Health News, a national health
policy news service that is part of the non-
partisan Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation,
invites other organizations to republish their
content for free. “We don’t ask much,” the
site says about sharing its content. For attri-
bution they only require that re-publishers
include the Kaiser Health News reporter’s
byline, preserve hyperlinks, and maintain
the tagline at the bottom of the story (e.g., “
Boing Boing editor, blogger, journalist and science fiction writer Cory Doc-
torow was an early adopter of Creative Commons licenses.
Kaiser Health News is a nonprofit news ser-
vice covering health issues. It is an editori-
What kinds of permissions are indicated in this photo? How do they
benefit him as an author and benefit those who want to share his work ally independent program of the Kaiser
as fans? Family Foundation, which is not affiliated

302 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

with Kaiser Permanente”).24 Otherwise, they make all their content avail-
able under a Creative Commons license.

LINKING
Hyperlinks are what originally distinguished the web from other media. A
link makes a connection to other content. While that other content may be
copyrighted, linking to content is generally not considered copyright in-
fringement. That said, some organizations have tried out policies requiring
users to obtain permission before posting deep links, which are links that
bypass an organization’s home page and take users directly to otherwise
copyrighted material. In 2002, National Public Radio (NPR) tried to make
users obtain permission to link to stories with a policy stating, “Linking to
or framing of any material on this site without the prior written consent of
NPR is prohibited.” It did not go over well. Author and Boing Boing editor
Cory Doctorow called the policy “brutally stupid” in that an organization
dedicated to public discourse would obstruct users from accessing content
that would otherwise be freely available.25
Framing refers to clickable material in a link that is actual content
from the site to which it links. For example, when a web page includes a
clickable photo, graphic, or chunk of text from another page, this is consid-
ered framing. At least one court has found framing to be copyright in-
fringement when the “framed link duplicates or recasts” material from the
original page.26 When in doubt
about your
REPOSTING ownership rights
Linking and framing issues are so Web 1.0. At least back then, in order to of social media
publish a link or frame, a user would have to consult the original source,
copy the URL, and paste it as a hyperlink. Now all we have to do is click a
content, check the
button or two to retweet, re-blog, re-pin, or otherwise rebroadcast someone
provider’s terms of
else’s work. Along with technologies that facilitate commenting and con- service.
versation, the easy creation, sharing and re-sharing of information on
social media are hallmarks of Web 2.0 communication. But this easy shar-
ing and re-sharing leads to questions about who owns what content and
who is responsible for inappropriate or unauthorized content.
If you post original content on Twitter, Pinterest or Facebook, you can’t
Hyperlink
really be too upset if someone else shares that material. The facility for shar- A piece of text or an image online
ing is part of the deal of social media, and the rules are laid out in the terms that can be clicked on to reach
of service you agree to when you sign up for an account. On the other hand, another resource online.
if you are challenged for reposting someone else’s intellectual property with- Deep link
out permission, don’t count on getting much help from your social media Hyperlink that bypasses an organi-
service provider in your defense. The same idea applies if you were to repost zation’s home page and takes users
directly to resources deeper in an
libelous or obscene material. Remember, the terms of service are primarily
organization’s website structure.
written to protect the service provider. Practice common sense and conser-
vative decision-making about attribution and permission on social media. If Framing
When clickable material in a link is
for some reason you think you need to push the limits, first check the terms actual content from the site to
of service you’ve agreed to. If you are still uncertain, consult a legal expert. which it links.

Intellectual Property 303

Freedom of Information
Act (FOIA) Public Information and the Freedom
U.S. federal law passed to ensure
that the government makes its infor-
mation accessible to citizens.
of Information Act
Intellectual property laws apply to information and ideas that can be
Sunshine law
State law that stipulates which doc-
claimed as privately owned by people and organizations. However, some
uments and records must be open works have entered the public domain, meaning that copyrights have ex-
to the public and which meetings pired, been forfeited by the owner, or otherwise do not apply. If you work in
and events must be open. public relations for a publicly funded or government organization, you may
find that laws that determine what you
must communicate are much more a part
of your day-to-day work than laws about
what kinds of information you can claim
and protect. Although there are some ex-
ceptions, most information that the gov-
ernment collects and uses in the United
States is treated as public information.
The Freedom of Information Act
(FOIA) is a U.S. federal law that went into
effect in 1967 to ensure that the govern-
ment makes its information accessible to
citizens. With a few exceptions (nine cat-
egories to be exact—ranging from na-
tional defense secrets to personnel records
to information about oil and gas wells),
FOIA requires government agencies to
make information public. According to
the U.S. Department of Justice, more than
100 agencies are subject to FOIA, and sev-
eral hundred offices are tasked with re-
sponding to requests for government
information. Beyond just responding to
requests as they come in, government
agencies are also expected (and in some
cases required) to proactively make gov-
ernment information available in a useful
form. Many of these agencies are working
to develop and improve online interfaces
for delivering and presenting data for
public consumption. For example, www.
usaspending.gov enables users to enter
custom information to generate a report
and graph illustrating how government
This user-friendly website allows anyone to track various types of government
money is spent.
spending. States also have specific freedom of
Why does the U.S. government invest in making this information information laws, called sunshine laws,
available? that stipulate which documents and

304 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

records must be open to the public and also which meetings and events Food and Drug Administration
(FDA)
must be open. These state laws echo the sentiment of Supreme Court Jus- U.S. federal agency responsible for
tice Louis Brandeis, who wrote in a 1913 Harpers Weekly article that gov- regulating food, drugs and health-
ernment in the open serves well the public interest: “Publicity is justly related products and services in-
cluding the promotion of these
commended as a remedy for social and industrial diseases. Sunlight is
products and services.
said to be the best of disinfectants; electric light the most efficient
policeman.” 27

Protecting Publics
In addition to information that must be made available to citizens in the
marketplace of ideas in democratic societies, laws and regulations also stip-
ulate which information should be made available to consumers in the mar-
ketplace for goods and services. Depending on the area of public relations
that you work in, you will need to become familiar with various govern-
ment agencies that are responsible for protecting your key publics. Do you
work with food and drug consumers? There’s an agency for that: the Food
and Drug Administration (FDA). Does your organization advertise and pro-
mote consumer goods and services in the United States? If so, you’ll need to
know the Federal Trade Commission (FTC). Do you work with stockholders
and financial publics? There’s an agency for that too: the Securities and Ex-
change Commission (SEC). In fact, hundreds of government agencies en-
force regulations related to all sorts of organizations and their public
relations efforts.

Safety and Accuracy

You’ve no doubt seen drug ads featuring peaceful landscapes or serene el-
derly couples happily arranging flowers or riding bicycles under blue skies
with laughing grandkids. Have you noticed that the voiceover in those ads
often shifts—almost imperceptibly—from the benefits of the drug to an
unsettling list of disclaimers that tell you about possible side effects like diz-
ziness, dry mouth, frequent urination, diarrhea, hallucinations, coma or
even death?28 That’s because pharmaceuti-
cal advertising in the United  States is
­regulated by the Food and Drug Admini­
stration (FDA). The FDA r­equires that
product claim advertisements include the
following:29

• The name of the drug (brand and

generic)
• At least one FDA-approved use for the The pharmaceutical industry is regulated quite a bit more these days than it
used to be.
drug
How do regulatory agencies try to protect publics when it comes to ad-
• The most significant risks of the drug vertising and marketing?

Protecting Publics 305

 That said, the FDA’s regulatory authority extends well beyond drug ads.
At www.fda.gov, the agency includes information for a range of organiza-
tions and publics including consumers, patients, health professionals, sci-
entists, researchers and industry. In addition to food and drugs, the agency
regulates the business of (and communication related to) medical products,
animal and veterinary products, cosmetics and tobacco products. If you
work in public relations in any organization that deals with these types of
products and services, you’ll definitely need to become familiar with the
FDA. The FDA’s regulations are likely to affect how your organization com-
municates with its publics.
Of course, food and drug companies are not the only organizations
regulated by government. The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) serves a
mission to protect consumers of all types of products and services and “to
enhance informed consumer choice and public understanding of the com-
petitive process.”30 The FTC acts as a watchdog over truth in advertising
and promotion. If you promote your products or services as environmen-
tally friendly, make health claims or state that your products are “made in
the USA,” the FTC requires that you can back up those claims with evi-
dence. The FTC is also concerned with how products and services are mar-
keted to children, any type of online advertising and marketing, and the
practice of telemarketing. In fact, the agency runs the National Do Not Call
Registry for telemarketers. Unfortunately—if your inbox looks anything
like mine—they haven’t had tremendous success fighting the growth of
email spam.

Financial Information
As discussed in Chapter 4, investor relations (maintaining relationships
and communicating with financial publics such as current stockholders,
potential investors and financial analysts) is an important sector of public
relations. The Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) regulates
communication activities with investors, including initial public o ­ fferings
(IPOs). IPOs are highly choreographed financial events in which private
companies first offer sale of stocks to public investors. As they would in any
Federal Trade Commission (FTC) new corporate initiative or offering, public relations people play a role in
U.S. federal agency responsible for the successful launch of IPOs. For example, before Fitbit, the company that
regulating all types of consumer
products and services, including the
makes fitness tracking bracelets, went public, it hired two major public rela-
promotion of these products and tions agencies, FleishmanHillard and Burson-Marsteller, to help it gear up
services. to sell more than 22 million shares of stock.31 By the end of Fitbit’s opening
Securities and Exchange day of trading on Wall Street, shares were up to $29.68, and the company
Commission (SEC) was valued at $4.1 billion.32
U.S. federal agency responsible for The SEC also regulates financial reports. As professional communi-
regulating financial activities and
investing.
cators, public relations professionals often write, edit and present
annual reports and other financial documents (see Chapter 9). The
Initial public offering (IPO) stakes for accuracy in these required reports are extremely high, and
Financial event in which a private
company offers sale of stocks to enthusiasm and optimism must be carefully balanced with attention to
public investors for the first time. accuracy.

306 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

Case Study
Tesla CEO and Federal Regulators Get
into a Tiff over Free Speech
“Am considering taking Tesla private at $420. Funding secured.”33 This
August 7, 2018, tweet by Tesla CEO Elon Musk sparked a legal battle over
the billionaire’s right to free speech. At first reading, this tweet may sound
harmless enough, and it certainly doesn’t seem to present a clear and pres-
ent danger like yelling “Fire!” in a crowded theater. But according to the
SEC, the first problem with the tweet is that it wasn’t true. The SEC held
that Musk hadn’t actually secured funding to take the company private.
When a company goes private, it means that company executives or an-
other company buys stocks from shareholders, and the company’s stock is
no longer traded on stock exchanges like NASDAQ or the New York Stock
Exchange.
The SEC’s second big problem with Musk’s tweet was that he misled
investors. Tesla stock was trading at $341.99 per share before the tweet,
and later that same day it went as high as $379.57.34 In less than three
hours the company’s total market value soared more than $900 million,
and during that brief time Musk’s post was “possibly the most valuable
tweet in the history of social media,” according to Observer business re-
porter Sissi Cao.35 Then the price dropped again after it became apparent he
wasn’t actually in a position to “go private” at $420 per share after all.
Rumors began to emerge that he wrote the tweet to impress his girlfriend
and that the $420 figure was a joke reference to marijuana. The number 420
is often used as a code word for pot. The SEC’s co-director for enforcement
said in a press conference:

While leading Tesla’s investors to believe he had a firm offer in hand, we

allege that Musk had arrived at the price of $420 by assuming 20 percent
premium over Tesla’s then existing share price then rounding up to $420
because of the significance of that number in marijuana culture and his
belief that his girlfriend would be amused by it.36

While we may never know Musk’s true intentions or how his girlfriend
responded, we can be sure the SEC was not amused. They sued Musk for
misleading investors and manipulating stock prices. The case was settled
with four conditions37:
• Tesla and Musk would pay $40 million in fines combined.
• Musk would step down as the company’s chairman (though he retained
the role of CEO).

Protecting Publics 307

 • Two new independent directors would be appointed to Tesla’s board.
• Tesla would “establish a new committee of independent directors and
put in place additional controls and procedures to oversee Musk’s com-
munications.” This last condition raised new free speech issues, and
sure enough, within six months, Musk and the SEC were back in court
for round two.

On February 19, 2019, Musk tweeted, “Tesla made 0 cars in 2011, but
will make around 500k in 2019.”38 Once again, the tweet sounded harmless
enough to those outside the investment world, and once again, Musk riled
the SEC because the statement that Tesla would make 500,000 cars in 2019
wasn’t quite true. Musk attempted to clarify with a second tweet a few hours
later in which he wrote that he had intended to say that Tesla’s ­per-year rate
of production would be up to 500,000 by the end of 2019. In other words,
Musk expected the rate of production to be near 10,000 cars a week by De-
cember 2019, but the company was not on track to actually produce 500,000
cars during 2019. The SEC was not in a forgiving mood, and brought Musk
back to court for violating the terms of the earlier settlement. The SEC
claimed that Musk was acting in contempt for not seeking preapproval of
his tweet. Musk called the SEC’s claim “an unconstitutional power grab”
and an infringement on his First Amendment rights to free speech.39
This case raises both First Amendment issues and public relations
issues, and it illustrates the overlap between the two. The First Amendment
question centers on Musk’s right to tweet freely and the government’s power

Tesla CEO Elon Musk exits federal court after the SEC accused him of violating a settlement deal
that required him to get pre-approval for social media posts about the electric car company.
Why is this a First Amendment issue and a public relations issue?

308 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

to control his communication. As we’ll see later in this chapter, because
Musk is a public figure and because his tweets influence the stock market, he
enjoys less constitutional protection than he would as a private citizen. His
public status as someone communicating to publics on behalf of an organi-
zation makes this a public relations issue as well. Public relations people are
often involved with vetting employee tweets and setting social media policy.
Managing or monitoring CEO communications is often labeled a public rela-
tions function. Can you imagine being asked to manage Elon Musk’s Twitter
activity? How would you balance his right to free speech with the impor-
tance of not unfairly manipulating markets or misleading publics?
You don’t have to work for a billionaire CEO for these issues to be rele-
vant. U.S. District Judge Alison Nathan, who listened to the SEC and Musk
argue their cases, said the rule of law must apply whether you are “a small
potato or a big fish.” She also recommended that the SEC and Musk try to
stay out of court if at all possible. “My call to action is for everyone to take
a deep breath, put your reasonableness pants on and work this out.”40

A key legal concept in the Tesla case is material information, which is

defined as any information that could influence the market value of a com-
pany or its products. If you work in public relations and are involved with IPOs
or the creation or dissemination of financial reports, you will undoubtedly
have access to material information. As a result, public relations executives
must be especially careful not to illegally take advantage of inside informa-
tion for their own financial gain. Known as insider ­trading, this may include
tipping off friends, family or associates so that they benefit illegally from in-
formation that has not yet been made public. The SEC carefully monitors for
cases of illegal insider trading. As an example, the SEC’s web page cites a case
of a public relations executive charged with insider trading on information he
gained while representing a transportation and logistics company:

The SEC alleges that Robert M. Morano, a former employee of UTi World-
wide, Inc., obtained more than $38,000 in illegal profits by purchasing
shares in the company before it and DSV Air & Sea Holdings A/V jointly
announced UTi’s acquisition. According to the SEC’s complaint, Morano,
who was responsible for helping the company publish press releases and Material information
Any information that could influence
other communications, learned confidential details about the planned ac- the market value of a company or
quisition the day before it was publicly announced and immediately bought its products.
approximately 17,500 shares of UTi in three brokerage accounts. The next Insider trading
day, after DSV and UTi’s announcement was made public, UTi’s shares When a company’s employees or
increased over 50% on heavy trading, and Morano sold all of his shares.41 executives buy and sell stock in
their own organization or share
information with others who buy or
Morano was ordered to pay $75,000 as a penalty, which was almost sell before the information has been
twice the amount he profited from the alleged insider trading.42 made public.

Protecting Publics 309

Customer relationship
management (CRM) Privacy
Process of tracking and forecasting
customers’ interactions with an As your level of responsibility grows in an organization, so does your access
organization, often leveraging data to information about internal and external publics. Depending on the type
for sales support.
of organization you work for, you may have access to employee performance
evaluations, student academic records, volunteer contact information and
even photos of your colleagues with their families from their Instagram ac-
counts. In addition to the obvious legal and ethical issues that may arise if
you release negative information about someone, you must be careful even
when your intentions are positive. If you write a biography of an employee
or student who is receiving an award, you should check with that person to
make sure it is accurate and that the person consents to the information
being released. Likewise, if you pull a photo of someone from a social media
account, you’ll want to obtain permission before using that photo on your
company web page.
Externally, customer relationship management (CRM) describes the
process of tracking and forecasting customers’ interactions with an organi-
zation. Ridiculous amounts of data can be collected and analyzed to better
serve customers with personalized experiences that are customized to their
browsing history and preferences. These relationships—facilitated by data
and technology—can be mutually beneficial. Customers gain customized ex-
periences and convenient service. Organizations obtain lots of data to use to
support their business decisions. Think about the organizations that offer
you the most convenient and customized services. Maybe Google? Facebook?
Amazon? Netflix? How about your online news sources or favorite retailers
for shopping? Your school? Your bank? Your hospital? You as a customer (or
student or patient, etc.) put an enormous amount of trust in these organiza-
tions. Public relations people have to be very careful with that trust.
In many cases, the right decisions about privacy of both internal and
external publics can be made with good business sense and careful ethics,
but you must also be aware of the legal rights and responsibilities of people
inside and outside your organization. According to Cornell University Law
School’s Legal Information Institute, there are a “bundle of torts” to watch
out for in privacy cases.43 These torts (acts that can lead to lawsuits) include
intrusion into seclusion, appropriation of likeness or identity, public disclo-
sure of private facts and portrayal in a false light.

Intrusion into Seclusion

Intrusion into seclusion is what most people think of when they hear “inva-
sion of privacy.” It includes trespassing into someone’s private space such as
a home or car, but it also includes electronic surveillance to access online
activity that someone could reasonably expect to be private. Since intrusion
into seclusion must be highly “offensive to a reasonable person” and cause
“mental anguish or suffering,” public relations people are unlikely to en-
counter this type of invasion of privacy in the context of their daily profes-
sional communication.44

310 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

Appropriation of Likeness or Identity
Appropriation of likeness or identity applies in cases in which a person’s
name, picture, or other personal attribute (signature, voice, portrait, etc.) is
used without permission. When the subject is a celebrity, that person can
claim a right to publicity, meaning that you cannot use the person’s like-
ness for commercial purposes.
If you look at the photo credits section at the very back of this text-
book, you’ll see that many of the images we use come from photo agencies
such as Getty Images. We pay a fee for the right to republish high-resolu-
tion photos from Getty Images with assurance that any necessary permis-
sions have been secured for pictures that feature people. MIT Technology
Review also uses Getty Images. So when they published a story about the
hipster effect, “the counterintuitive phenomenon in which people who
oppose mainstream culture all end up looking the same,”45 accompanied by
a Getty stock photo of a generic hipster, they were surprised to receive the
following threat from a reader:

Your lack of basic journalistic ethics in both the manner in which you “re-
ported” this uncredited nonsense, and the slanderous, unnecessary use of
my picture without permission demands a response, and I am, of course,
pursuing legal action.46

MIT Technology Review Editor Gideon Lichfield looked into the issue
and found that Getty Images had indeed cleared permissions for the model

A Getty Images photo originally captioned, “Shot of a handsome young man in trendy winter attire
against a wooden background,” was used in a story about the “hipster effect.”
What are the legal benefits of using reputable stock photo services?

Privacy 311
 in the photo, but that the man who had complained was not the man in the
image. He was apparently just another hipster who looked the same as the
generic hipster in the stock photo! Whatever the lesson is here about hip-
sters, this story also reminds people working in public relations of the risks
of republishing images without permission from the source and anyone
identifiable in the image.

Public Disclosure of Private Facts

You also can find yourself in legal trouble for publishing information that
has not previously been released, if that information is personal and not
deemed to be of legitimate public interest. Examples of private facts include
a person’s health status, sexual orientation or financial situation. In public
relations, you may want to celebrate your organization’s diversity, publicly
Even with the best congratulate an employee on expecting twins or encourage retirement sav-
intentions, obtain ings by highlighting the financial success of one of your organization’s re-
consent before tirees. However, even with the best intentions, you must be careful to
publicizing anyone obtain consent before publicizing anyone’s private facts. Any of these situ-
on social media. ations could be seen as public disclosure of private information.

Portrayal in a False Light

Portrayal in a false light occurs when someone spreads wrong information
about a person that reasonably can be considered offensive or objectiona-
ble. False light overlaps with defamation, but a key difference is that plain-
tiffs claiming false light can seek damages for emotional harm caused.47 A
Southwest Airlines gate agent sued a customer for social media complaints
that the agent felt cast her in a false light. The customer, Natalie Grant-
Herms, ranted heartily on Twitter and Facebook when not allowed to board
a flight at the same time as her young children:

Nashville. Gate A25. Flight to Denver. Her name is Jennifer. She said “get
over it. Follow the rules. Or don’t fly.”

She has done this to me before. She has the WORST customer service …

Southwest’s customer service staff apparently defused the situation as

indicated in later tweets by Grant-Herms:

Well, we’ve caused quite a stir, tweeps. @southwestair just called me.
I appreciate their concern & prompt attention 2 the problem.
I’ve got wifi on my flight. I’m impressed with how quickly @southwestair
responded to my complaint. I’ll keep u posted as to what they do.48

However, the gate agent, Jennifer Patterson, was not appeased, and she
sued Grant-Herms. Patterson lost her case in a lower court but appealed.
While the appeals court agreed with the lower court that Patterson did not

312 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

have a case for defamation, it concluded that Patterson did have a case for
false light invasion of privacy:

We believe that a reasonable person could find, under the entire circum-
stances of the incident, that Ms. Grant-Herms’ posting of selective facts
placed Ms. Patterson in a false light by implying that Ms. Patterson was
rude and a bad service agent, one who was more concerned with adher-
ence to the airline rules and procedures than the welfare of the child, and
that these implications caused injury to her.49

Voices from the Field

Cayce Myers

CAYCE MYERS is an associate professor in the De- it is important for practitioners to think globally
partment of Communication at Virginia Tech where when they produce content of any kind.
he teaches public relations. His research focuses on
laws and regulations affecting public relations prac- What’s one of the most common legal
tice. Dr. Myers holds a Ph.D. in mass communication ­mistakes new public relations practitioners
from the University of Georgia, Henry W. Grady tend to make?
­College of Journalism and Mass Communication, an We live in a society where social media and mobile
LL.M. from the University of Georgia School of Law, technology are everywhere. New public relations
and a J.D. from Mercer University Walter F. George practitioners may not realize that sharing, posting
School of Law. He is also the legal research editor and messaging can have legal consequences. For
for the Institute for Public Relations. example, using intellectual property of another for
promotional purposes without permission can lead
Justice Stephen Breyer has written about how to expensive and unnecessary lawsuits. In addition,
new “global realities” are changing the way because tweets, posts and sharing can be done in
we approach law and that our “judicial a matter of seconds, there is a misperception that
awareness” must extend beyond borders this content is not really important. However, words,
more than ever before. What does that mean no matter how few or seemingly unimportant, can
for public relations? be the basis for a lawsuit.
Public relations practice is increasingly international,
and large companies and PR firms usually have of- How about senior public relations
fices spanning the globe. Because of this, practitio- ­professionals—what legal pitfalls should
ners need to be aware that their work may be they watch out for?
subject to other countries’ laws. In the United States The biggest issue for senior practitioners is keeping
there are specific protections given to corporate current on new laws affecting public relations. Well-
speech, commercial speech, intellectual property and established legal doctrines, such as defamation,
privacy that are not found outside the United States. copyright, trademark and trade secrets are now
Given the diversity of laws that affect public relations being applied to new media. While this does not

Privacy 313
 necessarily represent a change in core legal tenets, pre-approval from managers before posting about
new applications of the law may not be obvious to workplace grievances. However, straightforward,
seasoned practitioners. There are also major well-written policies can survive legal scrutiny. For
changes in agency regulations of new media. These instance, employers can prohibit employees from
changes represent only the beginning of what is sure engaging in harassment, disclosure of trade secrets,
to become a major recalibration of older laws and or posting their intellectual property. The bottom line
regulations to fit the contours of new media. is organizations can regulate social media speech in
limited circumstances, but employees do not forfeit
The rise of social media has led to a big in- their speech rights because they work for a specific
crease in sharing others’ information. It also organization.
has provided more space for public relations
people to communicate less formally with Public relations people and lawyers—at times
publics. Will legal concerns eventually put a they’ve had a rocky relationship. How are
damper on these trends? they doing these days? Are they getting
There is recognition that social media platforms have along any better (or worse) than they used
power, and some entities have attempted to restrict to?
access and use. However, as recent decisions by the There will probably always be some level of dis-
National Labor Relations Board show, organizations agreement between lawyers and public relations
will have a difficult time restricting use of social people because each profession has a different per-
media by employees, though content regulation has spective. Lawyers are trained to be risk-averse and
increased for promotional material. In effect, these sometimes have to deny allegations or risk further
new laws mandate greater amounts of authenticity, legal exposure. Communication of any kind, even if it
transparency and honesty—all of which should be is good PR, can also become evidence that is used
embraced by PR practitioners. against an organization at trial. Conversely, public
relations practitioners are communicators. They value
In writing social media policies, can organiza- transparency, honesty and fostering relationships
tions really limit what employees say or re- with key publics. Practitioners recognize that winning
quire them to obtain approval before in the court of public opinion can be as important, if
posting? not more important, than winning in a court of law.
Like many things in law the answer to this depends Because of these perspectives there is a natural ten-
on the circumstances. If a social media account is sion between lawyers and PR practitioners. However,
owned by the organization then limits can be set on some of the best PR and legal strategy comes when
what can be posted. However, regulation of private practitioners and lawyers work together. The truth is
accounts of employees is very restrained. The Na- that PR practitioners and lawyers need each other to
tional Labor Relations Board has struck down social best serve the needs of their clients.
media policies that require employees to get

Ethics: Safeguarding Confidences—

Who Owns Your Social Networks?
At this point in your life, you have probably heard the saying that just be-
cause something is legal doesn’t make it ethical. As a public relations pro-
fessional, privacy is one area in which you may need more than a legal
interpretation to make ethical decisions. Safeguarding confidences is a core
principle in the PRSA Code of Ethics, which states, “Client trust requires
appropriate protection of confidential and private information.”50 The

314 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

A LinkedIn network could be considered one of an organization’s “trade secrets.”
How can public relations professionals ethically balance personal and professional uses of
social networks?

principle applies not just to clients but also to the privacy rights of other
individuals internal to and external to your organization.
In business law, a trade secret is information that is not generally
known to others and not readily available to others who could profit from
its disclosure or use.51 As much as public relations ethics focus on disclosure
and public information, these values of openness must be balanced with
other values including competition and privacy. Trade secrets may include
recipes, business processes, research methods, or the formula for a product
like WD-40 (named for its “water displacement” function discovered by the
chemist who developed it on his 40th try52). How about your social network
on Facebook or LinkedIn? Would you ever consider that a trade secret? And
if so, do you think that information could be owned by anyone besides you?
According to some courts, yes, social media accounts can be considered
trade secrets when those accounts contain client lists or valuable informa-
tion about customers. Professor Cayce Myers serves as research editor for
the Institute for Public Relations (IPR) in the area of public relations law.
Myers believes that because some accounts on social media contain abun-
dant information about clients and customers, they could conceivably be
considered “trade secrets.” Myers writes, “If an employee can take these
connections with them to a new job or startup they have a competitive ad-
vantage to steal valuable clients from their old employer.”53 Myers advises
that public relations people keep personal and professional social media Trade secret
accounts separate as much as possible. Business information that is not
So, legally, organizations can claim ownership of an employee’s social generally known to the public and
not readily available to others who
media accounts in certain circumstances. But many organizations encour- could profit from its disclosure or
age employees to use their own voices and networks in opening and use.

Ethics: Safeguarding Confidences—Who Owns Your Social Networks? 315

 maintaining dialogue with publics, including clients and customers. The
first chapter of this book cited Arthur Page’s principles of public relations
management to advocate for allowing employees to speak with their own
authentic voices and to follow Page’s principle that a “company’s true char-
acter is expressed by its people.”54 Is it ethical for organizations to encour-
age employees to work their networks on social media but then to turn
around and claim corporate ownership of those networks and relation-
ships? Is it right to treat someone’s social interactions as “trade secrets” in
the name of safeguarding confidences?
Myers offers advice that makes sense from both a legal and ethical
standpoint: Make sure to clarify expectations. If organizations offer em-
ployees reasonable social media policies including details of who owns what
accounts, misunderstandings can be avoided. Employees will know which
social media interactions are “private” as in personally private and which
are “private” as in organizationally owned “trade secrets.”

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI

Social media have been called the • When you share someone else’s intellectual
Wild West of the internet, a place property without permission or proper attribu-
tion, you run the risk of legal trouble.
where participants make up the rules
• The key to avoiding plagiarism is proper attribu-
as they go. While it is true that tech-
tion. Give credit where credit is due!
nology often advances faster than the
• Balance participation with respect for intellec-
law, these legal principles still apply. tual property; use caution when posting any-
thing that may be seen as offensive or illegal.
• Obtain permission (or seek legal counsel) before • When in doubt about your ownership rights of
publicly discussing private information about social media content, check the provider’s terms
any current or past employee. of service.
• If you work for a public figure, the standard for • Even with the best intentions, obtain consent
claiming libel is much higher than if you repre- before publicizing anyone on social media.
sent a private citizen.

SUMMARY
11.1 Discuss the importance of understanding ideas more than ever before. Trends in globali-
national laws in international contexts. zation have led to a great deal more interna-
The internet has opened borders for online tional exchange, and this means that the laws
marketplaces to offer goods, services and of any one country such as the United States

316 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

 must be interpreted in a more global context. some exceptions, most information that the
As Justice Stephen Breyer put it, “Judicial government collects and uses in the United
awareness can no longer stop at the border.” States is treated as public information and must
either be offered when requested or proactively
11.2 Apply principles of free speech and the
made available in a useful format. Interactive
First Amendment to the practice of public
online technologies have facilitated the latter.
relations.
Working with the press and communicating on 11.6 Identify key federal agencies responsible
behalf of an organization requires understand- for regulating communication to protect
ing your role in the marketplace of ideas that publics.
the First Amendment serves to protect. Key Depending on your area of public relations,
legal concepts for public relations profession- you will need to become familiar with various
als include rights to reputation, intellectual government agencies that are responsible for
property, financial interests and privacy. protecting your key publics. The FTC regulates
all types of consumer products and services,
11.3 Describe limits to free speech, including
including the promotion of these products and
libel and slander as forms of defamation.
services. The FDA regulates food- and health-
Rights to free speech may be limited when they
related industries. The SEC regulates financial
infringe on others’ rights or someone else’s rep-
information.
utation, intellectual property, financial interests
or privacy. Slander and libel are both forms of 11.7 Identify legal concerns related to privacy
defamation, which is any statement that injures in public relations.
someone’s reputation. Slander refers to spoken Handling privacy in public relations requires
communication, while libel refers to written or awareness of the legal rights and responsibili-
recorded communication that can be repro- ties of people inside and outside of your or-
duced and shared repeatedly. ganization. Legal areas to consider include
intrusion into seclusion, appropriation of like-
11.4 Identify common types of intellectual
ness or identity, public disclosure of private
property and how they are protected.
facts and portrayal in a false light.
Intellectual property includes writing, inven-
tions, logos, images or designs, and all sorts 11.8 Discuss the ethical balance between safe-
of combinations thereof. These forms of intel- guarding organizational confidences and
lectual property can be claimed and protected respecting the privacy of individual social
with copyrights, registered trademarks and media accounts.
patents. Creative Commons licenses allow Safeguarding confidences is a core principle in
content creators to designate the specific the PRSA Code of Ethics. The principle applies
types of permissions they wish to allow. not just to organizations and clients but also
to the privacy rights of individuals internal to
11.5 Summarize the role of public relations
and external to an organization. Competing
professionals in providing public
values in privacy cases mean that public rela-
information.
tions people have to consider both law and
Public relations people who work for publicly
ethics. Clarifying expectations about what in-
funded or government organizations in the
formation is considered proprietary to an or-
United States are responsible for making infor-
ganization and what information is private to
mation available to citizens under the Freedom
individuals will help avoid both ethical and
of Information Act and various open-records
legal problems.
laws (i.e., sunshine laws). Although there are

SUMMARY 317
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What types of organizations have access to your Creative Commons license you would apply (see
personally identifiable information? Are you https://creativecommons.org/choose/) and explain
comfortable knowing that these organizations why you chose that particular type of license.
may share your data across national borders? 5. Would you support a tax increase to hire more
How do international laws help? public affairs people and develop better technol-
2. Search for a U.S. Supreme Court case involving a ogy to make government information more avail-
public relations practitioner (e.g., someone advo- able than it currently is? Why or why not?
cating for an issue on behalf of an organization 6. What’s your dream job in public relations?
or someone serving as a corporate spokesper- Assume you get the job. Name at least one reg-
son). Useful websites include https://www ulatory agency you would need to know more
.freedomforuminstitute.org/first-amendment about and why. (If your answer is “none,” ex-
-center/supreme-court-cases/ and https://www plain why your work would not be regulated by
.uscourts.gov/about-federal-courts/educational any agency.)
-resources/educational-activities/first-amendment
-activities. Summarize what the Court’s ruling 7. CASE STUDY Whose speech is more legally
means for future public relations practitioners. regulated—yours or Elon Musk’s? Why? What
What limit to free speech was set or reinforced? other powerful or influential individuals might
face increased legal scrutiny for their social
3. CASE STUDY Amazon spokesman Jay Carney media tweets, and why?
responded to a New York Times article that was
critical of Amazon’s treatment of employees by 8. Discuss a scenario in which a well-meaning public
disputing the claims on Medium.com. In the relations professional who intends to communi-
piece, Carney also aired “dirty laundry” about a cate something positive about an employee could
former employee who had served as a source get into legal trouble for violating that person’s
for the Times story. Why was he able to do so privacy. How could the situation be avoided?
without getting sued? What were the risks and 9. Assume you’ve landed your dream job in public
benefits in the court of public opinion? relations. But your new employer requires you
4. Identify a piece of your own intellectual property to sign an agreement that any social media ac-
that you would consider publishing online (per- counts you use for any tasks related to your job
haps a photo, term paper, blog entry, infographic, may be accessed by the company. How would
song or artwork). Select a specific type of you handle the situation?

KEY TERMS
Actual malice 295 Federal Trade Commission (FTC) 306 Patent 296
Clear and present danger 291 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 305 Plagiarism 296
Copyright 296 Framing 303 Privacy 290
Copyright infringement 297 Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) 304 Public figure 295
Creative Commons 302 Hyperlink 303 Securities and Exchange
Customer relationship management Initial public offering (IPO) 306 Commission (SEC) 306
(CRM) 310 Insider trading 309 Slander 294
Deep link 303 Intellectual property 289 Sunshine law 304
Defamation 294 Libel 294 Trade secret 315
Fair use 298 Material information 309 Trademark 296

318 CHAPTER 11   |   LEGAL

 C HAP TE R 12

Issues and Crises

Facebook ended up in the hot seat in front of Congress.

How did they respond?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

12.1 Analyze responses rang- 12.3 Describe how issues 12.6 Discuss how traditional
ing from advocacy to accom- management can prevent or media, social media and offline
modation in public relations lessen the impact of crises. word of mouth interact in the
conflict cases. spread of crisis information.
12.4 Identify public relations
12.2 Identify stages in the crisis types. 12.7 Assess competing values
issues life cycle. in ethical conflicts of interest
12.5 Define crisis response
in the context of public rela-
strategies.
tions issues and crises.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 3.1 ISSUES AND RISK MANAGEMENT • 3.2 CRISIS MANAGEMENT
3.3 COUNSEL TO MANAGEMENT • 5.4 PROBLEM SOLVING AND DECISION-MAKING
 M
uch of this book so far has been about how to conduct public rela-
tions as part of a management function that helps organizations
meet goals and avert crises. However, even the very best public re-
lations professionals working for the most responsible organizations face
issues and crises. Some crises, such as natural disasters, are unavoidable,
while other crises are not. One of the toughest jobs in public relations is
being called on to help organizations navigate crises they created them-
selves. Before delving into ways organizations respond to crises, this chap-
ter covers how issues evolve and how issues may be identified and managed
proactively to minimize the need for crisis management.

Managing Conflict
“My god they’re throwing guitars out there!” Though not quite as legendary
as Paul Revere’s “The redcoats are coming!” this exclamation from a pas-
senger in the window seat of a United Airlines airplane started a bit of a
revolution. Baggage handlers at Chicago’s O’Hare International Airport
had picked the wrong guy’s guitar to toss around. The result was a flash-
point case illustrating the power of individuals to confront large, powerful
organizations on social media.
After hearing the startling observation from the back of a plane, Dave
Carroll and fellow band members of Sons of Maxwell looked out to see that,
indeed, their instruments were being heaved carelessly by United Airlines
luggage handlers. Concerned about his $3,500 Taylor guitar, Carroll imme-
diately brought the issue to the attention of a flight attendant. The flight
attendant referred him to a “lead agent” in the terminal who said he needed
to talk to another lead agent and dismissed his request before she disap-
peared into a crowd. Carroll then spoke to a third employee, who referred
him to a fourth at his next airport.1 This all-too-familiar story line of poor
customer service goes on and on. Carroll’s guitar was smashed, and for nine
months he tried and failed to reach an acceptable resolution with the
airline.
The narrative was so ridiculous it was almost funny, and so Carroll de-
cided to tap into that sentiment with the YouTube music video “United
Breaks Guitars.” The video featured a catchy tune and clever lyrics describ-
ing the whole experience, and it struck a chord with millions of frustrated
passengers. In fact, the video went viral. Nineteen million views later,
­Carroll’s bio describes him not only as a singer-songwriter but also as a
Musician Dave Carroll became master storyteller, professional speaker and social media innovator.
famous for launching a musical On the other side of the story, United Airlines saw its market value
protest on social media with his drop $180 million in the four days after Carroll’s video was uploaded to
YouTube hit “United Breaks
Guitars.”
YouTube. While a claim that Carroll’s social media attack was the main
reason for the financial loss would be hard to prove, the damage to the air-
How do social media change the
way organizations and customer line’s reputation was “undeniable” according to a Huffington Post business
publics interact in conflict? report.2

320 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 Like United Airlines, New York–based fashion powerhouse DKNY also
had to come to terms with the power of individual influence on social
media. The DKNY case started when Brandon Stanton, a photographer
known for his Humans of New York photography project, declined an offer
of $50 per photo from DKNY to display his work in their stores. Then, when
Stanton found out that DKNY had gone ahead and displayed his photos in
a store window in Bangkok without his permission, he posted the following
on his Facebook page: “I don’t want any money. But please REBLOG this
post if you think that DKNY should donate $100,000 on my behalf to the
YMCA in Bedford-Stuyvesant, Brooklyn.”3
Recognizing that it was facing both a legal and a public relations issue,
DKNY responded with the following statement: “DKNY has always sup- Respond quickly and
ported the arts and we deeply regret this mistake. Accordingly, we are
making a charitable donation of $25,000 to the YMCA in Bedford-­
appropriately
Stuyvesant Brooklyn in Mr. Stanton’s name.”
to challenges on
Stanton accepted the apology: “We are going to take them at their word social media to
that it was a mistake, and be happy that this one had a happy ending.” Even prevent issues from
legal issues can be raised—and settled—on social media. becoming crises.

DKNY displayed a New York photographer’s work in this storefront window in Bangkok without his
permission. The photographer called DKNY out on Facebook.
Did DKNY handle the situation well by apologizing and donating $25,000 to a charity?
Why or why not?

Managing Conflict 321

Contingency theory Dave Carroll versus United Airlines, Brandon Stanton versus DKNY—
A theory that proposes that the
best course of action in any situa-
both cases present conflicts that played out on social media and, therefore,
tion depends on the specifics of the played out in the public eye. Managing conflict, especially public conflict, is
situation. a major function of public relations. Public relations scholars have studied
Pure advocacy how public relations people in all sorts of organizations (not just big corpo-
Stance in issues management in rations like airlines and fashion companies) make decisions on how to com-
which a public relations practitioner municate with publics when two-way relationships become contentious.
firmly pleads an organization’s case
without compromise.
To help understand this decision process, University of Missouri Profes-
sor Glen Cameron and his colleagues developed a contingency theory of con-
Pure accommodation flict in public relations.4 A contingency theory suggests that the best course
Stance in issues management in
which a public relations practitioner of action in any situation depends on the specifics of the situation. In con-
fully concedes to a public’s flict, the action or communication tactic that a public relations person
demands. chooses depends on factors internal and external to the organization. Inter-
nal factors may include an organization’s size, structure and culture, as well
as the autonomy of a public relations department within an organization and
the level of practitioner experience. External factors may include the threat
of litigation, business competition, political support, and the size and power
of publics. Contingency theory also describes response options ranging from
pure advocacy (firmly pleading the organization’s case without compromise)
on one side to pure accommodation (completely conceding to a public’s de-
mands) on the other side (Figure 12.1). In many cases, social media have
given publics greater power relative to organizations. But that doesn’t mean
public relations people have to always accommodate publics, nor do they
always have to go to battle and advocate hard on one side of an issue.
United Airlines and DKNY had to consider very different contingen-
cies. If you have ever actually read all the fine print in an airline passenger
contract, you’d probably not be surprised to learn that United Airlines did
not have to reimburse Carroll. In contrast, DKNY faced a legitimate legal
challenge based on Stanton’s claim to intellectual property. United Airlines
customer service agents had no reason to believe that Carroll would find an
audience of millions for his complaint. DKNY likely realized that Stanton
already had quite a following on Facebook and other social media.
The two organizations also offered very different levels of accommoda-
tion. United Airlines pretty much refused to accommodate Dave Carroll,
while DKNY accommodated Brandon Stanton by apologizing and offering a

Pure Pure
Advocacy Accommodation

Figure 12.1  Continuum of options for managing issues and conflict, according to contingency
theory.

322 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

$25,000 charity donation. Although the case had a happier ending for Sometimes it’s
DKNY than it did for United Airlines, this doesn’t mean that more accom- better to advocate
modation is always better. In fact, that’s the point of contingency theory.
Sometimes you should advocate, and other times it makes more sense to
than to
accommodate.
accommodate.

Case Study
Is the Customer Always Right? … A Big Win
for Little Italy
Contingency theory reminds us that firm edicts, such as “The customer is
always right,” are sometimes just too simple. When an angry customer
called Little Italy Restaurante in Anchorage, Alaska, to complain about a Remember, the
delivery driver, owner P. J. Gialopsos advocated for her employee rather customer may not
than accommodating the customer.5 always be right.
The driver, who has a speech impediment and autism, delivered the
wrong order, leading the customer to complain irately, use foul language
and accuse the driver of being on drugs. When the driver returned to the
restaurant, he was visibly upset and reported that the customer had called
him names and belittled him. Instead of apologizing and accommodating
the customer, Gialopsos opted to “fire” the customer. She told her staff to
refuse calls and to not deliver to the customer’s address.
Gialopsos said later in an interview that this wasn’t the first time a
customer had called about the driver, but that normally when she explained
the situation, customers were understanding. Acknowledging the driver’s
disability, she described him as a hard worker and successful university
­student with a good sense of humor. “So (the driver) is a little awkward
­socially—gee whiz—that doesn’t give you a right to call him a foul name
and make his day miserable,” said Gialopsos. A few days after the incident,
she posted about it on Facebook. The post went viral. Within two days, the
post had 14,000 likes and more than 15,000 comments. Gialopsos, the
driver and the driver’s family were delighted with the overwhelmingly posi-
tive feedback. For example, a Facebook post from Judy Berry read:

So proud of Anchorage’s own Little Italy Restaurante & its owner P. J.

Gialopsos for standing up for her employee. How refreshing to see her Little Italy Restaurante owner P. J.
stance that perhaps “the customer isn’t always right” when they berate an Gialopsos chose to advocate for
employee with development disabilities. Thank you also to Little Italy for her employee instead of accommo-
dating an unhappy customer.
shining a spotlight on Autism & for hiring people whom others may not!6
What contingencies (i.e., internal
and external factors) made her
Interestingly, Gialopsos said she did not notice any substantial increase approach to the conflict right or
in business immediately following the incident.7 Was the Facebook love wrong?

Managing Conflict 323

 enough to consider this case a public relations “win”? Was advocacy the right
strategy here given the circumstances? In deciding to advocate for her em-
ployee instead of accommodating the customer, many internal and external
contingencies were at play. How do the contingencies in this case compare to
what the public relations staff of large, complex organizations like United
Airlines or British Airways face when they receive a customer complaint?

You will probably never see a YouTube video of an airline passenger

singing about his luggage that arrived undamaged or a viral Facebook cam-
paign celebrating a company for attaining proper permissions for artwork.
Most small business owners won’t get 15,000 hits and national media at-
tention for sticking up for their employees. In fact, the vast majority of
issues will not rise to the level of a major public issue or crisis. It’s also im-
portant to remember that customers are only one type of public with which
we maintain relationships. Perhaps the best public relations “crises” are the
ones that never happen, meaning that full-blown crises are averted with
effective communication and issues management—not just with custom-
ers, but with all publics.

Managing Issues
Organizations face all sorts of issues that can develop into crises, if they are
not managed appropriately. Issues management is an area of public rela-
tions that focuses on proactive monitoring and management to prevent
crises from happening.8
In order to manage issues, you must first be able to identify them. The
earlier you uncover an issue, the more options you will likely have for deal-
ing with a situation. Issues management scholars have outlined several
stages in the issue life cycle:

1. Early/potential: when a few people begin to become aware of pos-

sible problems
Monitor social
media to uncover 2. Emerging: when more people begin to notice and express concern
issues sooner and 3. Current/crisis: when the negative impact on an organization be-
give you more comes public and pressure on the organization builds
options for dealing 4. Dormant: when the organization has no choice but to accept the
with a situation. long-term consequences

Issues management
The longer an issue exists without being addressed, the more en-
Systematic process whereby organi-
zations work to identify and resolve trenched publics become in their opposition and the fewer options for stra-
issues before they become crises. tegic response are available to organizations (Figure 12.2).9

324 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 ISSUE LIFE CYCLE

Early / Current / Dormant

Emerging
Potential Crisis

—More options —Fewer options —Externally

to respond for response imposed
and control and control constraints
situation

—Increasing media
Public pressure

attention and
public awareness

Time

Figure 12.2  This illustration of the issue life cycle shows how public pressure builds over time
as an issue moves from potential to emerging to current/crisis.

Case Study
The Issue Life Cycle of Volkswagen’s
“Dieselgate”
Volkswagen’s diesel emissions scandal, dubbed “dieselgate” by some and
“the diesel dupe” by others, provides an example of how an issue can grow
into a full-blown crisis with major consequences.

EARLY/POTENTIAL
At the earliest stages, issues are often identified first by experts or special-
ists who pay close attention to small changes in the internal or external
environments of organizations. When these experts or specialists perceive
a potential problem and people within an organization begin planning to
respond in some way, the issue has entered the early/potential stage.
In 2012, Arvind Thiruvengadam, an assistant professor at West ­Virginia
University, and a few of his colleagues won a grant from the International
Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) to test the environmental

Managing Issues 325

 friendliness and fuel efficiency of diesel cars. As part of their research,
Thiruvengadam and his team ran emissions tests on a 2012 Volkswagen
Jetta and a 2013 VW Passat. In the decade prior, Volkswagen’s marketing
message had emphasized “clean diesel.”10 Therefore, Thiruvengadam and
his team expected to find that these two VW models, which were designed
for sale in the United States, would run cleaner than cars sold in other
countries with more lax emission standards. Instead, the researchers were
surprised to find that the two VWs emitted significantly higher levels of
pollutants.
In May 2014, the ICCT alerted the Environmental Protection Agency
(EPA) and the California Air Resources board about the unexpected find-
ings. At this point, Volkswagen had a potential issue. In fact, it was later
revealed that people inside the company had known about the emission
problem since 2005, so the early/potential stage for this issue lasted nearly
ten years. Corporate culture likely played a big role in the case. In exploring
the role of Volkswagen’s management in the circumstances leading to the
crisis, The New York Times described the company’s corporate culture as
“confident, cutthroat and insular.”11

EMERGING
In the emerging stage, groups begin to form and take sides on an issue. In
their book Risk Issues and Crisis Management in Public Relations, Michael
Regester and Judy Larkin describe the emerging phase as a time when
industry insiders, specialist media, professional interest groups, activist
organizations or any other publics with direct interest, begin to notice
and to voice concerns or opinions.12 Media attention may be sporadic
in  this stage, but if public relations people are monitoring the media,
­including specialty media like blogs and trade publications, they still
may have an opportunity to intervene and begin to formulate plans for
action. As mentioned previously, the more an issue develops, the fewer
available options there are for proactive management both internally
and externally.
There was very little media attention for several months after the fuel
efficiency researchers published their results. Volkswagen denied there was
a problem and offered other explanations for why results from the road
tests did not meet the expected standards.13 Meanwhile, regulators contin-
ued to investigate. The issue was emerging.

CURRENT/CRISIS
In the current/crisis stage, the issue matures, and pressure builds as the
impact of the issue on the organization becomes clear. Public relations
people have very little control of the situation at this stage. Strategy op-
tions become mainly reactive. According to Regester and Larkin, issues
become enduring and pervasive in the current stage. They increase in inten-
sity. In September 2015, the EPA publicly accused VW of using “defeat de-
vices” hidden in its diesel cars that manipulated the results of emissions

326 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 tests. Basically, the devices were software designed to detect when cars
were undergoing an emissions test and then improve performance accord-
ingly.14 Volkswagen had been caught cheating.
On September 21, 2015, Volkswagen Group of America’s chief execu-
tive Michael Horn had to use what should have been an occasion to
­celebrate—the company’s launch event for its 2016 Passat—to issue an
apology instead. “Our company was dishonest, with the EPA and the
­California Air Resources board, and with all of you, and in my German
words, we have totally screwed up,” Horn told the Brooklyn, New York, au-
dience. “We have to make things right, with the government, the public, “We have totally screwed up,” an-
nounced Volkswagen Group of
our customers, our employees and also very important, our dealers.” America’s chief executive Michael
­Volkswagen was in a crisis that had spun well beyond its control. Horn in September 2015.
Consider for a moment how you would feel if you owned one of the If you were an owner of one of
approximately 10,000 affected cars in the United States sold by V ­ olkswagen the cars affected in “diesel
(e.g., VWs, Audis or Porsches). You’ve chosen to invest in what you believe dupe,” what could Volkswagen
have done “to make things
to be smart, environmentally friendly technology, only to learn that your right”?
now highly devalued car emits “up to nine times the legal limit of smog-
produced nitrogen oxide pollutants.”15 Is it safe to say you’d be, um,
peeved?
Now think of how dealers and employees felt, not to mention the
governments and regulators who were deliberately deceived. When an
organization has damaged relationships like this with so many key pub-
lics, it is clearly in crisis mode. In Volkswagen’s case, all they could do at
this point was react to a series of painful consequences as they unfolded
for years:

• The company admitted that 11 million of its diesel cars had been “rigged
to fool emissions tests,” going back to 2005 when it began focusing major
marketing efforts on selling diesel cars in the United States.16
• Volkswagen chief executive Martin Winterkorn resigned on September
23, 2015.
• By September 25, 2015, Volkswagen stock had plummeted more than
50 percent below its 52-week high in March 2015.17
• The value of used VW and Audi diesels fell more than 13 percent in the
month following the EPA announcement.18
• By late October 2015, more than 350 U.S. lawsuits against Volkswagen
had been filed, and legal experts expected many of those suits to be con-
solidated into mass class action suits. Volkswagen reportedly had set
aside $7.3 billion to prepare for the fallout from the crisis, no doubt in-
cluding the millions of vehicle recalls.19
• At the end of 2015, Hans-Dieter Pötsch, chairman of Volkswagen’s su-
pervisory board, said in a press conference that an organizational cli-
mate of poor ethical standards was partly to blame, and “there was a
tolerance for breaking the rules.”20

Managing Issues 327

 • By 2018, Fortune estimated that the
total cost of the crisis had reached $25
billion in the United States, including
compensation to consumers, criminal
fines and legal penalties.21

DORMANT
According to Regester and Larkin, an
issue reaches the dormant stage when an
organization comes to terms with the
consequences.22 This does not mean,
however, that the issue is over and gone.
Rather, this means that the organization
has had to accept, and live with, the con-
Following its diesel crisis, Volkswa- sequences of its actions (or inaction).
gen became the target of the bran- Even as of this writing, the consequences continue to mount for Volkswa-
dalism movement (e.g., www. gen. In 2019, German prosecutors fined Porsche, a unit of Volkswagen,
brandalism.org.uk) as part of a
protest campaign tied to interna- nearly $600 million (€535 million) “as punishment for lapses in supervi-
tional climate change talks. sory duties which allowed the company to cheat diesel emissions tests”23
How could Volkswagen have and in the United States, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)
­responded (if at all)? sued the company, claiming that “Volkswagen made false and misleading
statements to investors and underwriters about vehicle quality, environ-
mental compliance, and VW’s ­fi nancial standing” as it raised more than
$13 billion from investors.24,25

Proactive Issues Management

Now that we’ve seen how organizations can get into trouble, let’s look at
how they can work to prevent issues from turning into crises. Regester and
Larkin have outlined a seven-step process for proactive issues manage-
ment: (1) monitoring, (2) identification, (3) prioritization, (4) analysis,
(5) strategic planning, (6) implementation and (7) evaluation.26 Notice how
these seven steps run parallel to the four-step RPIE process presented
­earlier in this text (Table 12.1).

1. Monitoring
The first step to avoiding crises is to continuously monitor your organiza-
tion’s internal and external operating environments. What is being said
about your organization offline, on social media and in traditional media?
Listen carefully at meetings and events, systematically pay attention to in-
ternal and external communications, formally and informally analyze

328 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 TABLE 12.1   OVERLAP BETWEEN RPIE AND PROACTIVE ISSUES MANAGEMENT

FOUR-STEP PROCESS FOR SEVEN-STEP PROCESS FOR

PUBLIC RELATIONS (RPIE) PROACTIVE ISSUES MANAGEMENT

RESEARCH Monitoring
Identification

PLANNING Prioritization
Analysis
Strategic Planning

IMPLEMENTATION Implementation

EVALUATION Evaluation

media content (including social media) and keep lines of communication It’s just as
open with opinion leaders. Remember that it is just as important to listen important to listen
to your organization’s detractors as it is to listen to supporters. The meth-
ods for research outlined in Chapter 5—primary and secondary, quantita-
to detractors as it
tive and qualitative, formal and informal—are all ways to monitor the
is to listen to
environment. Your goal is to find any early, potential or emerging issues supporters.
and turn them into opportunities instead of crises.
One example of systematic monitoring is the practice of responsible
supply chain management, which occurs when organizations carefully
monitor all stages of production and distribution to ensure that working
conditions are safe, wages are fair and that generally high ethical standards
of social and environmental responsibility are maintained. This helps orga-
nizations avoid public relations crises of the type Nike and Gap faced in the
1990s and 2000s when news broke that their supply chains included child
labor and sweatshops.27

2. Identification
Once you notice an issue, you’ll need to be able to describe it and deter-
mine if it is something significant or just a random blip on the radar.
Think about financial data. Company stock values rise and fall every day,
but that does not mean that every time a company’s stock value falls that
the organization faces a crisis. Instead, analysts watch data over time Responsible supply chain
and in a broader context to identify trends. Is the daily dip in stock prices management
part of a larger pattern? Are there other factors in the environment such Careful monitoring of product pro-
as legal challenges, competitor activity, potential boycotts or broader po- duction and distribution to ensure
that generally high ethical standards
litical and economic changes that suggest a trend that needs further of social and environmental respon-
attention? sibility are maintained.

Proactive Issues Management 329

 producebunny Follow In a PRSA Open Forum online discussion about a
@producebunny
neighborhood social networking service called Next-
#Chipotle should pay more attention to food door, PRSA member Michael Grimaldi, who works for
safety than hyping anti-GMOs. Foodborne KC Water (the public water utility serving Kansas City,
pathogens are deadlier than GMOs Mo.), described how he uses the Nextdoor app to iden-
tify issues.

If I see several comments about a specific topic—either

in responses to our agency posts or in conversations I
can see within my neighborhood or adjoining neighbor-
hoods—I might put that topic on our list of topics to
address in our own outreach. In my case recently, Next-
door neighbors had issues with water meters. As a
result, we published an item in our customer newsletter,
inserted with all bills, about how water meters work. I
figure if five or 10 people are talking about something on
social media there probably are a couple hundred or even
thousand other people who are not on social media but
who have the same issues or questions.28

You have to assess the environment and look for

4:37 PM - 10 Nov 2015
patterns. In a student organization, you might pay close
attention to meeting attendance numbers or data on
This Twitter user faulted Chipotle new applications to identify issues with membership. A
for not prioritizing its issues well.
nonprofit might compare year-end or holiday donations from year to year
How should Chipotle balance its in the context of trends in competition.
attention to the two issues of
GMOs and food-borne illnesses?
3. Prioritization
Most organizations have issues. A big part of the management in issues man-
agement is deciding which issues require resources and when. Prioritizing
issues means weighing the potential scope and impact of each. When inves-
tigating an active E. coli outbreak in the United States, the Centers for Dis-
ease Control and Prevention (CDC) released a report that linked 53 illnesses
in nine states with 47 people who said they had eaten at a Chipotle restau-
rant. Twenty people were hospitalized.29 Chipotle was then criticized by
some for paying more attention to GMO issues (see Chapter 7) than the
more immediate issue of restaurant food-safety procedures.

4. Analysis
Once issues have been identified and prioritized, they need to be analyzed
to determine how they might affect the organization and its publics. Chi-
potle expected that same-store sales would fall 8–11 percent in the quarter
following the E. coli outbreak.30 Of course, issues management, and public
relations in general, is about much more than sales. Analysis should include
all sorts of publics besides customers. How, specifically, will employees
be affected? Will they have to work longer hours? Earn less pay? Will they

330 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

face public criticism? If you work for a nonprofit organization, you may ana-
lyze an issue’s impact on volunteers and donors. In a college or university,
you would consider students, faculty, staff and alumni. Each public will
have its own specific concerns related to the issue.

5. Strategic Planning
After research and analysis, including the identification of key publics and
how the issue will affect them, you can begin developing communication
and relationship management strategies for each. If your role in public rela-
tions gives you a voice in the management of the organization (let’s hope
so!), you can work on both the strategic action response to the issue and the
messages that will be communicated in conjunction with that response. For Ensure your
example, on the same day that the CDC released one of its key reports about communication
the E. coli outbreak, Chipotle announced new food-safety procedures that plan matches the
it had developed, including improved programs for training employees for crisis response
safer food handling.31 Strategy at this stage means considering the specific action plan, even
actions that should be taken as well as who should take these actions, if the response
when and with what resources. Even if the management plan is developed
outside of the public relations department (Chipotle worked with an out-
plan was
side consulting group to develop its new safety procedures), your communi-
developed outside
cation plan must be coordinated with those management operations. Such of the public
strategy involves goals, objectives, timelines and budgets, as outlined in relations
Chapter 6 on planning. department.

6. Implementation
Implementation includes both action and communication. This is where
policies and programs are put into action, and you activate owned, paid,
shared and earned media (Chapter 7). In issues management, the underly-
ing purpose of implementation is to prevent negative outcomes and encour-
age beneficial ones. In response to sweatshop and child labor problems that
arose in the 1990s and persisted well into the 2000s, both Nike and Gap
began funneling considerable resources into preventing further supply
chain issues. Nike and Gap now tout their efforts on websites that they host
to draw attention to their corporate social responsibility efforts. Other
companies have built their entire brands on the concept of social and envi-
ronmental responsibility.
Patagonia, for example, engages in a range of what the company calls
“due diligence activities” to ensure fair labor practices and environmental
responsibility. These include publishing and abiding by a strict code of
­conduct for suppliers, affiliating with the Fair Labor Association (FLA), par-
ticipating in Social and Environmental Responsibility (SER) audits, and
publishing on their website a complete list of factories that make their
products.32
Socially responsible management also can be leveraged by organiza-
tions of any size to recruit and retain top talent. According to a Cone Com-
munications study of millennial employees (people born between the 1980s

Proactive Issues Management 331

Patagonia monitors its global business practices and promotes its corporate social responsibility by reporting details on an extensive
­website, including the “The Footprint Chronicles,” which reveals the company’s supply chain.
How might such transparency help the company in issues management?

and mid-1990s), 76 percent said they would take a pay cut to work for a so-
cially responsible employer and 64 percent would not take a job with an
employer that does not have a good corporate social responsibility (CSR)
policy.33 Gen Z (people born between the mid-1990s and early 2000s) will
likely follow that lead, but likely with a greater focus on the diversity and
inclusion practices of employers. In a survey of more than 5,000 college
students who expected to graduate between 2018 and 2021, “equality” was
found to be the top cause that respondents wanted employers to support.34
Implementation of equality as defined in the survey includes hiring women
and people of color into leadership positions, challenging inappropriate be-
havior in the workplace, advocating for the worth and dignity of every
person, and seeking and listening to diverse points of view.

7. Evaluation
In the evaluation stage, you assess the results, just as you would with any
other public relations strategy (Chapter 8). If you’re working with clearly
articulated goals and objectives from your strategy, you will be able to
measure the beneficial outcomes. However, many of the most important
results of issues management stem from the crises prevented, or negative
outcomes averted. These kinds of outcomes can be harder to measure with
certainty because they are based on speculation about what might have oc-
curred had the issue not been managed properly. Think of all the car compa-
nies that have not cheated (and been caught) on emissions tests. Think of all

332 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

the restaurants that have not had E. coli outbreaks, or the student groups
that maintained membership despite changes in leadership, or the nonprof-
its that rode out bad slumps in the economy, and so on. In some cases, alter-
nate models can be used to illustrate what would have happened if a crisis
occurred and had been managed poorly. And this is a happy outcome! Man-
agers, experts and others with deep knowledge of an organization and its
Evaluation of how
day-to-day and year-to-year options will appreciate knowing they avoided a one issue was
boycott, illness outbreak, bankruptcy, product recall, lawsuit, embarrassing managed informs
media scandal or any other potential crisis. What’s more important—and the first efforts of
this may be the result of either an issue averted or a crisis that played out all monitoring for the
the way—is that evaluation allows you to learn lessons from experience and next one.
develop strategies for the future. Evaluation of how one issue was managed
informs the first efforts of monitoring for the next one.

Crisis Types
Not all crises are preventable, and how organizations respond to crises should
depend on the degree to which people attribute responsibility for the crisis to
the organization. Public relations scholars Tim Coombs and Sherry Holladay
have developed one of the most well-researched and practical theories for
crisis management called situational crisis communication theory
(SCCT). SCCT is a contingency theory because it suggests that how organiza-
tions should respond to crises depends on the situation. Coombs defines an
organizational crisis as “a significant threat to organizational operations
or reputations that can have negative consequences for stakeholders and/or
the organization if not handled properly.”35 When people think that an or-
ganization is responsible for a crisis (e.g., Volkswagen), its reputation suffers,
and the crisis leads to more anger, less purchase intent and greater likelihood
of negative word of mouth about the organization. While issues management
focuses on how to prevent organizational crises, crisis management deals
with how to repair damage and rebuild reputation.36
Who’s to blame? That is the question at the heart of initial crisis assess-
ment. Researchers have identified three main groups of crisis types: (1)
victim crises, (2) accident crises and (3) preventable crises.

Victim Crises Situational crisis communication

When publics see the organization as a victim, they assign minimal respon- theory (SCCT)
Theory that proposes that effective
sibility for the crisis to the organization. Natural disasters such as hurri- crisis communication entails choos-
canes, tsunamis and earthquakes are prime examples. People outside of an ing and applying appropriate re-
organization can cause victim crises too, such as in cases of sabotage, ter- sponse strategies depending on
how much responsibility for the
rorism or product tampering. crisis is attributed to the organiza-
One of the most famous examples of crisis management in the history of tion by key publics.
public relations stemmed from a victim crisis that arose because of product
Organizational crisis
tampering by someone from outside an organization. In 1982, news broke A major threat to an organization’s
that six adults and one 12-year-old girl in the Chicago area had died from operations or reputation.

Crisis Types 333

 cyanide poisoning after taking capsules of Extra-Strength Tylenol.37 Since the
tampered-with bottles of Tylenol capsules had come from different produc-
tion facilities but were all purchased in the Chicago area, investigators ruled
out sabotage or foul play at Tylenol factories. Police suspected that someone
had purchased the bottles from local stores, poisoned the capsules, and then
returned the products to store shelves. The murderer was never caught.
Tylenol’s parent company, Johnson & Johnson, cooperated extensively
with news media in expressing sympathy and sharing accurate information
about both the crimes and the organization’s response. At a cost of more
A sample of Extra-Strength Tylenol
is presented side-by-side with a than $100 million, Johnson & Johnson quickly pulled more than 30 ­million
sample of cyanide-laced medicine bottles of Tylenol from store shelves. They did not return the product to
in a medical examiner’s office in market until months later after developing now-standard tamper-resistant
October of 1982.
packaging.38 The combination of quick, ethical action and communication
Why is this classified as a “victim
earned the Tylenol case a place in history as an example of “how a major
crisis”? Would Tylenol’s response
have been different if it were an business ought to handle a disaster.”39
accident or preventable crisis? Rumors are another category of victim crises. Social media have accel-
erated the pace at which false, damaging information can be spread. Just
check the rumor-busting websites Snopes.com or FactCheck.org for daily

Fact-checking site Snopes.com found this story to be false, though the city government did intro-
duce plans to reduce the purchase of processed meats consumed at city-run facilities.
Should city officials respond? Why or why not?

334 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

examples. For example, New York City did not ban hot dogs in an effort to
combat climate change, U.S. Congresswomen Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez
and Ilhan Omar did not praise the destruction of Notre Dame Cathedral in
a 2019 fire, and President Donald Trump did not praise Mein Kampf or Adolf
Hitler in public statements. (However, Snopes did confirm that Kim
­K ardashian wore mirrored glasses to a poker tournament.)

Accident Crises
Accidents happen. Industrial accidents, mechanical failures or IT crashes
could all be considered accidents. In situations like these, an organization
may not get a full pass as it would in a victim crisis, because publics still
might question the organization’s operations. In an industrial accident,
were the appropriate safety procedures in place? In a mechanical failure,
was the equipment maintained properly? In an information systems crash,
were the data backed up in a timely manner? In any of these situations, if
people label the source of a crisis as an accident, the amount of responsibil-
ity that they attribute to an organization is still relatively low compared to
the next category, preventable crises.

Preventable Crises
Consider an airline crash. If investigators determine that an act of terrorism
took place, the airline would likely be considered a victim. If, instead, they
determine that equipment failure was to blame, this could be seen as an ac-
cident. If, however, the crash was due to inadequate pilot training, publics
would see the crisis as preventable. Preventable crises caused by mismanage-
ment, illegal activity or unethical action are the worst kind for organizations,
and they may be intensified when the organization already has a reputation
for breaking rules or a history of similar crises. By contrast, an airline with a
strong safety record and evidence of following proper safety procedures has
more latitude in its crisis response. This was the case with Ethiopian Airlines
after a deadly crash of a Boeing aircraft. As we will see in the section that fol-
lows, knowing the crisis type helps determine the most appropriate crisis
response strategy.

Crisis Response Strategies

In his book The Crisis Manager: Facing Disasters, Conflicts and Failures, crisis
communication scholar and Boston University Professor Emeritus Otto
Lerbinger likens effective crisis response to good medical practice. Lerbin-
ger suggests crisis managers should take a page from the AMA Family Medi-
cal Guide in handling crises by following the same logic as a physician
treating an illness. Track down the significance of a symptom or combina-
tion of symptoms and logically conclude what should be done about them.
“To help in such diagnoses, crisis consultants list a wide assortment of
crisis types from which to choose,”40 writes Lerbinger, citing other scholars

Crisis Response Strategies 335

In a crisis, follow such as Timothy Coombs. In addition to classifying the most common
the same logic as a types of organizational crises, Coombs and Holladay offer an outline of
crisis response strategies: deny, diminish, rebuild and reinforce. SCCT rec-
physician treating ommends selecting a response strategy appropriate to the situation.
an illness. Track
down the
significance of a Deny Strategies
symptom or Organizations applying deny strategies aim to absolve themselves of responsi-
combination of bility. Flat out denial was the initial strategy employed by representatives of
New England Patriots owner Robert Kraft. When prosecutors announced they
symptoms and would charge Kraft with soliciting prostitution at a spa that was suspected of
logically conclude human trafficking in Jupiter, Florida, his representatives issued a statement
what should be that said: “We categorically deny that Mr. Kraft engaged in any illegal activ-
done. ity.”41 Kraft changed his tune a few weeks later after evidence of his involve-
ment became more public, including documents
showing that hidden-camera surveillance videos were
taken of the alleged sex acts: “I am truly sorry,” Kraft
said in a prepared statement. “I know I have hurt and
disappointed my family, my close friends, my co-work-
ers, our fans and many others who rightfully hold me
to a higher standard.”42 (Apology is a form of rebuild
strategy to be discussed later in the chapter.)
Scapegoating or attacking the accuser is an-
other form of denial that generally is not received
well by publics. For example, when Chipotle co-CEO
Monty Moran appeared to blame the CDC for the in-
tensity of its E. coli crisis by saying that it was “fueled
by the sort of unusual and even unorthodox way the
CDC has chosen to announce cases related to the
­original outbreak,” Fortune Senior Editor Geoff
Colvin characterized the ­ response as “how crisis
leadership is not done.”43
In other cases, deny strategies might make more
sense. After Ethiopian Airlines Flight 302 crashed, kill-
ing all 157 people aboard, some news organizations,
including Reuters and The New York Times, cited anony-
mous sources who said that the pilot had not been
properly trained to fly the Boeing 737 MAX 8 aircraft.
Ethiopian Airlines, which was recognized as one of the
world’s safest airlines, disputed the claims, noting that
their pilots had indeed completed all training recom-
mended by the U.S. Federal Aviation Administration
and Boeing.44 “We urge all concerned to refrain from
Ethiopian Airlines released this statement on Twitter and Face-
making such uninformed, incorrect, irresponsible and
book after the crash of Flight 302. misleading statements during the period of the acci-
Did the deny strategy make sense in this case, or do you
dent investigation,” posted the airline on both Face-
perceive it as scapegoating? book and Twitter.45

336 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 The investigation is still ongoing as of this writing, but the airline’s Scapegoating
Blaming an outside person or orga-
denial seems more plausible and justified given that preliminary findings nization for a crisis.
have shown that faulty sensor data in the Boeing equipment was likely in-
volved in both the Ethiopian crash and a deadly Lion Air crash of another Apology
Act of taking responsibility for an
Boeing 737 Max that occurred a few months prior. With the information issue or crisis and seeking forgive-
known to date, this could be considered more of an accident crisis with ness or understanding.
minimal responsibility attributed to Ethiopian Airlines and its pilots, while
being considered more of a preventable crisis for Boeing.

Diminish Strategies
Diminish strategies acknowledge the existence of a crisis, but they minimize
the organization’s responsibility for the crisis or any bad intentions. The or-
ganization may also try to reframe the situation. For example, when state
school systems receive media attention for low scores on national standardized
tests, they may use a diminish strategy that questions the validity of the tests,
claims that the school system is under-resourced compared to other states, or
focuses on how hard teachers are working with so little compensation.

Rebuild Strategies
Crises test relationships. If the heart of public relations is relationship man-
agement, then there is perhaps no greater role for public relations in a crisis
than rebuilding relationships. If an organization is responsible for a crisis, one
of the most important communications it must issue is a public acceptance of
that responsibility. If you realize you’ve screwed up in an interpersonal rela-
tionship and you want to repair the damage, you apologize. The same goes for
organization-public relationships.
Apology, accepting responsibility and
asking for forgiveness or understanding, is
key to your rebuild strategy. That said, we
all know that forced apologies come across
as fake and insincere. One kid trips another
on the playground and laughs. No remorse
whatsoever. But then the teacher steps in
and forces an apology. The words “I’m sorry”
are muttered, but the relationship ­between
the two kids doesn’t improve. Adults have
the same issues—even CEOs of major com-
panies. When, in 2010, British Petroleum’s
CEO Tony ­Hayward stepped in front of a
microphone following the largest U.S.
marine oil spill ever, he appeared at first to
apologize to local communities and fami-
lies. “I’m sorry. We’re sorry for the massive
disruption it’s caused their lives.” But then Following BP’s tragic Gulf of Mexico oil spill, CEO Tony Hayward became the
Hayward delivered one of the most infa- subject of ridicule for saying, “I’d like my life back.”
mous lines in the history of corporate crisis Why might people have responded so negatively to his initial apology?

Crisis Response Strategies 337

Boomerang effect management. “There’s no one who wants this over more than I do. I’d like my
Unintended consequence of an
apology or other attempt to create
life back.” Hayward later had to issue a statement that apologized for his apol-
positive response results instead in ogy!46 An apology that doesn’t play well can have a b ­ oomerang effect, caus-
a negative response. ing more damage than it repairs. Rebuilding relationships usually takes more
Compensation than just words. Publics will look for evidence of sincerity.
Crisis response strategy of offering Compensation is another classic rebuild strategy. Organizations may offer
products, services or money to help products, services or money to help make amends with publics. When Target
make amends with publics.
experienced a credit card breach, they wrote to the owners of about 40 million
credit and debit card accounts to explain the situation and to offer a year of free
credit monitoring s­ ervice.47 Interestingly, Target did not actually apologize, but

Dear Target Guest,

As you have likely heard by now, Target experienced unauthorized access to
payment card data from U.S. Target stores. We take this crime seriously. It was
a crime against Target, our team members and most importantly you–our
valued guest.

We understand that a situation like this creates stress and anxiety about the
safety of your payment card data at Target. Our brand has been built on a
50-year foundation of trust with our guests, and we want to assure you that the
cause of this issue has been addressed and you can shop with confidence at
Target.

We want you to know a few important things:

• The unauthorized access took place in U.S. Target stores between

Nov. 27 and Dec. 15, 2013. Canadian stores and target.com were not affected.
• Even if you shopped at Target during this time frame, it doesn't mean you
are a victim of fraud. In fact, in other similar situations, there are typically
low levels of actual fraud.
• There is no indication that PIN numbers have been compromised on
affected bank issued PIN debit cards or Target debit cards. Someone
cannot visit an ATM with a fraudulent debit card and withdraw cash.
• You will not be responsible for fraudulent charges–either your bank or
Target have that responsibility.
• We're working as fast as we can to get you the information you need. Our
guests are always the first priority.
• For extra assurance, we will offer free credit monitoring services for
everyone impacted. We'll be in touch with you soon on how and where to
access the service.

Please read the full notice below. And over the coming days and weeks we will
be relying on corporate.target.com and our various social channels to answer
questions and keep you up to date.

Thank you for your patience, understanding and loyalty to Target!

Target sent this letter to customers after experiencing a credit and debit card data breach.
Would you categorize this as an apology?

338 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

they did offer compensation. In thanking customers for their patience, under- Be careful of
standing and loyalty, they clearly were pursuing a rebuild strategy. issuing apologies
Reinforce Strategies
or applying
Another common response to crises is to reinforce relationships through
ingratiation
either bolstering or ingratiation. Bolstering is reminding people of all the strategies on
good things your organization has done in the past, while ingratiation is social media
praising or thanking stakeholders to win their good favor. In a crisis, many unless they are
of an organization’s most important relationships are with the people who clearly sincere and
help to solve the crisis or aid its victims. Thanking first responders, praising authentic.
volunteers and expressing appreciation to authorities who are involved in
the crisis cleanup are ways organizations work to curry favor with key pub-
lics. However, as with apology strategies, ingratiation strategies risk back-
firing if they are seen as insincere.

Case Study
Mr. Zuckerberg Goes to Washington
Facebook has long faced public scrutiny over how it handles user data and
protects consumer privacy. In 2018, this scrutiny culminated in congres-
sional hearings in which U.S. lawmakers grilled CEO Mark Zuckerberg over
privacy concerns. The hearings were called following a scandal in which the
political consulting firm Cambridge Analytica was suspected of improperly
harvesting the personal information of more than 87 million Facebook
users. It all started with a personality survey.
Cambridge Analytica used online survey services from Amazon and
Qualtrics to recruit hundreds of thousands of respondents who would be
paid $2 to $5 per survey. There is nothing unusual or inherently unethical
with this. But it became a Facebook issue and a legal and ethical issue when,
at the end of the survey, respondents were asked to log in to Facebook to get
the payment code to receive their compensation.
Once respondents logged into Facebook, Cambridge Analytica had access
not only to the personality data from the 120-question quiz but also to all of
the respondents’ personal data on Facebook such as their name, location and
Bolstering
contact details. And here’s where it really blew up in scale. Cambridge
Attempting to offset reputational
­Analytica also could scrape private information from all the Facebook friends damage to an organization during a
of all the people who took the survey—that’s how a privacy issue for 300,000 crisis by emphasizing the good
people became a major breach for more than 87 million.48 Cambridge Ana- work that the organization has done
in the past.
lytica then weaponized massive amounts of computing power and data to
target Facebook users with highly personalized political ads in the 2016 elec- Ingratiation
A type of reinforcing crisis response
tion. When all this came to light in 2018, thanks to investigative journalists
strategy in which stakeholders are
and a whistleblower at Cambridge Analytica named Christopher Wylie, both praised or thanked to win their
Cambridge Analytica and Facebook were put into crisis response mode. good favor.

Crisis Response Strategies 339

 Cambridge Analytica chose a deny strategy, and ended up collapsing within
a few months. According to a company statement denying the allegations, “De-
spite Cambridge Analytica’s unwavering confidence that its employees have
acted ethically and lawfully . . . the siege of media coverage has driven away
virtually all of the Company’s customers and suppliers. As a result, it has been
determined that it is no longer viable to continue operating the business. . . .49
Of course, the case also set off a wave of public concern and even ­outrage
about Facebook. When Zuckerberg was called to testify in congressional
hearings in 2018, lawmakers threatened more stringent regulation of Face-
book. Both Facebook and Zuckerberg employed a number of response strat-
egies, which included apology as part of a rebuild strategy. In his testimony
to congress, Zuckerberg said,

. . . It’s clear now that we didn’t do enough to prevent these tools from
being used for harm as well. That goes for fake news, foreign interference
in elections and hate speech, as well as developers and data privacy. We
didn’t take a broad enough view of our responsibility, and that was a big
mistake. It was my mistake, and I’m sorry. I started Facebook, I run it,
and I’m responsible for what happens here.50

Before the testimony, Facebook announced a number of new measures

to better ensure user privacy and to increase transparency about how the
organization operates. These actions also are consistent with a rebuild
strategy, as evident in Zuckerberg’s 2018 testimony.

All eyes (and lenses) were on Facebook CEO Mark Zuckerberg as he testified to congress follow-
ing the Cambridge Analytica scandal.
What crisis response strategies were apparent in this case? Did they work?

340 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 It’s not enough to just give people a voice, we have to make sure people
aren’t using [Facebook] to hurt people or spread misinformation. It’s not
enough to give people control of their information, we have to make sure
developers they’ve given it to are protecting it too.51

A year later, Facebook was still wrestling with the issues raised in the
Cambridge Analytica scandal, with fresh allegations about executive cover-
ups still emerging. The company chose to use reinforce strategies such as
bolstering and ingratiation. In a blog entry titled “A Privacy-Focused Vision
for Social Networking,” Zuckerberg led with some bolstering: “Over the last
15 years, Facebook and Instagram have helped people connect with friends,
communities, and interests in the digital equivalent of a town square.” He
then outlined a vision for also providing more of a “living room” where pri-
vacy is more central and protected than it would be in a town square. He
pointed to Facebook products Messenger and WhatsApp as more private
channels. “We're focused on making both of these apps faster, simpler,
more private and more secure, including with end-to-end encryption.”52
He then closed with a hint of ingratiation, reinforcing a commitment “to
consulting with experts, advocates, industry partners, and governments—
including law enforcement and regulators—around the world to get these
decisions right.”
This case illustrates how Facebook applied a number of different re-
sponse strategies with a number of different publics. With most of these
relationships, Facebook’s best status description might be “It’s Compli-
cated.” Facebook’s success in rebuilding damaged relationships will very
much depend on the degree to which the organization is managed in ways
that make its actions consistent with its communication. Time will tell if
the apologies, bolstering and ingratiation are more than just words.

Social Media and Crises

One of the biggest challenges in managing crises is handling the rapid
spread of information and the constant demand for that information. Prior
to the rise of social media, crisis managers talked about the importance of
the “golden hours”—the first few hours after a surprise crisis breaks—
when an organization has its best opportunity to try to get out ahead of
crisis communication with accurate information. With social media, those
hours are reduced to minutes or even seconds. Social media have increased
both the volume and the speed of communication in crisis situations and
opened new channels for both organizations and publics to communicate.
Crisis managers may see social media as a blessing (for communicating
quickly and directly with publics) and a curse (for fueling the uncontrolled
spread of misinformation and rumors). Recognizing the importance of

Social Media and Crises 341

Social media crisis social media in particular in the ecology of crisis situations, public rela-
communication model (SMCC)
Model describing the role of social
tions scholars Yan Jin, Brooke Fisher Liu, Julia Daisy Fraustino and their
media influencers, followers and colleagues have developed a social media crisis communication model
inactives in spreading information in (SMCC) that highlights the interaction among social media, traditional
crisis situations.
media and word-of-mouth communication in crisis situations.
Social media creators Think for a minute about a recent organizational crisis that you’ve
Influential social media users who heard about. How did you receive the information? There’s a good chance
are among the first to identify and
post about crises online.
that all three sources came into play. You may have heard about the crisis in
a conversation with friends or family (word of mouth), seen it on TV or read
Social media followers about it in the newspaper (traditional media), and seen it on Twitter, Face-
Social media users who receive
crisis information from social media book and so on (social media). SMCC emphasizes that these sources are not
creators. mutually exclusive. If you learned about a crisis from a friend who used
Social media inactives
Facebook to repost and comment on a CNN.com article, this is an example
People who receive crisis informa- of how word of mouth, traditional media and social media sources are all
tion indirectly from social media via integrated in the crisis communication process.
traditional media and offline word of The SMCC identifies three types of social media users for public rela-
mouth.
tions practitioners to pay attention to during a crisis:

1. Influential social media creators are among the first to identify

crises online and then post about them.
2. Social media followers receive their information from the influ-
ential creators.
3. Social media inactives receive information from traditional media
and offline word of mouth. This does not mean that social media are
not involved. Instead, what social media inactives learn offline may
be informed by what their sources have learned from social media.

By understanding the relationship among these three sources, public

relations professionals can think strategically about how an organization
communicates during a crisis.
In most cases, it is good practice for the crisis team to centralize the
flow of information. For example, a school crisis guide published by the Na-
tional Education Association instructs, “The need to control information
released to the media and public requires that the crisis plan clearly desig-
Make yourself and nate the person or persons responsible for this function.”53 Historically,
your organization these sources would operate with tactics such as periodic press conferences
or conference calls that enabled the organization to communicate consis-
“influential social tently and accurately with the news media. This is still common practice.
media creators” by Today, however, those news media then report breaking news via print,
setting up and radio and television, as well as via social media platforms. SMCC describes
maintaining crisis- one process whereby news media act as influential social media creators
specific social who share breaking news with followers on social media in addition to
media accounts. reaching social media inactives with traditional outlets like radio and TV.
SMCC also outlines another process for the spread of information in
which the organization itself acts as a social media creator, as when compa-
nies set up new Twitter accounts for crisis-specific updates and inquiries.

342 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

While it’s difficult to think of anything either controlled or “centralized”
about the wildly crowd-fueled nature of how major crises break on social
media, this doesn’t mean public relations people can’t play an important
role in the process. As representatives with inside knowledge of the latest
news related to the crisis, public relations people have the option of becom-
ing influential social media creators. In that role they can work to commu-
nicate accurate and useful information directly with followers and
indirectly with inactives.

Voices from the Field

Barry Finkelstein

BARRY FINKELSTEIN is senior vice president and been more proactive from the outset in using PR to
associate director of public relations for Luquire not just manage the crisis, but to try to resolve it.
George Andrews, a leading advertising, PR and digi-
tal marketing firm based in Charlotte, North Carolina. How do you go about monitoring for emerg-
A frequent speaker on such topics as crisis commu- ing issues for clients?
nication, social media and integrated communications It varies by client. Some are in crisis-prone industries
planning, Barry has served on the boards of the like utility companies or quick-service restaurants, so
Georgia and South Carolina Chapters of the Public we have well-defined systems to alert us to internal
Relations Society of America. He also chaired the events like robberies or fires, while also relying on
Client PR Committee for the American Association of traditional and social media monitoring to stay aware
Advertising Agencies (4A’s). of any negative stories that are breaking. And for all
of our clients, we stay abreast of trends and issues
What’s the biggest crisis you’ve ever had to in their respective industries by monitoring traditional
manage? What was the most important thing and social media for keywords tied to potential
you learned from it, and what would you do issues.
differently if you had another chance?
The one that sticks out to me is the Atlanta school How are social media changing the way prac-
bus drivers’ strike in the early ’90s, because it im- titioners manage issues and crises? How is it
pacted thousands of families who were depending easier with social media? Harder?
on buses to get their kids safely to school. We spent Social media have transformed the nature of crisis
the first few days on defense, doing press briefings a communications. News—and misinformation, in
few times each day to let parents know when the ­particular—now travels at the speed of light. Through
buses would be running, or if they’d even be running social media, organizations are able to communicate
at all. Around the third day we devised a strategy to with their most important publics in real time and
use PR to turn the situation in our favor by inviting without the editorial filter of the news media, which
the news media to cover the hundreds of people can be very advantageous in the event of a crisis.
who were lining up to apply for positions as replace- However, this also means organizations have a re-
ment bus drivers. The strike literally ended the next sponsibility to be accurate and transparent in com-
day, and that was my big takeaway: I wish we had munications. Perhaps even more important,

Social Media and Crises 343

 organizations have an opportunity to use social more media and regulatory scrutiny. Ultimately, we
media to listen to audiences and publics in a time of persuaded the CEO to be interviewed after intensive
crisis, which may help an organization determine media training, and the resulting story was more bal-
what steps and messages will resolve the matter with anced and greatly minimized any follow-up coverage.
the least damage to the organization’s reputation. But
again, organizations must be careful not to squelch How does someone become a crisis commu-
social media posts that may be negative toward their nication expert?
brand. It’s OK to correct ­misinformation—and even to Crisis communications is one of those areas where
manage social media content that is offensive or in- experience truly is the best teacher. I’ve been doing
tentionally misleading—but one of the keys to social it for more than 20 years, and each episode teaches
media success is to allow publics to feel like their me something that will allow me to better counsel
voices are being heard and valued. the next client. There are certainly some basic prin-
ciples that can be picked up by reading articles and
What’s the biggest crisis you’ve ever averted? books or attending seminars. But the most important
And what did you do to avoid it? lesson in crisis communications is probably one you
Years ago I worked with a behavioral health system learned from your parents: Do unto others as you
that was under investigation by “60 Minutes” for would have them do unto you. Put yourself in the
practices that were alleged to be a threat to patient shoes of the publics who will be most affected by
safety. They were reluctant to participate in the story, the situation, and chances are you will instinctively
but we knew if they did not participate, the story know the right things to do and say.
would be one-sided and almost certainly lead to

Ethics: Conflicts of Interest

Public relations people are often faced with the challenge of balancing con-
flicting loyalties among various publics. If conflicts aren’t managed well,
they can become crises. Some of the most difficult ethical dilemmas that
you may face in public relations, however, arise when you yourself are one of
the parties in a conflict of values involving your organization.
The PRSA Code of Ethics includes the following principle: “Avoiding
real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients,
employers, and the publics.”54 One example of a conflict of interest provided
in the code is failing to disclose that you have a major financial interest in a
competitor of your organization or client. For example, if you work for Coca
Cola, you wouldn’t want to own stock in PepsiCo. However, sometimes con-
flicts of interest are unavoidable. In Doing Ethics in Media, Jay Black and
Chris Roberts present a particularly sticky example that they developed as
a hypothetical case study from real-world, firsthand experiences.55
In the scenario, you work as a public relations officer for a big mill
operation in a small town that is facing tough economic times. The com-
pany has been good to you. They were very generous and supportive when
your spouse (also a company employee) died in an accident at the plant a
few years back. They’ve also rewarded your hard work with a series of pro-
motions. You feel a strong sense of loyalty. But that loyalty is seriously
tested when, in a meeting with upper management, you learn that the
company’s long-term plans include major layoffs at your plant. Thousands

344 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

will lose jobs. You are upset, but the reasons for layoffs are understand-
able. Environmental problems and economic forces have made the plant’s
continued operation unsustainable. You’re asked to keep the information
confidential so the company will not lose its last major contract and set of
work orders.
To make matters worse, you have family members who will be impacted
in major ways. Your sister works in real estate and is planning to close some
big deals on local homes in the area, and you now know the local real estate
market is about to tank because of your company, taking those deals down
with it. Your brother-in-law works at the company too, as a shift foreman.
What do you do?
What makes this decision so difficult? It’s the conflict of interest. On
one hand you are a loyal employee and representative of the organization
and you have accepted the responsibility of safeguarding confidences to
lessen the impact of a crisis. On the other hand, you are very close to your
sister and her husband, and your close family ties make it even more diffi-
cult to ignore the interests and values of the local community as a public
with which you are deeply connected.
One tenet of crisis management that may help both the organizational
and personal crisis is “Tell it all and tell it fast.” Ralph Barney, a founding
editor of Journal of Mass Media Ethics, offered this in response to an earlier
version of this case when it was first published: “A principled response
would be to make public the plans the company has for the plant, thereby
­demonstrating a willingness to serve larger society.”56 In a case like this,
“larger society” includes your family and friends in the community. While
you may serve as an advocate for your organization, traditional news media
and social media influentials will no doubt serve to advocate for the inter-
ests of larger society. If these sources get wind of the story before your com-
pany is ready to release it (a common occurrence for organizations that try
to keep a crisis secret for too long), your organization will be behind the
eight ball.
Social media crisis communication theory suggests that your organiza-
tion can serve as a primary source of information to publics during a crisis
if you act quickly enough. Crisis communication researchers have applied
the term stealing thunder to describe this strategy. In law, attorneys are
known to “steal thunder” when they expose weaknesses in their own cases
and address those weaknesses before their opponents have the opportunity
to do so.57
Negative information spreads extremely quickly in the communication
ecosystem of traditional media, social media and word of mouth. But if you
work with traditional media and/or act as a social media creator for crisis-
related information, it is possible to get ahead of the story and save some
people from harm. One possible solution is for the public relations practi- Stealing thunder
Crisis response strategy in which an
tioner to apply both crisis communication theory and a deep understand- organization exposes its own prob-
ing of the affected publics to make a case to upper management that “telling lems (and works to address those
it all and telling it fast” is a better strategy than prolonged secrecy. problems) before opponents have
the opportunity to do so.

Ethics: Conflicts of Interest 345

 In Case You Missed It
ICYMI

While classic principles of conflict • It’s just as important to listen to detractors as it

management, issues management is to listen to supporters.
and crisis management still hold, • Ensure your communication plan matches the
crisis response action plan, even if the response
social media have increased options
plan was developed outside of the public rela-
for detection, prevention, response tions department.
and communication. Social media • Evaluation of how one issue was managed
must be used with a clear under- informs the first efforts of monitoring for the
standing of their role in the commu- next one.
nication process. • In a crisis, follow the same logic as a physician
treating an illness. Track down the
­significance of a symptom or combination of
• Respond quickly and appropriately to chal- symptoms and logically conclude what should
lenges on social media to prevent issues from be done.
becoming crises.
• Be careful of issuing apologies or applying
• Sometimes it’s better to advocate than to ingratiation strategies on social media unless
accommodate. they are clearly sincere and authentic.
• Remember, that the customer may not always • Make yourself and your organization “influen-
be right. tial social media creators” by setting up and
maintaining crisis-specific social media
• Monitor social media to uncover issues sooner
accounts.
and give you more options for dealing with a
situation.

SUMMARY
12.1 Analyze responses ranging from advo- crisis and (4) dormant. As issues grow, pub-
cacy to accommodation in public rela- lics become more active and an organiza-
tions conflict cases. tion’s options for proactive management
In conflict, the action or communication become more limited.
tactic that you choose depends on the spe-
12.3 Describe how issues management can
cifics of the situation. Contingency theory
prevent or lessen the impact of crises.
holds that response options range on a con-
The seven-step process for proactive issues
tinuum from pure advocacy on one side to
management—(1) monitoring, (2) identifica-
pure accommodation on the other.
tion, (3) prioritization, (4) analysis, (5) stra-
12.2 Identify stages in the issues life cycle. tegic planning, (6) implementation and
Stages in the issue life cycle include (1) (7) evaluation—runs parallel to the four-
early/potential, (2) emerging, (3) current/ step RPIE process. Actively monitoring the

346 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 environment with research increases the always been the case—offline word of
likelihood of identifying issues early enough mouth interacts with news media as people
to allow for proactive, strategic public rela- discuss what they learn from news media
tions rather than reactive, constrained and as news media report on issues that
damage control. people discuss. Social media offer greater
opportunities for people to discuss and
12.4 Identify public relations crisis types.
share information interpersonally (online
Crises can be categorized by the degree to
word of mouth) and new channels for tradi-
which people attribute responsibility for the
tional media to reach publics. During a
crisis to the organization. Victim crises
crisis, it is useful to identify (1) influential
happen when publics perceive that the or-
social media creators, who are among the
ganization has done nothing wrong (e.g.,
first to identify and post about crises online,
natural disasters, sabotage, terrorism, prod-
(2) social media followers, who receive their
uct tampering). Accident crises, such as
information from the influential creators, and
those caused by mechanical failures, indus-
(3) social media inactives, who receive in-
trial mishaps, or computer crashes, involve
formation from traditional media and offline
some attribution of responsibility to the or-
word of mouth. Both traditional media and
ganization. Preventable crises caused by
offline word of mouth may be informed by
mismanagement, illegal activity or unethical
social media activity.
action are the worst kind.
12.7 Assess competing values in ethical con-
12.5 Define crisis response strategies.
flicts of interest in the context of public
How organizations respond to crises should
relations issues and crises.
depend on the crisis type. Deny strategies
Public relations professionals face difficult
are used when organizations try to absolve
ethical dilemmas when they have a deep
themselves of responsibility. Diminish strate-
personal connection with one of their or-
gies attempt to minimize the organization’s
ganization’s publics in a conflict or crisis sit-
responsibility or bad intentions. Rebuild strat-
uation. A classic dilemma involves a plant
egies involve accepting responsibility and
closing that will negatively affect the practi-
working to rebuild relationships with publics.
tioner’s close family and friends. One pos-
Reinforce strategies remind publics of all the
sible solution is for the practitioner to apply
good things the organization has done or is
both crisis communication theory and deep
willing to do to reinforce relationships.
understanding of the affected publics to
12.6 Discuss how traditional media, social make a case to upper management that
media and offline word of mouth inter- “telling it all and telling it fast” is a better
act in the spread of crisis information. strategy than prolonged secrecy.
Traditional news media are still an important
source of information in crises, and—as has

SUMMARY 347
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. CASE STUDY Was it right for Little Italy strategies were a proper match for the crisis
­Restaurante’s owner to “fire” a customer? type and whether the responses worked.
­Describe a time that you thought an organiza- 6. CASE STUDY Facebook applied multiple crisis
tion was right to advocate instead of accom- response strategies when its handling of pri-
modate a key public during a publicly vate user data came under fire. How would you
disputed issue. What contingencies of the sit- categorize the crisis (victim, accident, or pre-
uation made advocacy a better strategy than ventable)? What do you think Facebook’s top
accommodation? two response strategies were? Did they work?
2. Select an organization to which you belong Research Facebook privacy issues in the news
(could be a club, school, place of employment, to identify specific examples of consequences
etc.), and then identify one early/potential issue for Facebook that resulted from their response
for the organization. What recommendations do strategies.
you have for how the organization can handle 7. What is the biggest organizational crisis you’ve
the issue? Consider the seven-step process in directly observed in the past year? Were you a
your answer. social media creator, a social media follower or
3. CASE STUDY “Dormant” issues have a social media inactive in the case? How so?
reached the final stage of the issue life cycle. Is What role did the organization play in commu-
the Volkswagen “dieselgate” issue dormant nicating to you about the crisis?
now? What consequences remain for the 8. Suppose you find extremely biased information
company? on the Wikipedia page for your organization.
4. Briefly describe one crisis of each type (victim, This information makes your organization look
accident, preventable) that has occurred in the bad. Technically, anyone can edit Wikipedia en-
past year. tries, but why would it be a conflict of interest
5. In the crises you identified in question #4, for you to do so? (You can find hints at https://
which crisis response strategies (deny, dimin- en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Conflict_of_­
ish, rebuild, reinforce) did the organizations interest and http://www.instituteforpr.org/
employ? Explain whether you think the wp-content/uploads/Beutler_WikiPrimer.pdf.)

KEY TERMS
Apology 337 Pure accommodation 322 Social media crisis communication
Bolstering 339 Pure advocacy 322 model (SMCC) 342
Boomerang effect 338 Responsible supply chain Social media followers 342
Compensation 338 management 329 Social media inactives 342
Contingency theory 322 Scapegoating 337 Stealing thunder 345
Ingratiation 339 Situational crisis communication theory
Issues management 324 (SCCT) 333
Organizational crisis 333 Social media creators 342

348 CHAPTER 12   |   ISSUES AND CRISES

 C HAP TE R 13

Global

Understanding cultural dimensions can help us better

communicate with publics around the globe. But what
happens when a brand challenges traditional norms?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

13.1 Apply high- and 13.2 Explain how environmen- 13.3 Examine the role of
low-context communication tal variables, such as politics, ­ ations, corporations and
n
and cultural dimensions to the economy and the media NGOs in public diplomacy.
public relations strategy and can affect international public
13.4 Discuss the ethics of
practice. relations.
­ alanced dialogue in global
b
public relations.

RELATED UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

1.6 AUDIENCE IDENTIFICATION • 1.7 DIVERSIT Y • 2.2 ETHICAL BEHAVIOR
4.2 BARRIERS TO COMMUNICATION • 6.5 NETWORKS
 “T
Total market approach his isn’t a niche culture. It is the culture. This isn’t a market. It’s a
A strategic approach that combines
insights and considerations from
movement. This isn’t just about them. It’s about all of us.” This is how
diverse segments to deliver inte- Condé Nast introduced its new platform, “Them.,” in a social media
grated, culturally nuanced video in 2017.1 Them. is a digital community platform that covers topics like
campaigns.
pop culture, politics and news from the perspective of today’s LGBTQ com-
Ethnocentrism munity.2 And while the platform’s focus is the LGBTQ community, its mes-
The tendency to judge other cul- sage is all-inclusive: people and culture are more than “niches” and “markets”
tures based on one’s own culture,
which one considers superior to
to reach.
others. In the United States, we’re feeling the effects of this cultural movement all
around us. Puerto Rican trap artist Bad Bunny performed at Coachella 2019, an
annual music and arts festival in California that attracts thousands. Billboard
described Bad Bunny’s performance as “part of a seemingly unprecedented
number of Latin acts on this year’s Coachella roster.”3 That same year, BTS made
history as the first K-pop (Korean pop) group to perform on Saturday Night
Live.4 In the box office, movies like Black Panther and Coco have gone beyond
representation—they’ve celebrated and honored culture.
These cultural movements are just a few indicators of both the changing
demographics in the United States and a shift in what’s considered main-
stream. Racial minorities, which now account for 30 percent of the U.S. popu-
lation, are expected to represent more than half of the U.S. population by
2050.5 These changes have given rise to terms like “total market” to describe
public relations strategies. The total market approach combines insights
and considerations from diverse segments to deliver integrated, culturally
Public relations nuanced campaigns. It’s not designed to be a one-size-fits-all strategy,6 nor is
strategy should be it meant to pander to or appropriate culture. Instead, the total market ap-
grounded in proach calls for public relations strategy that is grounded in cultural insights
cultural insights and research from the beginning—not as an afterthought. According to pro-
and research from fessors Bey-Ling Sha, APR, and Rochelle Ford, APR, “all of us must learn to
the beginning— consider multiple diversities as constituting integral and integrated aspects
not as an of the field rather than as ‘Others’ that are somehow different and separate
afterthought. from ‘mainstream’ public relations.”7
Public relations is a global business, and anyone thinking about a public
relations career needs to be ready to embrace these cultural movements and
globalization, which happens whenever public relations efforts spread across
national, geographic or cultural borders. Intercultural and international flu-
ency has become critical in boosting prospects for career success. In this chap-
ter, we approach the topic of global public relations by considering factors
that influence communication between people from different cultures and
different nations, as well as communication between people from different
cultures within the same countries.

Public Relations and Culture

We perceive the world around us from our own personal lenses, and this
­ethnocentrism—the tendency to judge other cultures based on what we may
view as our own “superior” culture—can cloud our ability to communicate

350 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

cross-culturally (with people of different cultures). The Peace Corps, an organi-
zation that sends thousands of young people abroad into different global com-
munities every year, defines culture as “a system of beliefs, values, and
assumptions about life that guide behavior and are shared by a group of
people.”8
The concept of culture applies to any group, not just groups defined by
race, ethnicity or nationality. Categorizing people as “White,” “Hispanic,”
“Asian,” “African American,” and so on is inherently limiting. As families
become more multiracial and multicultural, these categorizations will become
a less relevant way to understand publics, while shared interests and affinity
will become more important.9
If we define a public as a group of people with shared interests (as we did
in Chapter 1), then we see how the concept of culture applies to just about any
public—residents of a town, students in a school, volunteers of a nonprofit, a
company’s top management or opponents of a political action. Intercultural
public relations involves the interaction of an organization and publics
across cultures. While we may think we understand different cultures, when
we plan and execute public relations campaigns, we have to check our as-
sumptions carefully. Understanding low-context and high-context communi-
cation and Hofstede’s five cultural dimensions can help us begin to develop
our cultural intelligence.

Culture
A shared system of beliefs, values,
customs and so on that guides be-
havior of a particular group or
public.
Something as ordinary as food and how it’s prepared can be an expression of cultural identity. The
Chinese hot pot, for example, is shared by those around the table, creating a collective dining
Intercultural public relations
experience.
Management of relationships be-
What might we learn about a culture through food? How could these learnings be applied to tween organizations and publics of
public relations? different cultures.

Public Relations and Culture 351

Low-context communication Low-Context Versus High-Context
Exchanges in which most of the
meaning of messages is stated Communication
explicitly in the messages and re- In his classic book Beyond Culture, anthropologist Edward Hall distin-
quires little understanding of guished between low-context communication, in which most of the
context.
meaning of a message is stated explicitly in the message and words
High-context communication and  ­ requires little understanding of context, and high-context
Exchanges in which most of the ­communication, in which most of the meaning of a message is based on
meaning conveyed between people
lies in the context of the communi- context or something internal to the communicators rather than being
cation or is internal to the directly stated in the message.10 Restaurant menus, brochures, web pages
communicators. and even course syllabi include very detailed descriptions and instruc-
tions and are tools of low-context communication, while tweeting and
You will likely deal text messaging, which may be limited to very few words and characters,
with both high- illustrate well the concept of high-context communication. Like so many
context tactics like other concepts in social science and public relations, however, high- and
texts and tweets low-context communication are best thought of as ends on a spectrum
and low-context rather than two completely separate ideas.11
communication Think about the shortest text message you have ever sent or received. For
that spells out many this will be a one-letter message: “K.” In the context of a chemistry lab,
“K” stands for potassium. In baseball, “K” represents a strikeout. But in text
your organization’s messaging, the single character K—the explicit transmitted message—is
goals, policies and often used as an abbreviation for “OK.” To understand the actual meaning
positions. you have to understand the context. When it works, it may be the most effi-
cient communication tactic ever, bringing a successful communication ex-
change to a satisfying conclusion with a single keystroke. But according to
BuzzFeed’s Katie Heaney, “K” is “the one thing you should never text anyone
ever.” In her eyes it “means you’re too lazy to type out just one extra letter,”
“makes you seem mad,” and sends a message that you’re on a power trip.12 The
true meaning of “K” totally depends on the context, including the relation-
ship between the sender and receiver.
When organizations develop public relations and branding campaigns,
they have to be especially sensitive to high-context communication, too.
Branding efforts rely on simple images, icons, logos, words and brief tag-
lines to communicate enormous amounts of meaning about the organiza-
tion or its products and services. The meaning depends on context. Branding
magic happens when communication strategists successfully align an orga-
nization’s actions, communication and culture with the cultural contexts of
key publics.
A major part of the inspiration for Nike’s successful “Just Do It” cam-
paign (launched in the late 1980s) was a sensitivity to cultural trends in the
United States, where obesity and procrastination were becoming more prob-
lematic for a large part of the population. According to Nike’s former director
of marketing insights and planning Jerome Conlon, the campaign developed
by Nike’s ad agency Wieden+Kennedy needed to reach people beyond highly
motivated athletes. The campaign had to appeal to “the actual role that fit-
ness plays in people’s lives, the actual experience of really working out, doing

352 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

aerobics, going on a bike ride, etc.,” wrote Conlon.13 The power of “Just Do It” Low-context culture
A culture that relies on more ex-
lies not in the eight letters of text. It emanates from the contextual meaning plicit, direct communication than a
assigned to it by millions of Nike fans. high-context culture.
Logos, taglines and advertising copy are essential to marketing, but public
High-context culture
relations also entails a great deal of longer-form communication in the manage- A culture that communicates more
ment of relationships between organizations and publics. Public relations pro- implicitly and relies more on non-
fessionals are often in charge of “spelling out” an organization’s goals, policies, verbal cues than a low-context
culture.
position statements, news and responses to inquiries. This type of elaboration
requires low-context communication.
Let’s consider a critically important moment: crisis (discussed in
­Chapter 12). The way public relations professionals and organizations react
during crises, including if and how they apologize, may be informed by cul-
tural preferences for high- or low-context communication. Imagine an orga-
nization you trust is involved in a cybersecurity breach. An Iowa State
University study analyzed more than 100 official statements from organiza-
tions in the United States and South Korea to compare crisis response strate-
gies and apologies following cybersecurity breaches.14 The findings showed
that statements from organizations in the United States focused on analyti-
cal, factual accounts of the crises, while those from South Korea “tended to
express their concern for the incidents and show sympathy for the victims,”
reflecting the publics’ cultural expectations. The study underscores that
public relations professionals should tailor messages to meet cultural cues.
The distinction between high-context and low-context communication
can be useful to people studying and practicing international communication.
For example, people from low-context cultures—western cultures such as
those from America, Switzerland, Germany
and Scandinavia—tend to use more low-
context communication. In low-context cul-
tures, web users are more likely to use search
features and links to seek specific informa-
tion and facts about an organization. On
the other hand, people from ­high-context
­cultures—such as those from Asia, Africa,
the Middle East and Latin America—tend to
rely more on interpersonal exchanges and
social recommendations online.15 One
major caution in comparing people using
these descriptions (high-context and low-
context cultures) is that they are broad gen-
eralizations that do not apply to every
individual or group within a geographic
After Cambridge Analytica accessed and weaponized the private information
region. This is why we are careful to empha- of more than 87 million Facebook users, Mark Zuckerberg posted a 15-para-
size “tend to,” as in, “those from Europe tend graph statement of the timeline of events and steps to ensure it wouldn’t
to use more low-context communication happen again.
than those from Asia.” Is this high-context or low-context communication?

Public Relations and Culture 353

Power distance Cultural Dimensions
Cultural dimension describing the
difference between cultures that To avoid stereotyping, public relations professionals (and anyone else com-
value hierarchy and authority and municating across cultural boundaries) should work to understand the vari-
those that value equal distribution ous dimensions of any group’s culture. Geert Hofstede is a Dutch social
of power.
psychologist and professor who worked for years as a management trainer at
Individualism-collectivism IBM. In that role, he traveled around the world and systematically studied
Cultural dimension describing the how IBMers operated and communicated differently in different cultures.
difference between cultures that
value loyalty to self and immediate Hofstede identified five major cultural dimensions that have been useful to
family and those that value loyalty understand and improve how people of different cultures communicate:
to larger groups and society. power distance, ­ individualism-collectivism, uncertainty avoidance,
Uncertainty avoidance masculinity-­femininity and long-term orientation. (Figure 13.1).16
Cultural dimension describing the Cultures with high power distance tend to be hierarchical, while those
difference between cultures that are with lower power distance tend to be more egalitarian. In PRSA’s Public Rela-
uncomfortable with ambiguity (high
uncertainty avoidance) and those tions Tactics, global public relations author and professor Kara Alaimo ex-
that are at ease with ambiguity. plains how this can impact relationship building:
Masculinity-femininity
Cultural dimension describing the Researchers have found that, in countries with high power distance, govern-
difference between cultures that ments tend to exert significant control on society and, therefore, it is impor-
value competition, achievement and tant for PR practitioners to develop close relationships with government
material success and those that
value care, collaboration and decision-makers. It can also be harder for PR practitioners to influence orga-
modesty. nizational decision-making if they are not senior enough within their
organizations.17

• high power distance cultures value hierarchy and authority more

Power Distance • low power distance cultures value equal distribution of power more

Individualism- • individualistic cultures value loyalty to self and immediate family more
Collectivism • collectivist cultures value loyalty to larger groups and society more

Uncertainty • high uncertainty avoidance cultures are less comfortable with ambiguity
Avoidance • low uncertainty avoidance cultures are more at ease with ambiguity

Masculinity- • masculine cultures value competition, achievement and material success

more
Femininity • feminine cultures value care, collaboration and modesty more

Long-term • high long-term orientation cultures value long-held traditions more

• low long-term orientation cultures value entrepreneurship and innovation
Orientation more

Figure 13.1  Hofstede found these cultural dimensions to be helpful in understanding differences in communi-
cation styles.
With which cultural dimensions do you identify most? Which would be the hardest for you to adapt to in
practicing intercultural public relations?

354 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

 Another example is the dimension of individualism-collectivism. Indi- Long-term orientation
Cultural dimension describing the
vidualistic cultures, like the United States and Australia, value loyalty to the difference between cultures that
individual, while collectivist cultures, like China and Mexico, value loyalty to value long-held traditions and cul-
society and larger groups. Coca-Cola’s famous “Share a Coke” global campaign tures that value entrepreneurship
and innovation.
began in 2012 in Australia, featuring 150 unique names to “strengthen the
brand’s bond with Australia’s young adults”18 and connecting with the coun-
try’s individualistic society. The campaign has since expanded to more than
70 countries, like Turkey, China and the United States, taking on new forms
to resonate culturally.
Coca-Cola even embraced the diversity in the United States when it trans-
formed the “Share a Coke” cans to celebrate Hispanic Heritage Month. Most
Latin American cultures are collectivist, taking great pride in family and com-
munity. To tap into this pride, Coca-Cola created a special can with common
Hispanic last names, like Pérez and Reyes, that would create a cultural con-
nection beyond language.19 But even genuine attempts can draw ire if con-
sumers feel like public relations pawns. Though celebrated by many, the
campaign received pushback from groups like Latino Rebels, which deemed it
“hispandering” (pandering to Hispanics).20
A culture’s uncertainty avoidance index can also affect how public rela-
tions professionals communicate with publics. Individuals in high uncer-
tainty avoidance cultures are less comfortable with ambiguity. They prefer
stricter sets of rules and procedures and seek to define future outcomes as
specifically as possible. In low uncertainty avoidance cultures, individuals
are more tolerant of not knowing how things will turn out, but it is

Coca-Cola’s “Share a Coke” campaign has crossed international and cultural borders, featuring not
only individuals’ names but also more general terms like cities.
How do “Share a Coke” cans reflect Coca-Cola’s understanding of cultural dimensions?

Public Relations and Culture 355

 important to still include them in conversations about the future. An orga-
nization opening a new plant in a high uncertainty avoidance culture may
be required to present a detailed environmental impact statement showing
exactly how they expect social, natural and economic environments to be
affected.21 Lower uncertainty avoidance cultures are more likely to seek an
open-ended dialogue about the organization’s plans for a new plant, and so
town hall meetings or online forums for public discussion may be more ef-
fective ways to communicate plans and discuss options with low uncer-
tainty avoidance publics.

Case Study
Vicks Redefines “Care” Despite
Cultural Prejudice
What happens when a brand challenges a society’s traditional notions of
family, cultural values and beliefs? Vicks, an American over-the-counter
medicine brand, would find out when it launched its “Touch of Care” cam-
paign in India. The campaign highlights the story of Gauri Sawant, a trans-
gender woman who adopts a daughter who has lost both parents.22
At the Holmes Report’s PRovoke18 Global Public Relations Summit,
Rekha Rao, senior vice president of MSL in Mumbai (the PR agency for the
campaign), explained that Vicks has always stood for care—especially
­between a mother and a daughter. But, as Rao pointed out, even with the
definition of “family” changing in India, many people don’t think about
transgender women providing care just like anyone else. Vicks wanted to
show that care is what makes a family and that a “touch of care was not lim-
ited by social context.”23 But challenging these social and cultural constructs
was risky.24
On the dimension of masculinity-femininity, India is considered a mas-
culine society driven more heavily by competition and success than caring
for others. It’s also a high power distance culture that accepts unequal rights
between the privileged and those who are not.25 For years, India’s transgen-
der community was criminalized, and despite recent laws that grant
transgender people the right to self-identify, discrimination continues.26
Gauri describes how she and her daughter were ostracized by their commu-
nity: “People did not want to touch us; they did not want to sit with us.” 27
Given these cultural realities, how would Vicks break through with a
successful campaign? Strategy—and a whole lot of courage. The strategic
approach centered on creating conversations that showed respect and ap-
preciation for unconventional, caring relationships. Media and influencer

356 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

outreach focused on showing the many voices that supported Gauri and
“Touch of Care.”
In India, only 38 percent of adults are internet users. However, those
who do go online tend to have a secondary degree or to be younger.28 To
reach its audience, the communications channels had to include a mix of
traditional media (like newspapers and TV) and online and social media.
And the results spoke for themselves. Within 24 hours, the campaign
video went viral (without paid media support). The video alone garnered
4 million views in two days, and top news and trade publications in India
covered Gauri’s and Vicks’ story positively.29 Sales jumped an impressive
23 percent. And Vicks was even named “Brand of the Year” in India.30
Ed Booty, Chief Strategy Officer of Publicis Communications Asia Pa-
cific, said it best: “Great brands don’t just reflect safe and accepted norms,
instead they dare to set agendas in culture at large. That is our ambition
with this work for Vicks—to give the timeless idea of Family Care a fresh
and contemporary meaning.”31

Vicks’ “Touch of Care” campaign was met with inspired, congratulatory messages from Twitter
users in India.
What do you think made this campaign so successful?

Cultural Intelligence
Unfortunately, merely studying and understanding cultural dimensions is
not enough to ensure successful intercultural communication. Successful
communication requires cultural intelligence. London Business School Cultural intelligence
Ability to adapt, communicate and
­Professor Christopher Earley and University of Colorado Professor Elaine
interact effectively across cultures
­Mosakowski define cultural intelligence as someone’s ability to interpret the by learning and applying cognitive,
cultural nuances of others’ communications, even as an outsider. It’s someone emotional and behavioral skills.

Public Relations and Culture 357

Build fluency in who can identify features of a group of people that are universal and those
intercultural that are unique to individuals.32
Earley and Mosakowski identify three sources of cultural intelligence: head
public relations (cognitive), body (physical) and heart (emotional/motivational). Fluency in in-
with a tercultural public relations comes from a combination of head, body and heart.
combination of As professional communicators and managers, public relations professionals
head (cognition), succeed with different combinations of the three strengths.
body (behavior)
and heart HEAD (COGNITIVE)
(emotion/ Learning about high-context and low-context communication through read-
motivation). ing is mostly a cognitive endeavor. You can study foreign languages and learn
facts about cultures without ever really interacting with others from those
cultures. And, while websites and corporate training programs also offer a
wealth of knowledge, this type of knowledge is not sufficient to prepare you
for all the situations you might encounter. Before setting up a global webi-
nar, international press conference or site visit to a location where you will be
interacting with those from another culture, you’ll definitely want to study
up. The most valuable learning, however, will come from careful observation
and awareness of your surroundings during your actual foray. Earley and
Mosakowski recommend developing strategies for this immersive type of
cognitive learning:
• Think about what you hope to achieve.

• Learn from your experiences when you encounter something new in a dif-
ferent culture.
• Use those experiences to inform future actions and communication.

• Plan ahead for introductions to new people.

BODY (PHYSICAL)
Physical actions such as body motions, eye contact and gestures are a huge
part of intercultural communication. When do you shake someone’s hand?
How firmly? Do you ever hug someone in a professional setting? Who sits
where at a conference table? How much physical space should you give? How
should you dress for an in-person press conference? What about a Skype in-
terview? These are all questions of how you present yourself and interact in a
physical sense.
Let’s look at some examples across countries. A handshake is a common
and accepted way to greet others in most business settings, but you’ll want to
use a lighter grip in China and Japan. In many Latin American countries, a hug
or cheek-to-cheek kiss is not uncommon once you’ve developed a closer friend-
ship, even in a business setting.33 Be aware of eye contact as you shake hands.
While some countries view it as a sign of respect, it can be disrespectful in
others. Cultural differences exist when it comes to personal space, too. One
study found that Argentinians have the smallest personal space (about 2.5 feet
from a stranger), while Romanians have the largest (strangers should stay back

358 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

more than 4 feet).34 Someone who doesn’t understand these nuances can be
mistakenly perceived as rude on the first impression.

HEART (EMOTIONAL/MOTIVATIONAL)
The more experience we have in intercultural interaction, the more confi-
dence we build in our ability to learn and adapt. Social psychologists call this
self-efficacy, which is our belief that we can perform certain behaviors to
achieve certain outcomes. Prior experiences and successes help us build self-
efficacy, which motivates us to persist in difficult situations and learn new
strategies, which leads to more success, which leads to more self-efficacy, and
so on. It’s a virtuous cycle if you can maintain it. Stanford psychologist Albert
Bandura identified self-efficacy as a key to social learning, and social learning
is what cultural intelligence is all about. People with high emotional or moti-
vational cultural intelligence are confident they can work with others from
different cultures and find it relatively easy to adapt to different cultures and
unfamiliar cultural situations.

International Public Relations

According to the Commission on Public Relations Education, “now as never
before, the public relations field is influenced by—and has influence on—
evolving global connectedness.”35 International public relations involves
the interaction of an organization and publics across national boundaries. As
discussed in Chapter 3, globalization and global connectivity have facilitated
more opportunities for intercultural communication and cultural convergence,
which is when diverse cultures are imported, exported, exchanged and mixed.
Economic convergence is also a hallmark of globalization. Economic conver-
gence is evident when multinational advertising, marketing and communica-
tion conglomerates like Omnicom, Publicis or Burson Cohn & Wolfe (WPP)
conduct their business via subsidiaries operating across the globe. However, Guiding principles
you don’t have to work for an international company or a global agency to such as honesty,
work in international public relations. Even small organizations communi- transparency and
cate regularly across national borders.36 fairness can be
Global professional associations, like the International Public Relations applied by public
Association and the Global Alliance for Public Relations and Communications relations
Management, offer guiding principles and provisions of conduct that can be professionals
applied by public relations professionals across the globe. These include prin- across the globe.
ciples like honesty, transparency, fairness and a commitment to working in
the public interest. Self-efficacy
One’s belief that he or she can per-
For organizations practicing international public relations, the benefits
form certain behaviors to achieve
of globalization include increasing the scope of operations, making more certain outcomes.
money in new markets and opportunities for achieving greater social and en-
vironmental impact with more diverse publics. As a global business, public International public relations
Management of relationships be-
relations can help achieve consistency in messaging that is authentic and tween organizations and publics of
credible. But globalization also carries with it greater risks for unintended different nations.

International Public Relations 359

 consequences, miscommunication and faux pas. To mitigate these risks,
public relations professionals must understand the role of environmental
variables and the value of localization in public relations.

Environmental Variables
When was the last time you read a news article? Was it from a print news-
paper? Or did you come across it online through a social media feed? Did
the article change your opinion about a specific topic? Or did it reinforce
the opinion you already had? Answering these questions can help us begin
to understand how our environments influence public relations.
There are many different types of environmental variables that affect
public relations, but three of the most influential and interconnected are:
politics, the economy and media.37 Public relations professionals must
know how to adapt to these environmental variables to be successful in our
interconnected world.
POLITICS
Imagine you’re a public relations director for Greenpeace, an international
organization that seeks to protect the environment. One of your organiza-
tion’s main goals may be to get Congress to create and pass a law that bans
single-use plastic. At the same time that you’re gathering support and peti-
tion signatures, plastic manufacturers and the groups that represent them
may be lobbying for just the opposite. Bipartisanship and existing laws may
pose roadblocks that hinder your ability to effect change, too. Politics—
from the governmental systems to ideology and policy—affect public rela-
tions practice, and vice versa.
In December 2018, an animated commercial from Iceland Foods (a
British grocery retailer) was banned from airing on TV in the United
­K ingdom. The commercial, which highlights the impact of palm oil on
­deforestation and the orangutan population, closed with Iceland Foods’
commitment to remove palm oil from its own-label products. The reason
for the ban? The Communications Act 2003 is a UK law that prohibits
­political advertising. Because the commercial from Iceland Foods was
­originally created by Greenpeace—an organization that could not prove it
wasn’t a political advertiser—the ad was banned.38
Without TV, Iceland Foods turned to public relations to drive results.
The campaign video amassed more than 65 million views across social media
and Iceland’s owned channels. It also resulted in more than 700 pieces of
media coverage and endorsements from celebrities like James Corden. One
petition on Change.org asking for the ban to be overturned garnered more
than 1 million signatures. What’s more, sales increased for Iceland Foods.39
The very ban (and law) that attempted to stop the campaign was what
boosted its visibility.
Most research suggests that public relations is most advanced in demo-
cratic countries where there are multiple centers of power and groups com-
pete to influence policy,40 like the United States and United Kingdom. Of
course, this doesn’t mean that there is no role for public relations in countries

360 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

Social media and endorsements from celebrities like British comedian James Corden, who is well-
known in the United States, stretched this campaign beyond national borders.
How might this campaign be perceived differently in other countries and cultures?

governed by monarchies and authoritarian regimes.41 However, it does sug-

gest that public relations professionals should candidly consider the role of
politics—and how it can inform and affect their efforts—in the countries in
which they work.

THE ECONOMY
Believe it or not, a course in macroeconomics or microeconomics can help
you better understand and practice public relations, too. That’s because eco-
nomic systems and conditions, including poverty and literacy rates, affect
the public relations industry both at home and abroad. Professor Hong Tien
Vu, whose research focuses on global and development communication and
digital media, describes this simply:

When you have enough economic resources, you can think about things like
the environment or gender equality. When you’re living in poverty, it’s hard
to think about anything other than putting food on the table.42

This presents a unique set of challenges for public relations profession-

als in developing countries. Individuals’ literacy, access to media and the

International Public Relations 361

Two-way number of information sources available can vary drastically. Two-way
communication communication (see Chapter 1) can be particularly challenging when your
publics don’t have the information or resources to engage in dialogue.43
can be particularly The term digital divide refers to a gap in access to digital information
challenging when and communication technologies. The digital divide concept is a relative
your publics don’t one—meaning that it could be used to describe the difference between pop-
have the ulations that are completely wired with the latest 5G internet connections
information or and those that have slower access to the internet; or, it could be used to
resources to describe the relative difference between parts of the globe with internet
engage in dialogue. access and parts of the globe without any access at all. Pew Research Center
surveys of 11 emerging and developing countries in 2018 found that the
majority of adults in all but one country, India, are internet users, pointing
to the growth of mobile connectivity (Figure 13.2). The center suggests that
digital devices can create “swift and encompassing cultural change” in
Digital divide emerging economies, even more dramatic than the effect in developed
Gap between those people with countries.44
relatively little access to and use of
Economic downturns, like recessions, can impact the public relations in-
information and communication
technologies and those people with dustry, too. According to a study by the USC School of Communication, the
greater access and usage. Great Recession that occurred between 2007 and 2009 resulted in smaller
budgets and employee cuts for many public rela-
In most emerging economies surveyed, tions agencies.45 But not all organizations cut back
a majority of adults go online during these tough times—auto brand Subaru
% of adults who say they use the internet doubled down on public relations instead. A con-
sistent message of “people love Subaru” and proac-
Jordan 87% tive storytelling resulted in record sales for Subaru
Lebanon 87 during the recession.46
Mexico 81
MEDIA
Colombia 80
The Economist reported a “global slump in press
Venezuela 77
freedom” in 2018.47 The First Amendment rights
South Africa 74
of journalists and media in the United States are
Vietnam 74
not the same across the globe. In China, the gov-
Tunisia 67 ernment tightly controls and censors the media,
Philippines 65 including online and social media (Facebook and
Kenya 62 Twitter are blocked, for example), in what jour-
India 38 nalist James Griffiths calls “The Great Firewall of
MEDIAN 74 China.”48 Recent studies by think tank Freedom
House (an independent watchdog organization
Note: Internet users include those who say they use the internet.
use at least one social media platform or messaging app, or own or dedicated to expanding freedom globally)49
share a smartphone or feature phone. found that freedom of press is worsening in
Source: Mobile Technology and its Social Impact Survey 2018.
“Mobile Connectivity in Emerging Economies”
countries like Brazil, Argentina and Colombia,
too.50 Knowing if and how media are controlled
PEW RESEARCH CENTER can impact the channels you choose to communi-
Figure 13.2 Data from the Pew Research Center show that adults
cate with your publics—and how effective those
in emerging economies are increasingly accessing the internet. channels are.
How might practicing public relations in Jordan be different from The way individuals perceive and consume
practicing public relations in India? media differs internationally, too. The 2019

362 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

On World Press Freedom Day, protestors in the Philippines march for press freedoms and demo-
cratic rights.
How might governmental media control impact public relations efforts?

Edelman Trust Barometer, an annual global study that surveys 26 markets

(including the United States, Brazil, Germany, South Korea and the United
Arab Emirates), found that although trust in media grew globally, media
was still the least trusted institution compared to businesses, nongovern-
mental organizations (NGOs) and government. But how trust played out in
each of the 26 markets varied; people in China and Indonesia were the most
trusting of media, while those in Russia and Turkey were the least trusting.
Globally, traditional media and search engines were more trusted than
social media.51
When it comes to media consumption, global trends point to the growth
of online TV and news consumption. Still, that’s not true of people in all coun-
tries. For example, France, Germany and Belgium spend longer times with
traditional media (like linear TV, newspapers and magazines) than with digi-
tal media.52
In the 2000s, social scientists started to pay attention to a second type
of digital divide: the usage divide. The usage divide (or second digital
divide) focuses on differences in how people from different groups (or
Usage divide (or second digital
publics in the case of public relations) actually use the technologies to divide)
which they have access. Even if our publics have access to the same com- Gap between people who use infor-
munication technologies we use, it doesn’t mean they’re using that tech- mation and communication tech-
nology to access news or engage with organizations. We have to be careful nologies for education, self-better-
ment, civic engagement, etc. and
not to assume that all groups use technology and digital media in the same those who use the technologies for
way we do. less constructive reasons.

International Public Relations 363

 LOCALIZATION
According to senior global public relations leader Amanda Glasgow, “There
is no such thing as global public relations.” In a thought leadership essay for
the International Public Relations Association, she explains:

On the most basic level global public relations doesn’t work because as most
PR practitioners will tell you, the best PR is local. Good PR gets at insights
that are specific to a consumer, or has a flavor that is distinctive to her
country, her city, her neighborhood.53

Similarly, global public relations agency Weber Shandwick emphasizes

the importance of globalizing strategies and standards, but localizing tac-
tics.54 A survey of senior corporate communication executives for large
multinational companies found that “global integration” called for consis-
Importing public tent brand positioning and the quick flow of knowledge across global teams,
relations ideas but that didn’t mean replicating tactics in multiple countries. Participants
from other stressed that while introducing ideas from other countries may work, it
countries may should be the local markets that make those decisions.55 Some of the most
work, but it should commonly localized tactics are those associated with media relations, such
be the local as press releases, media pitching and news conferences. Others include tac-
markets that make tics like digital and social media, identifying local spokespeople and influ-
those decisions. encers, and hosting special events.56
Visa’s Everywhere Initiative is an example of a program that has sup-
ported startups and entrepreneurs across 75 countries in North America,
Latin America, Europe, Asia, the Middle East and Africa. Across the globe,
the program’s core concept of inviting startups to tackle financial tech
challenges remains consistent; yet, the challenges are uniquely tailored to
each local region. For example, in South Korea, one challenge focused on
creating richer experiences for international travelers because the number
of travelers had nearly tripled in nine years.57 Meanwhile in the United
States, another challenge focused on making it easier for companies to
adopt digital payments58 because data show that many small business
owners still opt for paper checks as a primary payment method.59
In 2019, Visa broadened this regional approach with the launch of the
“Visa Everywhere Initiative: Women’s Global Edition,” a worldwide program
that invites women entrepreneurs to tackle a financial technology or social
impact challenge, showing how their businesses are driving change in areas
like financial literacy, environmental sustainability, gender equality and hu-
manitarian relief.60 The program is rooted in global research: the Global En-
trepreneurship Monitor reports that “163 million women were starting
businesses across 74 economies worldwide.”61
Global public relations must achieve a delicate balance between stan-
dardization and localization. Making sure your practices and messages are
consistent but still reflect local realities takes mindful work and can be
tricky. Add to that the global reach of social media, and it can be even more
challenging to anticipate how your publics (and even those who are not)
will react.

364 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

Localization is not merely translation. A Google Translate search of the word “car” yields six Italian
words. While all of these are accurate translations, the proper word choice can vary by region and
context. Work with and hire local translators and public relations professionals to avoid mishaps or
embarrassing moments.
How might you ensure your word choice is best understood by your publics?

Case Study
Mastercard’s World Cup Campaign
Gets a Red Card
Some consider soccer’s popularity and rise a symbol of globalization. In his
book The World Through Soccer: The Cultural Impact of a Global Sport, Profes-
sor Tarim Bar-On compares soccer to a secular religion with devoted fans
and revered deities (e.g., soccer stars).62
More than half of the world’s population watched the 2018 FIFA World
Cup,63 an international soccer tournament in which 32 teams representing
their home countries competed against one another. About 10 percent of
those viewers were from South America alone.64
You might understand, then, why the World Cup is such an appealing
cultural moment for brands. Long-time FIFA World Cup partners include
Adidas, Coca-Cola and Visa.65 But even organizations that are not official
partners or sponsors want in on the action—and they often find loopholes
to engage their audiences without ever mentioning the actual tournament.
That was Mastercard’s plan in 2018 with its “Start Something Priceless”
campaign in Latin America and the Caribbean.66 As part of the broader

International Public Relations 365

 campaign, the credit card company partnered with soccer stars Lionel Messi (of
Argentina) and Neymar Jr. (of Brazil). It planned to donate the equivalent of
10,000 meals to the World Food Programme to fight childhood hunger in Latin
America and the Caribbean every time one of the two players scored a goal.67
More than 39 million people were living in hunger in Latin America
and the Caribbean that year, an increase of nearly half a million from previ-
ous years. Of that 39 million, 5.1 million children under five years old suf-
fered from chronic malnutrition.68
Neymar Jr. expressed his support of the effort: “Latin Americans know we
can do great things when we come together, and this is an example of that. To-
gether we can fight hunger.”69 But even with the backing of two of the biggest
names in soccer, backlash on social media was swift. Though many thanked the
brand for its efforts, others—especially in the UK and Europe—criticized the
campaign, calling it a “publicity stunt” and comparing it to the “hunger games.”
Some suggested Mastercard donate the funds, instead of gamifying hunger.70

This tweet from MasterCard’s Twitter account in Latin America prompted a deluge of negative
comments.
How might social media prompt unexpected responses to regional public relations efforts?

366 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

 At first, Mastercard’s response was to defend its stance, stating, “This
campaign is a small part of our overall global commitment [with WFP] to
deliver 100 million meals to those in need of food assistance.” But ultimately,
in the face of escalating backlash, the brand nixed the campaign altogether,
instead donating 1 million meals to the World Food Programme that year.71
Though Mastercard’s campaign was likely well intended, it distracted
from the real economic and social issue: Malnutrition and hunger are in-
creasing in Latin America and the Caribbean—and the world. Even though
it was a targeted, regional campaign, social media users let it be heard around
the world that they did not want to make a game of feeding the hungry.

Public Diplomacy
Public diplomacy is an important subset of international public relations
that deals with communication designed to promote national interests. In
most cases, this means that the organization, a key public, or both, are na-
tions, but in certain cases diplomatic actors may include non-state organiza-
tions such as NGOs or corporations. If you work in communications for a
government organization like the U.S. Department of State or for a U.S. Em-
bassy or Consulate, or if you work for one of these departments’ counterparts
in another nation, your job will likely entail public diplomacy with the broad-
est mission of promoting national interests abroad. You may also be involved
in public diplomacy working for an NGO or corporation.
Consider the Tech for Good Summit, which was hosted in 2018 by French
president Emmanuel Macron, amid growing concern about the role of tech-
nology in society.72 Fifty CEOs and top executives from the world’s leading
technology companies, like Accenture, Facebook, Microsoft and Uber, at-
tended the summit to discuss how technology can positively contribute to so-
ciety.73 And many even made concrete commitments at the summit. Uber, for
example, committed to providing free health insurance to its 150,000 drivers
in Europe. At the same time, Macron, who has talked about transforming
Public diplomacy
France into a world leader in artificial intelligence (even funding a €1.5 billion
Subset of international public rela-
plan),74 made it clear that France’s ardent support for innovation is coupled tions that focuses on promoting
with a call for tougher regulation and working for the common good.75 To the national interests.
degree that these corporations and the French government worked to influ-
Mediated public diplomacy
ence one another and effect change, they were practicing public diplomacy as A nation’s strategic use of media to
a form of international public relations. promote its agenda abroad to for-
In discussing public diplomacy as a form of public relations, Professor eign publics.
Guy Golan defines two key perspectives. First is mediated public diplomacy, Relational public diplomacy
which is a nation’s strategic use of media to promote its agenda and “impact Engagement between a nation and
its foreign publics in cultural ex-
opinions held by targeted foreign audiences.”76 The second approach is rela-
change and two-way communica-
tional public diplomacy, which is engagement between a nation and its for- tion with the goal of achieving
eign publics in cultural exchange and two-way communication with the goal mutual benefits.

Public Diplomacy 367

 Global technology CEOs and French leaders met in Paris for the Tech for Good Summit in 2018.
Use media to gain Why might corporations want to develop close relationships with nations abroad?
favorable exposure
that helps set the of achieving mutual benefits. Mediated public diplomacy aligns well with the
stage for more public information and asymmetrical models of public relations that were
interactive outlined in Chapter 2. Relational public diplomacy fits better with two-way
relationship models and the symmetrical ideal. Golan recommends integrating the two
building in public approaches, using media to gain favorable international coverage that helps
diplomacy. set the stage for more interactive relationship building.

Voices from the Field

Patrick Ford

PATRICK FORD is an industry leader who has been positions as varied as U.S. CEO, Asia-Pacific chair,
recognized for his contributions to the practice of global Corporate Practice chair and U.S. Corporate
public relations by the PR Council, PRWeek, the Practice chair. Ford specializes in corporate reputation
Institute for Public Relations and the Plank Center for management, senior executive communications, media
Leadership in Public Relations. Ford is a visiting strategy, and issues and crisis management.
professional in residence at the University of Florida.
Prior to this role, he was most recently Burson- What’s the most challenging intercultural com-
Marstellar’s worldwide vice chair and chief client munication situation you’ve observed in your
officer. During his 29 years at the firm, he held public relations work?

368 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

Running the Asia-Pacific region for a global agency Every aspect of this process presents more opportuni-
with 18 offices and 11 affiliates was the most exciting ties than ever for public relations departments, agen-
experience of my career but also the most challeng- cies and professionals. This is a significant factor in
ing with regard to the political, economic and cultural explaining why chief communications officers are in-
diversity in the region. On one hand, China’s eco- creasingly seen as C-suite level positions. As business
nomic growth, the expansion of its consumer base globalization creates even greater need for under-
and its increasing engagement with other world standing and engaging with stakeholders, the opportu-
economies have combined to create robust opportu- nities for public relations will continue to grow.
nities for global corporations and agencies. At the
same time, multinational companies face daunting How do you see public relations practitioners
regulatory barriers and must adapt their digital and adapting to differences in politics, the econ-
social media engagement systems. Because China omy and media across the globe?
blocks or restricts many Western platforms, including Multinational companies, agencies, and nonprofit organi-
Twitter, Facebook, Google and YouTube, companies zations have long been accustomed to navigating a host
must deal with other online platforms that operate in of political, regulatory, cultural, language and economic
their place, including Weibo, WeChat and Baidu. And differences in various countries and regions of the
as they build their local staffing with Chinese nation- world. For today’s and tomorrow’s public relations prac-
als, they must be sensitive to the profound differ- titioners, who have major responsibility for protecting
ences in their background and understanding of corporate and product brands, the challenges are mag-
western norms. nified because of the speed and ubiquity of digital and
social media. Even in societies in which government
What can students do to prepare for interna- restricts access to information, public relations practitio-
tional and intercultural public relations assign- ners play a major role in their companies’ efforts to
ments in advance? engage with key stakeholders while complying with and
These are exciting times for new public relations pro- respecting legal, economic and cultural boundaries.
fessionals, but you need to be proactive and strate-
gic about how you prepare for those opportunities. Given changes in demographics and technol-
Learn a second language, spoken in whatever part of ogy, how are new public relations practitioners
the world you aspire to work in later. In addition, par- entering the field more prepared?
ticipate in some sort of study-abroad program or They are entering the field with a high degree of digital
secure internships in other countries, and take lots of sophistication and social media fluency, so they are
notes. There are few things more valuable for one’s better equipped to source data and recognize produc-
professional development than seizing opportunities tive ways to engage with stakeholders online. They
to immerse oneself in a foreign business community also have access to a wider range of in-depth case
and culture. If international travel is not an option, studies, which should make them better prepared to
then take some sort of international relations course anticipate stakeholders’ expectations. In addition, they
and seek out international public relations and/or have opportunities to gain highly valuable hands-on
business courses that address the challenges in- experience in a range of intern positions at major com-
volved in transnational business management. panies, agencies and nonprofits. And an increasing
number of universities are offering on-campus pro-
What do you consider to be the greatest op- grams that can also enrich one’s professional develop-
portunity for public relations as a field arising ment, such as PRSSA and student-run agencies, and
from trends in globalization? competitions such as Bateman and the Page Case
Public relations practitioners should be—and in the Study competition. Most importantly, new profession-
best situations are—key players in building and pro- als are emerging from more diverse generations, and
tecting corporate and brand reputation. We help the thus will be better equipped than any of their prede-
CEO and other C-suite executives express the compa- cessors to address some of the most important needs
nies’ values and mission, and we measure the compa- in today’s communications world: diversity, equity and
nies’ performance on those values and regularly inclusivity at all levels of our profession.
analyze the perceptions of key stakeholders through
rigorous qualitative and quantitative research.

Public Diplomacy 369

Dialogic communication
Exchanges involving people com- Ethics: Dialogic Ethics
municating their own views and
backgrounds while remaining com- In his 1923 book I and Thou, Austrian-born philosopher Martin Buber devel-
pletely open to seeing the world as oped the concept of dialogue to explain how people come to understand their
others do.
own existence through their interactions and relationships with others.
Monologic communication ­Dialogic communication happens when people enter into an exchange with
Communication in which one party an understanding of their own views and backgrounds but also with complete
attempts to impose its view on
others. openness to seeing the world as others do.
The opposite of dialogic communication is monologic communication,
in which communicators strive to impose their views on others. How might
this play out in your college classroom? Monologic communication happens
when your professors assert their authority and limit opportunities for stu-
dent collaboration and discourse. Where dialogic communication occurs, pro-
fessors and students alike openly express and exchange their views. As you
might have experienced, this often occurs on a continuum, rather than only
one way or the other.77
Ethicists hold that the day-to-day practice of public relations leans too
much toward monologic and not enough toward dialogic communication.
They consider monologic public relations to be less ethical because it treats
publics as less important than the powerful organizations conducting public
relations. Dialogic public relations facilitates a fairer balance of power, and
the growth of the internet and social media as tools for public relations has
led a number of public relations scholars to focus on the concept of dialogue
as an ethical guidepost.

When this photo of bagels sliced like loaves of bread went viral, Panera posed a question to its
followers, admitting that its own team was divided on the #Bagelgate debate.
Why might this be considered an example of dialogic communication?

370 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

 Asking questions on Twitter (which often start with “Ok Twitter” or “This
is crazy, but”) has become somewhat of a viral sensation. The Daily Beast re-
ported that question tweets are a popular trend: “They’re open-ended. They’re
designed to elicit quick responses. And they’re absolutely everywhere.”78 But,
think about the last time a brand you follow asked an open-ended question on
Twitter. Did it feel like an earnest attempt to openly exchange ideas, or just
another way to make a sale?
Studies have found that though a majority of Fortune 500 companies use
Twitter in a dialogic way, there are still many that don’t. Generally, companies
respond to tweets from other users and post newsworthy information about
the company. But less than a third of tweets pose questions that promote dia-
logue with others.79 There’s also typically a lack of transparency—you don’t
necessarily know who is behind the screen tweeting on behalf of the
company.
The decision between monologic and dialogic public relations parallels
questions of one-way versus two-way communication (Chapter 1), asymmet- Successful and
rical versus symmetrical public relations (Chapter 2) and advocacy versus ac-
commodation (Chapter 12). Reasonable moral arguments can be made for
ethical public
both sides depending on the circumstances.
relations requires
In global public relations, reaching across cultural and geographical an understanding
boundaries to get to know one another better takes extra work, but it is a that not everyone
must. Successful and ethical public relations requires an understanding that shares your
not everyone shares your background and culture. It’s crucial that you take background and
the time to learn about what matters most to your publics. culture.

In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
Global interconnectedness is influ- • You will likely deal with both high-context
encing public relations, and vice tactics like texts and tweets and low-context
communication that spells out your organiza-
versa. Culture, politics, the economy tion’s goals, policies and positions.
and media all affect the way we
• Build fluency in intercultural public rela-
practice public relations globally— tions with a combination of head (cognition),
both within and across national bor- body (behavior) and heart (emotion/
motivation).
ders. This means that navigating
intercultural challenges is part of ev- • Guiding principles such as honesty, transpar-
ency and fairness can be applied by public
eryday public relations work. Here’s relations professionals across the globe.
some advice culled from the chapter:
• Two-way communication can be particularly
challenging when your publics don’t have the
• Public relations strategy should be grounded information or resources to engage in
in cultural insights and research from the dialogue.
­beginning—not as an afterthought.

Ethics: Dialogic Ethics 371

 • Introducing public relations ideas from other • Successful and ethical public relations requires
countries may work, but it should be the local an understanding that not everyone shares
markets that make those decisions. your background and culture.
• Use media to gain favorable exposure that helps
set the stage for more interactive relationship
building in public diplomacy.

SUMMARY
13.1 Apply high- and low-context communica- economies can influence how organizations
tion and cultural dimensions to public communicate with their publics internationally.
­relations strategy and practice. Though a global business, public relations
In high-context communication, most of the must also count on local perspectives that are
meaning conveyed between people lies in the relatable and credible.
context of the communication or is internal to
13.3 Examine the role of nations, corporations
the communicators. Taglines, tweets, brand
and NGOs in public diplomacy.
logos and text messages are examples of high-
Public diplomacy is a subset of international
context communication because success in
public relations that deals with communication
this type of messaging depends so heavily on
intended to promote national interests. In
the context and the meaning assigned by the
most cases, this means that the organization,
people involved. In low-context communication,
a key public, or both, are nations, but in cer-
most of the meaning lies in the message itself.
tain cases diplomatic actors may include non-
Low-context communication requires greater
state organizations such as NGOs or
elaboration and detail in composing messages.
corporations. Professionals involved in public
Understanding cultural dimensions such as
diplomacy can use media to gain favorable
power distance, individualism-collectivism, un-
international coverage that helps set the stage
certainty avoidance, masculinity-femininity and
for more interactive relationship building.
long-term orientation is an important part of
cultural intelligence that involves cognitive skill 13.4 Discuss the ethics of balanced dialogue in
in designing public relations strategy. Though global public relations.
tailoring communications to meet cultural ex- Dialogic approaches to public relations are
pectations can be effective, successful public commonly held to be more ethical than mono-
relations campaigns sometimes purposely logic approaches. The growth of the internet
challenge the status quo. and social media as tools for public relations
has led a number of public relations scholars
13.2 Explain how environmental variables, such
to focus on the concept of dialogue as an ethi-
as politics, the economy and the media
cal guidepost, because dialogue fosters equal-
can affect international public relations.
ity and may lead to an understanding of truth
Public relations professionals must know how
that arises from multiple perspectives. Equality
to adapt to environmental variables—like poli-
and mutual understanding are particularly
tics, the economy and media—in an increas-
noble aspirations for international and intercul-
ingly interconnected world. Factors like mobile
tural communication.
connectivity and internet access in emerging

372 CHAPTER 13   |   GLOBAL

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Think about the cultural movements that are about that country. Then, search the internet to
shaping the world around you. You can look to better understand its political system, economy
pop culture, politics and even fashion. Do you or media. How might what you learned online
feel you’re a part of one of these movements? If affect how you communicate with publics in that
so, why? If not, who are those most impacted by country?
these movements? 6. CASE STUDY Mastercard’s World Cup cam-
2. Identify an organization that is really good at paign was criticized by many on social
high-context communications and compare that media for gamifying hunger in Latin America
organization to one that is really strong in low- and the Caribbean. Most of its critics weren’t
context communications. Which would you even from the region. What global campaigns
rather work for and why? have you seen on social media that weren’t di-
3. How would you describe your own cultural pref- rected at you? How did they appear on your
erences, according to Hofstede’s model? (You newsfeed?
may want to try this resource: http://geert-­ 7. Explore the web presence of an international
hofstede.com/cultural-survey.html.) Which of the embassy (sites like http://embassy.goabroad
dimensions would be hardest for you to adapt to .com may be helpful). Explain how the embas-
in practicing intercultural public relations? sy’s diplomatic approach is more mediated or
4. CASE STUDY Vicks’ “Touch of Care” campaign ­relational, or if it is better described as a mix
challenged cultural beliefs and norms in India. of the two.
Think about one of your favorite brands and ex- 8. Describe an example from your own life when
amine how it resonates with your culture. Does you engaged in dialogic communication. Who
the brand tailor messages to your cultural ex- was your public? What did you learn from your
pectations or challenge them instead? experience that you could apply to public rela-
5. Select a country outside of your own and jot tions practice?
down everything you know (or think you know)

KEY TERMS
Cultural intelligence 357 Intercultural public relations 351 Power distance 354
Culture 351 International public relations 359 Public diplomacy 367
Dialogic communication 370 Long-term orientation 355 Relational public diplomacy 367
Digital divide 362 Low-context communication 352 Self-efficacy 359
Ethnocentrism 350 Low-context culture 353 Total market approach 350
High-context communication 352 Masculinity-femininity 354 Uncertainty avoidance 354
High-context culture 353 Mediated public diplomacy 367 Usage divide 363
Individualism-collectivism 354 Monologic communication 370

KEY TERMS 373

 C HAP TE R 14

Careers

Curating content on social media is a key skill in public

relations and personal brand building. How did posting a
picture of high-end bourbon work against a new hire’s
chances of making a splash right out of college?

KEY LEARNING OUTCOMES

14.1 Apply key attributes of 14.4 Plan for your own

personal branding to help you c­ ontinuing education in public
build your career. 14.3 Assess how different relations.
areas of specialization in
14.2 Identify different types public relations match your 14.5 Discuss ethical d­ ilemmas
of employers for public interests. related to the professional
­relations jobs. values of competition and
loyalty.

RELATED UNIVER SAL ACC REDITATION BOARD COMPETENCY AREAS

2.1 INTEGRIT Y • 2.2 ETHIC AL BEHAVIOR • 3.3 COUNSEL TO MANAGEMENT
5.3 ORGANIZ ATIONAL STRUC TURE AND RESOURCES • 5.5 LEADERSHIP SKILLS
Y
ou’re a CEO. You’re the world’s most valuable asset. You’re a Nike
swoosh! I can’t help but roll my eyes every time I hear a career self-
help guru drop this type of bombast on new graduates. But here’s the
thing—there’s some truth to each of these claims. You really are the chief
executive of your own career. You are your own most valuable asset in the
business you do. And as a metaphor, the Nike swoosh is as good of an image
as any to underscore the importance of your own personal brand. Decades
of research from marketing, sociology, psychology, organizational behavior
and communication affirms the concept of personal branding as a critical
career-building activity.1 What you’re learning about managing public rela-
tions work can be a tremendous help as you manage your own career too.
So far, we’ve covered how to build and maintain relationships by com-
municating on behalf of organizations to publics and communicating to or-
ganizations about publics. Now it’s time to be a little bit selfish and think
about how you represent yourself when it comes to your public relations
career. How do you build and maintain mutually beneficial relationships in
your professional networks while on the job hunt and when working in your
organizations? This chapter starts with some practical information from re-
search and theory on developing a personal brand. In a sense, we’re all always
on the job market, and our personal brands matter whether we’re actively
seeking a new employer or building our reputations in school or in a current
job. Then the chapter turns attention to the various types of employers and
areas of specialization in public relations. We’ll reach the finish line (of the
chapter and the whole book) with a cautionary tale of someone who pushed
the limits of her personal influence in advancement of her career, and we’ll
close with ethical considerations for climbing the career ladder.

Personal Branding
Researchers in the Netherlands found 100 different scholarly articles from
around the world dealing with personal branding and boiled them all
down to this one definition.

Personal branding is the strategic process of creating, positioning, and

maintaining a positive impression of oneself, based in a unique combina-
tion of individual characteristics, which signal a certain promise to the
target audience through a differentiated narrative and imagery.2

Whew! There’s a lot going on in that definition. To make sense of how this
applies to your career in public relations, consider these key attributes that
the researchers found to be core to the idea of personal branding: strategic,
positive, promising, person-centric and artifactual.
Personal branding
Strategic Strategically creating, positioning
and maintaining a positive impres-
Effective personal brands—the ones that help people get jobs and sion of yourself to signal your
­promotions—don’t happen by accident. Strategic personal brand activities ­professional promise.

Personal Branding 375

 are targeted, meaning they are designed for specific audiences/publics, and
they are coordinated for consistency across interactions. Think about how
you describe yourself on your LinkedIn profile, if your audience is prospec-
tive employers, and how you would want that to be coordinated with your
resume, and also how you describe yourself in your cover letter and face-to-
face interactions.
Sage Quiamno, a 2013 public relations graduate of the University of
Hawaii, describes herself on her LinkedIn profile as follows:

Sage Ke’alohilani Quiamno is the co-founder of Future for Us, a platform

dedicated to advancing womxn of color at work through community, cul-
ture and career development. She is a passionate pay equity advocate and
diversity, equity and inclusion champion.

On a blog outside of LinkedIn, Quiamno introduces herself this way:

I’m Sage Ke’alohilani Quiamno, a 27 year-old Native Hawaiian woman

from Hawai’i, particularly from the island of O’ahu, and the co-founder of
Future for Us, a company dedicated to accelerating the advancement of
womxn of color at work. I’m a fierce pay equity advocate, diversity, equity
and inclusion champion and overall adventure capitalist.3

Notice the strategic consistency in her self-presentation and how her pro-
file is targeted to the women she wants to help (her organization’s publics).
She also is very deliberate in her language. The term womxn highlights her
attention to issues of sexism and connotes inclusiveness. “Adventure capi-
talist” adds energy and intention.
Josh Ferrari is a 2016 public relations graduate of the University of
Florida. He describes himself on his LinkedIn profile like this:

Public relations professional based in Washington, D.C. currently leading

partnership outreach and strategic communications efforts for federal public
health campaigns. Skilled in visual communications and branding, strategy
planning and execution, partnership building and stakeholder engagement,
metrics reporting and insights generation, and materials development.4

Ferrari, too, is strategically consistent across platforms. His brief profile on

Twitter describes him as a “Communications consultant on national health
campaigns|@UF alumnus ”5 The first part effectively summarizes his
professional work in just six words. The second part adds personality and,
 
for a large alumni network audience that may be helpful in Josh’s career
building, highlights an important affiliation.

Positive
Common sense suggests the importance of staying positive in your per-
sonal branding. It’s hard to imagine anyone wanting to hire a “negative”
person. But research shows that branding yourself as positive means more

376 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

than just smiling in your profile pic or remaining upbeat in your tone. Posi-
tivity means appealing to publics by providing value and making yourself
desirable to specific audiences. Sometimes this entails differentiating your-
self by showing your willingness to work on difficult issues. Quiamno cites
staggering statistics. Women of color6:
• Make up only 4 percent of the C-suites in corporations

• Make up 20 percent of the U.S. population

• Hold 40 percent of all the low-wage jobs in the United States

• Make only 66 cents on the dollar, on average, to white males

Then Quiamno clearly states, “My goal is to change this.” This sets up
the narrative for her personal brand and the mission for her organization.
Ferrari’s mission is positive as well. As he describes on joshferrari.com,
he is: “using his background in visual and strategic communications to
effect positive behavioral health changes across the country.”7 This means
tackling issues such as drug use, underage drinking and misuse of opioids
as prescription pain medications.

Promising
In marketing, the best brands convey a promise. Ferrari’s profile highlights
how he has demonstrated higher levels of promise with awards including
“Rookie of the Year” at his current employer and working with a team to
win a PRSA Award of Excellence. Quiamno conveys promise in the form of
results too. In two separate profile pieces, she reinforced performance num-
bers including more than 75 interviews, panels and conferences with a
total audience of more than 4,000 people. “I was able to help negotiate
$500K+ in salary increases and positioned 150+ promotions for the women
I’ve met last year in five U.S. cities.” Public relations is about mutually ben-
eficial relationships, and conveying promise is a way to indicate how your
audiences and publics will benefit from a relationship with you.

Person-Centric
This characteristic reminds us not to get carried away with the product
branding metaphor. I am not a tennis shoe and you are not a can of soda. And
if we lose sight of the idea that what our publics are looking for is how our
personal and professional characteristics can help them, we ignore the fact
that the whole idea of personal branding is for other people to get to know us
as real humans who are good co-workers, employees, consultants and so on.
If you describe yourself as an “energetic self-starter who maximizes poten-
tial for game-changing solutions,” that doesn’t really communicate anything
meaningful about you or the work you do. It’s just a string of buzzwords.
Quiamno describes herself as a “passionate storyteller, connector and
community builder.” That is impressive, but it’s the following sentence that
makes it even more personal and appealing. “I believe because of my Hawai-
ian culture, this gift is in my blood and a part of my core ethos.”

Personal Branding 377

 The self as a product is a metaphor.
How is personal branding different from product branding?

There’s a fine line between personality and TMI (too much informa-
There’s a fine line tion). In your professional accounts and social media profiles that are public
between (and to be safe, you should assume that just about anything shared on social
personality and media platforms can be made public), take care to not post anything you
TMI . . . take care think would take you out of consideration for a job someday. This isn’t to
to not post say you shouldn’t show personality in your professional profiles. Everyone,
anything you think even hiring managers, understands that you have a personal life. Just prac-
would take you out tice good judgment. For example, on his website, Ferrari briefly mentions
of consideration his cats Ty and Archie and his proclivity for rearranging furniture. It helps
for a job someday. readers relate to him as a real person.
Again, use what you’ve learned about public relations to make wise de-
cisions based on an understanding of your key publics and the relationships
you wish to maintain with them. Good decision-making about what is ap-
propriate for public presentation will be a big part of your appeal as a public
relations professional.

Artifactual
All brands need artifacts. Nike’s swoosh, Pabst’s blue ribbon, and Mercedes’
three-pointed star are among the world’s iconic logos. Look at your phone
for actual icons that are artifacts of brands. I can almost smell coffee when
I see the Starbucks icon on my phone, feel my heart rate go up when I see
the Garmin Connect fitness icon, and start planning travel when I see the
Delta app. Logos on stationery, color schemes on signage, and even “sound
logos” such as ESPN’s SportsCenter theme that chimes when a new score or

378 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

update is announced on my phone all also are artifacts that signal brands.
What signals your personal brand? Researchers have studied LinkedIn
photos, ePortfolios, YouTube videos and even narrated Instagram selfies as
brand artifacts.8

Online profiles are a key part of personal branding.

How are these two public relations graduates strategic, positive, promising, person-centric
and artifactual in their self-presentation?

Personal Branding 379

 Most platforms allow us to select and feature a profile picture. That along
with our preferred name is the most basic form of artifactual branding. Your
account handles and email addresses also matter. An Ohio State master’s
student once ran a thesis experiment comparing how people rated resumes
with unprofessional email addresses (e.g., drunkensquirl@, HtoTHE-
hizzy03@) compared to the exact same resumes with more standard email
addresses (e.g., mharmon@, jsmith8888@). All else being equal, resume read-
ers in the experiment rated applicants with less professional email addresses
lower in effort, personal responsibility, conscientiousness and motivation
than those with standard email addresses.9 In addition to your email ad-
dress, account names, and profile pictures, remember that your narrative
biography, resume items, and any accompanying graphics or images are also
personal brand artifacts that represent your writing and design skills.

Internships and Projects

Ferrari and Quiamno were three and six years out of college, respectively,
when I checked in on their profiles and personal brand development. If
you’re still in school, your brand may not be as well developed, but these
five attributes (strategic, positive, promising, person-centric and artifactual)
should still be helpful as you maintain your current personal brand and
plan for the future. Finding and completing meaningful projects and

380 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

internships before you enter the world of full-time career work will be es-
pecially important. In fact, the push for more attention to personal brand-
ing in career building has largely been attributed to trends in the economy
that are leading workers to take more ownership of their career paths with
less reliance on long-term employers. In a gig economy, contract workers
really are their own CEOs. In advertising, it’s been said that you are only
as good as your last ad.10 In public relations, you may be judged on your
latest blog posts, bylined articles, event plans or influencer lists. But before
you start picturing yourself as the Lyft driver version of a PR pro, take
note that the vast majority of solo public relations professionals have dec-
ades of experience before they are sought as independent consultants.11
Although you likely don’t expect to work for any one organization for
your whole career, you also must realize the importance of loyalty to your
employers while you work for them, even in internships. “Put your agency
first,” advises Crispin Porter Bogusky CEO Andrew Keller as he reflects on
early jobs in his own career track. That kind of loyalty acknowledges the
importance of putting in the time with organizations early in your career as
you build your brand and earn new opportunities.

Early on, I worked on new biz materials for the agency. It wasn’t going to
win me an award or go in my book. In the end, I learned so much. That
had a huge impact on me and how the agency perceived me. It created a
lot of opportunities.12

Of course, agencies are only one place to start and build careers in public
relations. The next section describes a range of different types of employers.

Employers
One of your first major considerations in thinking about a career in public rela-
tions is what type of employer you want to work for. Discussed throughout this
book are cases and examples of public relations conducted by global agencies,
for-profit companies, nonprofit organizations, international NGOs and gov-
ernment agencies. During the course of your career, you may work for organi-
zations as big as the U.S. Department of Defense or Wal-Mart, or as small as a
two-person business. Or maybe you will eventually start your own firm and
become your own boss. As you launch your career, all options are on the table.

Agencies
For many aspiring public relations professionals, an agency job is the first
position that comes to mind when they think about starting in the busi- Gig economy
ness, and agencies are certainly great places to launch and build careers. A trend in which people increas-
Agencies provide corporate clients with specialized services including re- ingly are hired for short periods of
time to complete specific tasks or
search, campaign planning and implementation, speechwriting, crisis
projects, including freelancers, in-
management, special events and so on, but most large companies also in- dependent contractors and part-
clude in-house public relations departments. time hires.

Employers 381
Top 10 Global PR Agency Ranking 2019 Agencies range in size from two- to three-per-
Fee Income son shops to the biggest public relations firms in
Ranking Agency HQ
2018 ($) the world like ­Edelman, Weber Shandwick, Fleish-
1 Edelman USA 888,405,000
manHillard and ­Ketchum (Figure 14.1). The big-
2 Weber Shandwick USA 840,000,000 gest agencies have tens of thousands of employees
3 BCW USA 723,000,000 spread across offices all over the world. Agencies
4 FleishmanHillard USA 605,000,000 serve multiple clients, very often in different busi-
5 Ketchum USA 545,000,000 nesses. This means that if you work for an agency,
6 MSL France 450,000,000 you’ll likely have an opportunity to work on mul-
7 Hill+Knowlton Strategies USA 400,000,000 tiple projects for multiple organizations.
8 Ogilvy USA 388,000,000 In mid-size to large agencies, client work is
9 BlueFocus China 336,372,995 assigned to account teams. Each client has an ac-
10 Brunswick UK 280,000,000 count with the agency, and agency employees
work on multiple accounts simultaneously. From
Figure 14.1  The Holmes Report ranks the world’s largest public entry level to executive leadership, traditional
relations agencies and provides other ranking data each year.
jobs in agencies include the following:
What are the benefits of working in a big agency early in your
career? •  Account assistant

•  Account coordinator
•  Account executive
•  Senior account executive
• Account supervisor
• Director
• Vice president
The salary for an entry-level account coordinator in an agency ranges
from just over $30,000 to the low $50,000s with a median of about $39,000,
according to PayScale.com data in 2019.13
Of course, different agencies offer different salaries and different job
titles. Convergence and integration have led many firms to rethink how they
organize teams and name positions. The work can be nonstop and involve
ridiculous amounts of multitasking as employees jump between account
projects and urgent client demands, but those who succeed gain experience
If you start at an in a hurry. This combination of jam-packed workdays (and nights), steep
agency, be learning curves and fast-growing professional networks also means that
prepared to move there is quite a bit of turnover. It’s not uncommon for rising stars to move up
through multiple through two or three positions in their first few years on the job, and often
positions in your these job changes include lateral moves from one agency to another.
first few years. Many young professionals find that agency work just isn’t for them.
Some will move to other careers altogether. Others will go to work doing
public relations for other types of organizations, often finding their new
positions with the help of contacts they made in agencies.

Corporations
Working in-house as a full-time employee of one company means that your
responsibility in managing organization-public relationships is primarily
382 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS
to a single organization. A corporate job on the client
side may look like a posh gig—you have only one
“client” to serve, the schedule may be more predicta-
ble, and pay is often higher. For example, compared to
the median salary of $39,000 for account coordina-
tors, the median salary for communication special-
ists working in-house at a corporation is $51,000.14
Keep in mind, however, that the person making $50k
working in-house very likely has more years of expe-
rience than the entry-level account coordinator at an
agency.
In addition, while you may have only one client to
serve working in-house, you will still be responsible
to many publics. Corporate jobs focus on customers
(marketing communications), investors (financial re-
lations), government agencies (public affairs), em-
ployees (internal relations) and the publics who live
wherever companies operate (community relations).
Large corporations may employ separate depart-
ments for each of these publics and may also hire
public relations agencies for help with various func-
tions, but the departments must still work together.
As discussed in Chapter 4, corporate social re-
sponsibility programs (CSR) have become more
common in response to negative public sentiment
about corporations and their impact on society and
the environment. CSR efforts are a prime example
of the importance of balancing the interests of vari-
ous stakeholders, even if you work only for a single
organization.

Nonprofits and NGOs

By definition, nonprofit organizations exist to do
something other than make money for shareholders.
Nonprofit work may appeal to people who work hard
to support the missions of those organizations, such
as health, education and environmental causes. While
nonprofits often benefit from the service of volun-
teers, as strategic organizations they operate with
business models that require full-time paid staff.
Public relations jobs in nonprofits are often just
as demanding and require just as much accountabil-
ity as corporate jobs. In addition, in many ways the
stakes are higher at nonprofits because public health,
Agencies provide great learning experiences.
education, social justice and the environment depend
What appeals to you least and most about working in an agency?
on them.

Employers 383
 Moving from working in an agency to working in a corporation is a common career move.
How are corporate public relations jobs different from agency jobs?

Public relations In general, public relations management in nonprofits involves similar

jobs in nonprofits strat­egies and skills as for-profits (media relations and publicity, branding,
community relations, public affairs, etc.). However, a major difference be-
are just as tween nonprofits and corporations is the key publics of donors and volun-
demanding and teers. Fundraising and volunteer management are critical to public relations
require just as success at nonprofits.
much Similar to agencies, pay at nonprofits can start low—below $30,000 for
accountability as entry-level jobs, but salaries for communications directors at U.S. nonprof-
corporate jobs. its range from the $30,000s to $125,000 with a median of $60,000, accord-
ing to one report of 2018 data.15
Nongovernment organizations (NGOs) are one type of nonprofit. NGOs
are organized at local, national or international levels and advocate fiercely
for humanitarian and environmental causes. Many NGOs work closely
with the United Nations, and their relationships with corporations and
governments range from contentious to cooperative.

Government
According to the World Economic Forum, the U.S. Department of Defense
(DOD) is the largest employer in the world. The DOD employs thousands of
people—civilian and military—in public relations–related positions, and
defense is only one sector of government jobs that include local, state and
federal positions. Despite the fact that government public relations jobs are
labeled with titles like “public affairs coordinator” and “public information
officer,” the U.S. government has been said to be the world’s largest em-
ployer of public relations people. A quick search on USAJOBS.gov for the

384 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

exact words “public affairs” returned 148
open positions. The results included jobs
with the Department of the Army, the
Bureau of Land Management in the De-
partment of the Interior, and the Drug
­Enforcement Administration in the De-
partment of Justice. Two of the jobs are
listed as unpaid internships. Four of the
jobs pay less than $30,000. The majority
pay between $30,000 and $100,000, with
the most common job title for positions in
the $25,000–$50,000 range being “public
affairs specialist.”
Historically, government jobs have
been known for stability and good benefits.
One of the downsides, however, is that
large government agencies are often bur-
dened with bureaucratic inefficiencies,
which can be frustrating to employees as
well as their primary publics—namely,
taxpayers. Whereas businesses rely on cli-
ents and customers for revenue, and non-
profits rely more on donors, government
agencies are funded by taxpayers. As a tax-
payer yourself, you’ve probably been frus- As part of the federal government, the Bureau of Land Management in the
Department of the Interior hires often for public relations.
trated at times with local, state or federal
government operations. That said, these Which government agencies would you consider working for?

same agencies provide essential public ser-

vices, and their communication functions
are critical to democratic societies.
As noted throughout this book, open communication and access to in-
formation about government operations is a foundation of democracies.
The “information age” in many ways has opened government information
to easier access than ever before (the USAJOBS.org site is a good example),
and public relations jobs play a key role in how our societies continue to
evolve.

Self-Employment and Small Business

On the opposite end of the spectrum from jobs with enormous government
organizations are small businesses—millions of them worldwide. In the
United States, small businesses accounted for 66 percent of new jobs created
from 2000 to 2017.16 These statistics from the Small Business Administration
refer to organizations with fewer than 500 employees, but you may plan to
work in a business comprised of just a few people. More than 12 million
Americans work for companies with fewer than 10 employees.17 Most of these
organizations do not have a full-time position or department labeled “public

Employers 385
 relations,” but all of them will require man-
aging relationships with publics.
Whether you are writing code, renting
sailboats or wrapping burritos, you’ll need
to be much more of a generalist in small
businesses compared to large companies,
nonprofits or government organizations.
Instead of specializing in only the commu-
nication function, you will likely be in-
volved in core operations in addition to
building and maintaining relationships
with customers, vendors, regulators, banks
and investors and media. If your budget for
promotions is small, you may rely more on
Small business owners, startups and self-employed public relations practitio- social media and word of mouth. But good
ners often work in home offices or co-working spaces such as Camp David in media relations can still lead to big hits in
Brooklyn, N.Y. influential channels, if you know how to
What do you see as the advantages and disadvantages of this type of tell and pitch your stories well (Chapters 4
work environment? and 9).
As an owner, operator, partner or em-
If you work for a ployee of a small business you will be directly responsible to your organiza-
small business, tion for key management decisions. You will also be directly accountable to
you’ll need to be publics for the outcomes and effects of those decisions. In this sense, work-
much more of a ing in a small organization can be seen as one of the purest forms of public
generalist. relations as a management function. Also, many public relations agencies
are small businesses themselves and offer opportunities for internships
and entry-level jobs that expose you to all facets of client service work from
top to bottom.

Areas of Specialization
You’ll find as many different areas of specialization in public relations as
there are different missions of organizations. That said, some of the major
categories are healthcare, sports and entertainment, political and public
affairs, financial and entrepreneurial, consumer and international public
relations. Within each category are countless types of public relations
jobs. This section briefly outlines some major areas of specialization.

Health
The goals of healthcare are as universal as the human race. From family
planning to end-of-life hospice care, governments, NGOs, hospitals (for-
profit and nonprofit), private physicians, pharmaceutical companies, edu-
cational and research institutions, and medical device manufacturers are
only some of the organizations that have a stake in fighting disease, caring
for the ill and keeping healthy people healthy. Most of these organizations

386 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

Effective health communication requires excellent public relations skills and strategy.
What have you learned about public relations that would help you in a health communica-
tion career?

retain public relations staff, and many hire public relations agencies. The It takes more than
PR Council, a group of more than 100 of America’s leading firms, reports enthusiasm to
that healthcare is one of public relations’ biggest growth areas, accounting
for more than 15 percent of the revenue of its members.18
keep up with the
24/7 ups and
Sports and Entertainment downs of public
Sports and entertainment may be one of the hardest areas to break into relations jobs in
right after college because so many people would love to work for the ath- sports and
letes and celebrities they already enjoy following. Most are also willing to entertainment.
work very, very hard to get one of those jobs. Moving from fan to employee
can be a rewarding transition, but also humbling and exhausting. It takes a
lot more than just pastime levels of enthusiasm to keep up with the busi-
ness side of the 24/7 ups and downs of sports and entertainment.
Sports information directors, for example, are responsible for docu-
menting and promoting the accomplishments of the athletes, teams and
leagues they represent. They provide updated—often real-time—statistics
for use by the media. This requires deep knowledge of sports, teams and

Areas of Specialization 387

 athletes. Sports information directors must have strong organizational and
analytic skills and a solid understanding of how sports media operate in
order to effectively serve a media relations function. Sports and entertain-
ment jobs also include issues and crisis management, marketing and brand-
ing, and community relations.

Political and Public Affairs

Strategic campaigns are a core function of public relations, and when people
hear the word campaign many will think of political campaigns. Political cam-
paigning done well is the epitome of a public communication process that
builds strategy from research to achieve measurable outcomes. Some jobs in
political public relations last only as long as a candidate is running for office
or a referendum is being considered on a ballot. Others are tied to politicians
and organizations that require continuous public relations efforts from term
to term and from political initiative to political initiative. Many candidates
and organizations hire agencies that specialize in political communication. If
you’re fired up about a candidate or a political cause, or if you think of your-
self as a policy wonk and want to make a difference in the technical details of
how government operates, political public relations may be for you.
Students participating in the Mas-
sachusetts Summer Legislative
Intern Program learn about career
Financial and Entrepreneurial
opportunities in politics. Financial public relations deals with investor relations, financial media re-
What kinds of political and public lations and disclosures of financial information, as discussed in Chapter 4
affairs jobs appeal to you most on relationship management. Employers range from the world’s biggest
and least? publicly held companies like JPMorgan Chase, Bank of America, Royal
Dutch Shell, Samsung Electronics and Apple to small startup businesses
raising capital for entrepreneurial endeavors. Agencies also specialize in
serving clients with financial public relations needs. If you’ve got a good
mind for business and finance, you can put your communication skills to
work in financial public relations.

Consumer
Consumer public relations is one of the most visible segments of public re-
lations, perhaps because it is so closely tied with the advertising and mar-
keting of brands we all know well and products we consume every day.
When the key publics of public relations are consumers, opportunities for
convergence and integration abound.
The growth of digital, social and mobile media that reach consumers in so
many ways has further blurred the lines between public relations, advertising
and marketing. These media afford us more feedback and information from
consumer publics than we’ve ever had before. This convergence has resulted in
entirely new career possibilities for those who “get it” when it comes to com-
municating in these new contexts. If you’re into messaging with the right voice,
reading feedback well, turning raw data into useful information, and carrying
on conversational communication to build relationships with consumers on a
large scale, then you might just be perfect for consumer public relations.

388 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

International
All of the previously discussed areas of specialization can involve interna-
tional work. Healthcare, sports, entertainment, political, financial, and
consumer product organizations and publics are spread all over the world,
and, as discussed in Chapter 13, the relationships between them cross na-
tional borders more than ever before. Many organizations distinctly iden-
tify themselves as global or international and specifically seek employees
with a strong desire to work and communicate across countries and
cultures.

Education and Continued Learning

You’re probably reading this text for one of three reasons: (1) you are taking
public relations as a required course for your major in college, (2) you are
taking a public relations course as an elective for a related degree plan or (3)
you are interested in public relations work and educating yourself indepen-
dently. These three reasons represent three common tracks into the field.
Practicing public relations does not necessarily require a specific college
major, but public-relations-specific degree programs offer a series of courses
designed to prepare students for entry into the field.
A typical course sequence for the public relations major includes a
public relations principles course, public relations research, public relations
writing, a campaigns course and an experiential course or internship.
Other common courses in public relations majors focus on public relations
case studies, law, ethics, planning and management.19 Your broader
If you’re working on a college degree, however, keep in mind that your education is just
broader education is just as important as your public-relations-specific as important as
courses. In fact, the Commission on Public Relations Education recom- your public
mends that 60–75 percent of an appropriate degree plan comprise courses relations–specific
in liberal arts, social sciences, business and language courses.20 This makes courses.
sense, given the importance of relationship building, culture, persuasion,
management, law, ethics, societal trends and research to public relations
practice.
If you’re reading this book independently—or taking advantage of any
other professional development resources for that matter—that’s a really
good sign for your future. Adaptability is a survival strategy for 21st-­
century learners, according to Future Shock author Alvin Toffler.21 We all
must be ready to learn, unlearn and relearn, and that’s what will serve us
well as the field continues to change. As Ketchum President and CEO Rob Adaptability is a
Flaherty put it in a keynote presentation to an industry-educator summit, survival strategy
“Half of everything needed now didn’t exist ten years ago.”22 for 21st-century
In thinking about your education, it may be useful to identify core com- learning—be
petencies and then to identify the other “half” of what you need to continu- ready to learn,
ally adapt to and learn—the half that “didn’t exist 10 years ago” and that unlearn and
may change drastically in the next 10 years. relearn.
Education and Continued Learning 389
 The knowledge, skills and abilities
tested on the accreditation exam offered
by the Universal Accreditation Board
(UAB), and which are mapped to each
chapter of this text, are lasting founda-
tions for public relations education (see
Appendix A for full descriptions). The
Accreditation in Public Relations (APR)
­
credential serves to certify professional-
ism and ethical standards of practitioners
who have five or more years of experience
in the field. Recent graduates and college
seniors enrolled in a public relations or re-
lated program who are members of a UAB-
affiliated student organization may apply
for the Certificate in Principles of Public
Relations (see http://www.­praccreditation
.org/apply/certificate/). The six pillars of
the APR exam are:

1. Research, planning, implementation

and evaluation (RPIE)
2. Applied ethics and law
3. Issues and crisis management and
communications
4. Communication, models, theories
and history
The Universal Accreditation Board offers a Certificate in Principles of Public 5. Leadership in the public relations
Relations for public relations students and recent graduates.
function
What are the benefits of earning a certificate?
6. Relationship management

Public relations consultant Arik Hanson went out on a limb to sug-

gest “10 Skills the PR Pro of 2022 Must Have.” 23 He originally wrote the
post in 2012, then he took to his blog to revise the list in 2016.24 What
follows is a condensed list (from 10 items down to five) of what Hanson
identified as key skills for the future. Well, the future is here, or almost
here, depending on if you are reading this before 2022. And Hanson’s list
is holding up well.

1. Ability to write for both internal and external publics. You must be
able to write clearly for internal communication with employees,
volunteers and so on as well as for owned, paid, shared and earned
media that reach external publics (Chapters 7 and 9). According to
Hanson, “PR folks are asked to manage social ad campaigns all the

390 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

 time,” and this requires knowledge of paid media services for plat-
forms like Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook and Instagram.
2. Multimedia production skills. As discussed in Chapter 10, under-
standing basic multimedia principles is critical in public relations.
Online video may be the first format that comes to mind, but
audio shouldn’t be overlooked, either. An eye for the visual appeal
of still photography and logo design also is important. Hanson
notes that many firms and brands have creative departments spe-
cifically tasked with developing a compelling and consistent visual
style, but that practitioners with a good feel for positioning brands
visually are in demand to “fill in the gaps,” especially in organiza-
tions that aren’t big enough to employ entire departments for this
function.
3. Ability to manage social media content. Managing social media con-
tent systems means knowing how to tag, organize and sometimes
repurpose content for different contexts and platforms. Content
should be both “searchable and findable.” Managing social media
also requires a thorough understanding of analytics (Chapter 8).
4. Analyzing and presenting data that make sense to management and
c­ lients. Digital and social media can be treasure troves of data on
publics and how they engage organizations, but making sense of
that data in a way that informs strategy is critical (Chapter 6).
Public relations practitioners who can report data with “context,
actionable intelligence and clearly articulated next steps” will shine
in modern organizations. Hanson acknowledges that analysis and
reporting always have been essential in public relations, but the
availability of ridiculously large amounts of data elevates the im-
portance of being able to convert raw data into useful knowledge.
5. Collaborating online. Be prepared to work with geographically dis-
persed teams within your organization to complete projects and
tasks. If you’ve ever worked on a challenging group project for an
online class, you know that managing workflow, deadlines, com-
munication tools and cultural expectations can be frustrating.
Take heart that much of what you learned from the process will be
helpful to you when you work with dispersed teams in your career
ahead. Digital collaboration also will be key to your communica-
tion with external publics, particularly in building online commu-
nities and collaborating with influential individuals across social
media platforms. Hanson calls it “influencer outreach.” Consistent
with key points of Chapter 13, he notes that building and main-
taining relationships with external publics requires an ability to
identify the right people and a sensitivity to the culture of online
communities and their leaders—“knowing how to approach
them—without offending them.”

Education and Continued Learning 391

 Case Study
CEO Versus New Hire: Who Wins?
After completing a degree in English literature from Cal State Long Beach,
Talia Jane headed north to the San Francisco Bay area to pursue a career in
media. Jane’s job seemed promising at first. Even though her prior experi-
ence was primarily tutoring and freelancing as a writer, Jane landed an in-
terview with Yelp and was hired on the same day that she interviewed.25
Although her goal was to work in a media job at Yelp and “be able to
make memes and twitter jokes about food,” Jane took the entry-level job in
customer service to get started. But the pay was low. So low, she wrote in a
letter to Yelp CEO Jeremy Stoppelman, that she could afford to eat only free
food at work and from a 10-pound bag of rice at home. Her salary, which she
calculated to be $8.15 per hour after taxes, was not enough to make ends
meet: “Because 80 percent of my income goes to paying my rent. Isn’t
that  ironic? Your employee for your food delivery app that you spent
$300 million to buy can’t afford to buy food.”26
Within a few hours of posting her letter on Medium, Jane was fired.
Stoppelman later tweeted that Jane’s firing was not related to the Medium
post, but Jane said in a BuzzFeed News interview that her manager and HR

Yelp entry-level employee Talia Jane went public on Medium to get her CEO’s attention about her
low pay. It worked. And she was fired.
Do you admire what she did? Why or why not?

392 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

 representative had told her that her post violated the company’s code of
conduct.27
Meanwhile, Jane’s case caught lots of attention on social media. Thou-
sands of people took her side by commenting on her Medium post, support-
ing her on Twitter, or donating to PayPal and Square Cash accounts that she
posted at the end of her letter. One supporter set up a GoFundMe account,
“Help A YELP/EAT24 Employee EAT/LIVE,” and raised $2,755 in 28 days
from 80 donors.28
Others were not as sympathetic. Internet users found Jane’s Instagram
and Tumblr accounts and commented wryly on her ability to make (and
post pictures of) prosciutto brie garlic biscuits and margarita-, mint-julep-,
and piña-colada-flavored cupcakes. The pictures she posted of a bottle of
Bulleit Bourbon that had been delivered to her didn’t help her case in the
court of public opinion either.
In a blog on the website Ranker titled “Pictures From Talia’s Instagram
That Aren’t Rice,” Ranker user Ariel Kana reposted 26 of Jane’s photos. “It
was a simple dream, really: To work in media, live in her own apartment,
and be able to afford to eat a variety of foods,” wrote Kana in the sarcastic
post. But “armed only with a degree in English literature, a supportive
father, and a coveted job in San Francisco at one of the internet’s most vis-
ited websites, that dream could never become a reality.”29
Jane defended her position, claiming that her posts on Instagram were
designed to make it seem like she was thriving when the reality was other-
wise, so people wouldn’t worry about her.30 In weighing the case, tech in-
dustry career consultant Gayle Laakmann McDowell wrote for Forbes.com
that Jane’s post was “Maybe unwise for her future career, but somewhat
admirable that she was willing to do it anyway.”31 Do you admire what Jane
did? Do you think she should have been fired? What would you do differ-
ently if you had been in her position?

Voices from the Field

Krislyn Hashimoto

KRISLYN M. HASHIMOTO is Senior Vice President at renovated properties, served as an on-property

Stryker, Weiner & Yokota in Honolulu, where she public relations consultant, and assisted with desti-
oversees the agency’s travel division. Over the nation marketing campaigns and initiatives. She has
course of her career, Hashimoto has launched sev- worked as an account director with Cinch PR &
eral resorts and restaurants, re-branded newly Branding Group in San Francisco and in the

Education and Continued Learning 393

 communications department at the Office of the Gov- contact with clients and are often contacted by media
ernor, State of Hawaii. Her clients have included directly with inquiries. A successful coordinator in this
Oahu Visitors Bureau, Four Seasons Hotels and Re- digital age, in addition to managing traditional clerical
sorts, Hyatt Hotels and Resorts, Starwood Hotels & needs, is expected to correspond professionally,
Resorts, Hilton Hotels & Resorts, Mystic Hotel by manage social media accounts, monitor the news for
Charlie Palmer, North Block in Napa Valley, Carmel relevant client issues and be a master at multitasking.
Boutique Inns and Ghirardelli Square.
In what ways is the job not changing?
What was your first job in public relations? From an agency perspective—client service is still
My first paying job was working in the communica- key. Also credibility and building strong relationships
tions department for the Office of the Governor, State with everyone from clients to media.
of Hawai’i. Prior to that, I interned in the PR depart-
ment at Starwood Hawai’i. What’s the biggest misperception of public
relations jobs you’ve come across from
How is the job for entry-level public relations people outside of public relations?
positions changing? In travel PR, some people think we are party plan-
When I started in PR, we were still faxing news re- ners and always out-and-about wining and dining
leases both locally here in Hawai’i and to national with media. I’d say that’s about five percent of the
media, and a ton of my time was spent at the copy job. The other 95 percent is spent writing, research-
machine putting together clip books. In addition, co- ing and strategizing—a lot behind a computer.
ordinators used to be behind the scenes managing a
lot of clerical work—clipping articles, formatting What is the best part of your job?
press releases, mailing press invitations, calling all Storytelling. Helping our clients tell their stories in
news outlets and looking through Bacon’s media ways that set them apart from their competitors. And
books for updated contacts, etc. seeing the direct impact of our work positively
The entry level position at an agency has changed impact our clients’ businesses.
quite a bit since then. With most business being han-
dled over email today, coordinators often have direct

Ethics: Competition, Loyalty

and Job Changes
As you climb the public relations pyramid from entry level into manage-
ment, you’ll switch jobs and employers. A lot. Most people entering the
workforce don’t expect to stay in any one job for much longer than three
years. Mid-career employees also recognize that switching jobs is often the
key to raising earnings and moving up in management.
There was a time when changing jobs every two or three years was seen
as suspicious, indicating a flighty work ethic, difficulty getting along
with  colleagues, or a lack of loyalty. “That stigma is fast becoming anti-
quated,” according to Fast Company’s Vivian Giang, “especially as millenni-
als rise in the workplace with expectations to continuously learn, develop,
and advance in their careers.”32 Some have even argued that frequent job
hoppers are more loyal because they are willing to work harder for their cur-
rent colleagues to make a stronger positive impression during the relatively
short time that they work with an organization.33

394 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

 All that job hopping, however, creates ethical challenges. While it is Non-compete clause
Part of an employment contract that
healthy and competitive to shift your loyalty to your new organization restricts employees from working
when you get a new job, what does that mean for your loyalty to your prior for competitors or sharing competi-
employer and coworkers? tive information such as trade
­secrets even after they no longer
Competition is a key provision in the PRSA Code of Ethics, which lists
work for the organization.
it as a core principle that “preserves an ethical climate while fostering a
robust business environment.”34 Ethical dilemmas arise when loyalty (also
a key value in the PRSA code) conflicts with competition.
As a legal matter, many employees sign employment contracts that in-
clude non-compete clauses that prohibit them from working for competi-
tors or sharing competitive information such as trade secrets. However, with
so much personnel movement between and among agencies and clients,
ethical dilemmas are hard to avoid, even when the legal issues are clear.
For example, suppose you work for an agency and then leave that agency
to work for one of the agency’s clients. That’s a common job change that
normally would not raise many ethical issues. But what if a year later your
organization—the client—decides to consider bids from other agencies?
Do you help your former agency colleagues by giving them a heads-up on
what they should do to keep the account? If so, do you give that same infor-
mation to other agencies bidding for the work? The PRSA code suggests that
you should either not offer the information at all or make sure that you give
the same information to everyone in order to promote fair competition and
respect among professionals.
Competition is also an important principle to honor in recruiting talent
for an organization. It may be tempting to hire employees away from other
organizations as a way to gain a competitive advantage, but the PRSA code
discourages any hiring that could be seen as “deliberately undermining a
competitor.”35
Early in your career your ethical dilem-
mas may revolve mostly around your own
role and personal and professional values as
they relate to those with whom you work
and compete most closely. As you move into
management and become more responsible
for others in your organization, your ethi-
cal responsibility will expand. When you
begin to approach executive levels, you
must grow the scope of your ethical atten-
tion along with your career responsibilities.
This ethical growth includes careful consid-
eration about how your decisions drive your
entire organization and affect your publics.
Done right, ethical public relations man-
agement benefits individuals, groups, orga- Non-competition or non-compete agreements define expectations in legal
terms for employees who change jobs.
nizations and even entire societies. Done
right, ethical public relations elevates the Beyond legal obligations, what kinds of ethical dilemmas might you face
as you change from one employer to another in public relations?
practice to a profession.

Ethics: Competition, Loyalty and Job Changes 395

 In Case You Missed It

ICYMI
No two career trajectories will be • Public relations jobs in nonprofits are just as
the same in public relations, but demanding and require just as much account-
ability as corporate jobs.
that doesn’t mean you can’t prepare
• If you work for a small business, you’ll need to
for the journey. Here are some gen-
be much more of a generalist.
eral tips to consider as you weigh
• It takes more than enthusiasm to keep up with
your career options. the 24/7 ups and downs of public relations jobs
in sports and entertainment.
• There’s a fine line between personality and TMI • Your broader education is just as important as
. . . take care to not post anything you think your public relations–specific courses.
would take you out of consideration for a job
• Adaptability is a survival strategy for 21st-
someday.
century learning—be ready to learn, unlearn
• If you start at an agency, be prepared to move and relearn.
through multiple positions in your first few
years.

SUMMARY
14.1 Apply key attributes of personal brand- relations positions are with agencies, large
ing to help you build your career. businesses and corporations, nonprofits,
Effective personal branding means being NGOs and military and government agen-
strategic, positive, promising, person-centric cies. Some individuals work in public rela-
and artifactual. These five attributes will be tions while also performing other core
helpful as you maintain your current personal functions in small businesses, startups or
brand and plan for the future. Finding and self-owned operations.
completing meaningful projects and intern-
14.3 Assess how different areas of specializa-
ships before you enter the world of full-time
tion in public relations match your
career work will be especially important as
interests.
you build your online presence. Good deci-
Major specialty areas of public relations are
sion-making about what is appropriate for
health, sports and entertainment, political
public presentation will be a big part of your
and public affairs, financial and entrepreneur-
appeal as a public relations professional.
ial, consumer and international. This list is
not exhaustive, and within each category are
14.2 Identify different types of employers for
countless types of public relations jobs.
public relations jobs.
Many of the jobs require some of the same
All types of organizations can benefit from
skills.
some form of public relations. Most public

396 CHAPTER 14   |   CAREERS

14.4 Plan for your own continuing education 14.5 Discuss ethical dilemmas related to the
in public relations. professional values of competition and
Public relations degree programs offer a loyalty.
series of specific public relations courses Competition is a key provision in the PRSA
designed to prepare students for entry into Code of Ethics. Ethical dilemmas may arise
the field. However, given the importance of when loyalty to colleagues from prior jobs
relationship building, culture, persuasion, conflicts with responsibility for fair competi-
management, law, ethics, societal trends and tion in a new job. For example, when work-
research, a foundation in liberal arts, social ing for a company that is accepting bids
sciences, business and language is also im- from agencies, you have to be careful not to
portant to help you understand your role in give any unfair advantage to an agency for
society. Willingness to continually learn which you used to work. The goal is to pro-
beyond school is also critical as media and mote fair competition and respect among
society change rapidly. professionals.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. Complete a report card of your personal brand 4. Find a specific job ad describing a position in
by reviewing all your publicly available online public relations that you would like to have
profiles. Google yourself to make sure you three to five years from now. Carefully review
don’t miss anything that others might find if the qualifications. Which qualifications do you
they look you up. Give yourself honest grades meet now? Which ones don’t you meet? What,
for being strategic, positive, promising, specifically, can you do in the next three to five
­person-centric and artifactual. What do you years to make yourself competitive for that
need to add, remove or change to bring your type of job?
grades up? 5. CASE STUDY Many people criticized Talia
2. Pick three organizations you would like to work Jane, but many people respect that she voiced
for, and research their job openings. Do any of her opinion against a powerful corporate em-
them list public relations or related jobs? If so, ployer. Do you admire what she did? Why or
pick the one job that appeals to you most. (If why not? Look up what she has done more
you can’t find a public relations–related job recently. How did the Yelp incident affect her
opening, keep searching organizations that you personal brand?
like until you find one.) What are the primary 6. Describe a time that you’ve been in a position
duties of the position? (in games or school or work) where you were
3. Which area of specialization (health, sports, responsible for ensuring fair competition de-
entertainment, political, financial, etc.) appeals spite your loyalty to one of the competitors.
most to you, and why? How would a public Did competition trump loyalty? Why (or why
relations job in that field be similar to and not)? Would you use the same moral reasoning
­different from other areas of specialization? in a professional career in public relations?

KEY TERMS
Personal branding 375 Gig economy 381 Non-compete clause 395

KEY TERMS 397

APPENDIX A

Universal Accreditation
Board Competencies
DETAILED KNOWLEDGE, SKILLS AND ABILITIES TESTED ON THE COMPUTER-BASED EXAMINATION PERCENTAGE
FOR ACCREDITATION IN PUBLIC RELATIONS (effective January 2016) TESTED

Objective 1 Researching, Planning, Implementing and Evaluating Programs 33%

1.1 Research (Concepts): Understands and can apply primary and secondary,
formal and informal, quantitative and qualitative methods. Decides on the
population and sampling techniques. Understands instrument design. Devel-
ops a premise and research plan.

1.2 Research (Applications): Uses a variety of research tools to gather informa-

tion about the employer or client, industry and relevant issues. Investigates
stakeholders’ understanding of the product, organization and issues. Applies
research findings.

1.3 Analytical skills: Continuously analyzes the business environment that

includes the client, stakeholders and employer. Objectively interprets data.

1.4 Strategic thinking: Synthesizes relevant information to determine what is

needed to position the client, organization, or issue appropriately in its
market/environment, especially with regard to changing business, political, or
cultural climates.

1.5 Planning: Sets goals and objectives based on research findings. Distin-
guishes among goals, objectives, strategies and tactics. Distinguishes organi-
zational/operational goals and strategies from communication goals and
strategies. Aligns project goals with organizational mission and goals.

1.6 Audience identification: Differentiates among publics, markets, audiences

and stakeholders. Identifies appropriate audiences and the opinions, beliefs,
attitudes, cultures, and values of each. Assesses interests of influential
institutions, groups and individuals. Identifies appropriate communication
channels/vehicles for reaching target audiences. Identifies communities
formed through technologies. Understands varying needs and priorities of
individual constituent groups (e.g., investors, governmental agencies, unions,
consumers).

398 APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCIES

1.7 Diversity: Identifies and respects a range of differences among target audi-
ences. Researches and addresses the cultural preferences and/or needs and
barriers to communication of target audiences. Develops culturally and lin-
guistically appropriate strategies and tactics.

1.8 Implementation: Understands sequence of events. Develops timelines and

budget. Assigns responsibilities. Executes planned strategies and tactics.

1.9 Evaluation of programs: Determines if goals and objectives of public rela-

tions program were met and the extent to which the results or outcomes of
public relations programs have been accomplished. Uses evaluation results
for future planning.

Objective 2 Applying Ethics and Law 13%

2.1 Integrity: Conducts professional activities in a lawful and principled manner.

Functions as the conscience of the organization.

2.2 Ethical behavior: Understands and adheres to commonly accepted stan-

dards for professional behavior. Recognizes ethical dilemmas. Acts to remedy
unethical acts.

2.3 First Amendment issues: Understands First Amendment as a foundational

principle for public relations. Distinguishes between political and corporate
speech. Articulates conditions for libel and defenses thereof. Understands
impact of digital record on status as public and private figure.

2.4 Privacy issues: Understands federal law regarding privacy (e.g., HIPAA,
FERPA, DPPA), identity protection, ethical implications and digital record.
­Effectively advises organization on strategic adoption and effective use of
technology for listening to, communicating with and engaging priority publics.

2.5 Other legal issues: Upholds applicable federal laws regarding disclosure,
copyright, trademarks, fair use.

Objective 3 Managing Issues and Crisis Communications 13%

3.1 Issues and risk management: Identifies potential or emerging issues that
may impact the organization. Identifies potential risks to the organization or
client. Analyzes probability and potential impact of risk. Ensures organization
develops appropriate response plans. Designs and deploys a strategic public
relations response.

3.2 Crisis management: Understands the roles and responsibilities of public

relations at the pre-crisis, crisis, and post-crisis phases. Communicates the
implications of each of these phases and understands the messaging needs
of each. Looks beyond current organizational mindset.

APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCIES 399

 3.3 Counsel to management: Understands the importance of providing coun-
sel to the management team or client regarding issues, risks and crises.
Looks beyond the current organizational mindset. Considers and accommo-
dates all views on an issue or crisis. Factors views into communication
strategy.

Objective 4 Understanding Communication Models, Theories and History of the Profession 8%

4.1 Communication/public relations models and theories: Demonstrates

familiarity with social science theories and research that guide planning, pri-
oritizing audiences, developing messages, selecting spokespeople, establish-
ing credibility and trust.

4.2 Barriers to communication: Understands how messages and messengers

are interpreted by different audiences. Understands barriers that prevent
changes to knowledge, attitude and behavior. Understands how semantics,
cultural norms, timing, context and related factors impact the practice.

4.3 Knowledge of the field: Defines public relations and differentiates among
related concepts (e.g., publicity, advertising, marketing, press agentry, public
affairs, lobbying, investor relations, social networking, and branding). Identi-
fies key figures who influenced the field and major trends in the development
of public relations as it is practiced today.

Objective 5 Leading the Public Relations Function 18%

5.1 Business literacy: Understands and explains how employers/clients gener-

ate revenue and how their operations are conducted. Identifies relevant busi-
ness drivers and how they impact the business. Understands how the public
relations function contributes to the financial success of the organization.

5.2 Resource management: Takes into account human, financial and organiza-
tional resources. Prepares, justifies and controls budgets for departments,
programs, clients or agencies. Understands what information needs to be
collected, evaluated, disseminated, and retained. Is able to obtain information
using innovative methods and appropriately store it, so that it can be
­retrieved easily for future use.

5.3 Organizational structure and resources: Recognizes chain of command,

including boards of directors, senior leadership, middle management, direct
line supervision, line positions, and each level’s distinctions. Knows how
organizations are horizontally and vertically structured. Identifies which
divisions within an organization that need to be involved in any communica-
tion program. Understands impact of organizational governance. Recognizes
the relationships among PR, legal, finance and IT, as essential management
functions.

400 APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCIES

5.4 Problem solving and decision-making: Approaches problems with sound
reasoning and logic. Distinguishes between relevant and irrelevant information.
Evaluates opportunities for resolution. Devises appropriate courses of action
based on context and facts. Makes sound, well-informed and objective decisions
in a timely manner. Assesses the impact and implications of these decisions.

5.5 Leadership skills: Influences others to achieve desired goals. Motivates and
inspires others, builds coalitions and communicates vision. Influences overall
organizational changes in policy, procedures, staffing and structure, as appropriate.

5.6 Organizational skills: Integrates multiple dimensions of a public relations

campaign. Integrates internal and external components, so that there is a
synergy among the messages.

Objective 6 Managing Relationships 15%

6.1 Relationship building: Understands consensus-building strategies and

techniques to persuade key stakeholders to support a decision. Ensures dis-
cussions allow key stakeholders the opportunity to express opinions. Recog-
nizes need for affected parties and stakeholders to find mutually acceptable
solutions. Utilizes persuasion, negotiation and coalition building.

6.2 Reputation management: Understands need for maintaining individual and

organizational credibility with and among key constituents. Recognizes value
of reputation, image, public trust and corporate-social responsibility.

6.3 Internal stakeholders: Understands importance of internal relationships to

the public relations function. Understands the importance of organizational
culture and communicating key messages through frontline supervisors. Uses
mediated and non-mediated channels of communication for effective engage-
ment. Prioritizes internal audiences.

6.4 Media relations: Understands definitions, strengths, weaknesses and needs

of different media. Understands the relationships among public relations pro-
fessionals, journalists and media organizations. Builds effective relationships
with media based on mutual respect and trust. Analyzes current events and
trends for opportunities and threats. Identifies appropriate controlled and
­uncontrolled media channels and key influencers.

6.5 Networks: Understands how different tactics can be used to establish and
enhance relationships (e.g., electronic communications, special events, face-
to-face communication, networking, social networking, word-of-mouth and
third-party communication). Recognizes interconnectedness among various
stakeholders. Considers broad/global relationships.

APPENDIX A: UNIVERSAL ACCREDITATION BOARD COMPETENCIES 401

 Notes
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31. “Does Talia Jane Deserve the Backlash From Her Open 18, 2019, http://www.cbsnews.com/news/
Letter to Jeremy Stoppelman, Yelp's CEO?,” Forbes, why-job-hoppers-make-the-best-employees/.
www.forbes.com/sites/quora/2016/02/26/ 34. “Code of Ethics,” PRSA, https://www.prsa.org/About-
does-talia-jane-deserve-the-backlash-from-her-open- PRSA/Ethics/CodeEnglish/.
letter-to-­jeremy-stoppelman-yelps-ceo/. 35. “Code of Ethics,” PRSA, https://www.prsa.org/About-
32. Vivian Giang, “You Should Plan on Switching Jobs PRSA/Ethics/CodeEnglish/.
Every Three Years for the Rest of Your Life,” Fast

420 NOTES
Glossary
A/B testing  Experiment in which one group of participants Automated copy testing  Using computer ­programs to auto-
is randomly assigned to see one version of a message and mate the process of testing digital messages such as pro-
another group is ­randomly assigned to see a second ver- motional copy.
sion. ­Results are then compared to test the effectiveness Aware publics  People who recognize that they are affected
of message variations. by a problem or issue in their environment.
Accredited business communicator (ABC) Credential Backgrounder  Writing tactic used to give depth and context
awarded by IABC to recognize c­ ommunicators who have as background information for news stories.
reached a globally accepted standard of knowledge and Backlinks  Incoming links that direct web users to a web
proficiency in their chosen field. page from another web page.
Accredited in public relations (APR)  Credential awarded by Banner ads  Advertisements on web pages d ­ esigned to en-
PRSA and other UAB affiliates to those who have demon- courage users to click to reach an advertiser’s site.
strated competency in the knowledge, skills and abilities Behavioral  Having to do with observable human action.
required to practice public relations effectively. Benchmarking  Process of setting a point for comparison
Active publics  People who behave and communicate actively with eventual program results in order to observe change
in response to a problem or issue. over time. (Benchmarking can also be used to make per-
Actual malice  When a defamatory statement is made with formance comparisons with other organizations or indus-
knowledge of its falsity and reckless disregard for the try standards.)
truth. Big data  Large amounts of data from traditional and digital
Advertising  Media space purchased by sponsors to persuade sources that can be used for ongoing discovery and analy-
audiences; or the practice of planning and producing this sis of media content and human behavior.
service. Billable rate  Amount that an agency or firm charges clients
Advertising value equivalency (AVE)  A calculation of the per hour for an employee’s time.
value of news or editorial coverage based on the cost of Black box fallacy  False notion that predicts that most
the equivalent amount of advertising space or time. human communication needs will eventually be satisfied
Advertorial  Paid advertising that is presented in the form of with a single device.
editorial content. Blog  Online post (or web log) with reflections, comments
Advocacy  Public promotion of a cause, idea or policy. and often links provided by the writer.
Analytics  Researching online data to identify meaningful Bolstering  Attempting to offset reputational damage to an
patterns. In strategic communication, analytics describe, organization during a crisis by emphasizing the good
predict and improve how organizations communicate work that the organization has done in the past.
with publics, including tracking website traffic and result- Boomerang effect  Unintended consequence of an apology or
ing behavior. other attempt to create positive r­ esponse results instead
Anchor text  Clickable text that provides a hyperlink. in a negative response.
Apology  Act of taking responsibility for an issue or crisis and Boomerang video  Bursts of photos combined into very short
seeking forgiveness or understanding. videos that play forward and backward.
Artificial intelligence (AI)  A machine’s ability to mimic Bounce rate  In online strategy, the percentage of visitors
human behavior and intelligence, like learning or solving who visit a site but then leave the site instead of continu-
problems. ing toward other goals as d ­ efined by the strategist.
Associated Press (AP) style  Rules of writing (­ including Brand advocate  A person who is loyal to your brand and
grammar, capitalization and punctuation) published by speaks favorably about your brand to others.
the Associated Press news agency. Brand journalism  Application of journalistic skills to pro-
Asymmetrical model  Model of public relations in which duce news content for an organization to communicate
communication is two-way but unbalanced, with the or- directly with its publics without going through a third-
ganization using research/feedback in an effort to per- party news organization.
suade publics to change attitudes or behaviors. Brochureware  Web pages that present essentially the same
Attitudinal  Having to do with affect, emotion, favor or disfavor material as printed materials such as brochures.
toward an organization, brand, product, service, idea or any Business to business (B2B)  The relationship between a busi-
other ­attitude object. ness and other businesses.
Augmented reality  Technology that overlays digital infor- Business to consumer (B2C)  The relationship between a
mation onto media representations of the real world. business and the end users or ­consumers of its product or
Authenticity  The degree to which one communicates services.
­reliably, accurately and true to his or her own character Chatbots  An artificial intelligence program d ­ esigned to
and the character of the organization that he or she mimic human conversation. C ­ hatbots receive and auto-
represents. matically respond to messages.

GLOSSARY 421
 Clear and present danger  Circumstance that may limit Corporate advertising  Paid media designed to promote an
rights to free speech in the interest of preventing “sub- organization as a whole rather than sell a particular ser-
stantive evils.” vice, product or product ­category (also sometimes called
Clickbait  Promotional and sensational internet content de- institutional advertising).
signed primarily to entice users to visit another website. Corporate social responsibility (CSR)  Companies’ commit-
Click-through rate  Percentage of users who view an ad on the ment of resources to benefit the welfare of their work-
web and click on it to reach an a­ dvertiser’s site. force, local communities, society at large and the
Clipping services  Businesses that monitor print and elec- environment.
tronic media for mentions of clients in local, national or Cost per thousand (CPM)  A measure of advertising reach
international outlets; see also media monitoring that represents the cost of an advertisement relative to the
services. estimated size of the audience.
Code-switching  Alternating between two or more languages Creative Commons  Nonprofit organization that encourages
or cultural styles. fair and legal sharing of content by helping content cre-
Cognitive  Having to do with mental processes such as think- ators make their work ­available with clear terms and
ing, knowing, perceiving, learning and understanding. conditions.
Communal relationships  Relationships in which each party Crowdsource  To obtain information or input into a particular
gives benefits to the other and a p ­ rimary motivation for task or project by enlisting the services of a number of
each is the other’s benefit. people, either paid or unpaid, typically via the internet.
Community management  The process of listening to, engag- Cultural convergence  When various forms of culture are
ing and moderating online communities and those who exchanged, combined, converted and adapted. On a global
make up those communities. scale, this phenomenon has accelerated with the growth of
Compensation  Crisis response strategy of offering products, digital media.
services or money to help make amends with publics. Cultural intelligence  Ability to adapt, communicate and
Consequentialism  Results-based system of ethics that holds interact effectively across cultures by learning and apply-
that the best ethical decision is the one leading to the best ing cognitive, emotional and behavioral skills.
outcomes or impacts. Culture  A shared system of beliefs, values, customs and so on
Constraint recognition  When people detect a problem or that guides behavior of a particular group or public.
situation in their environment but perceive obstacles that Customer relationship management (CRM)  Process of
limit their behavior to do anything about it. tracking and forecasting customers’ interactions with an
Content analysis  A systematic method for ­a nalyzing re- organization, often leveraging data for sales support.
corded information such as audio, video or text. Dateline  Text at beginning of a news story that describes
Content curation  The process of gathering and sharing con- when and where the story occurred (e.g., “BEIJING, June
tent from reputable sources or users. 16—”).
Content marketing  Development and sharing of media con- Deep link  Hyperlink that bypasses an organization’s home
tent to appeal to consumers as part of an indirect market- page and takes users directly to ­resources deeper in an
ing strategy in which consumers are drawn primarily to organization’s website structure.
media content instead of directly to the product being Defamation  False communication that injures someone’s
marketed. reputation.
Contingency theory  A theory that proposes that the best Delayed lead  A style of beginning a story in a way that en-
course of action in any situation depends on the specifics tices readers to continue ­reading without summarizing the
of the situation. story’s main points.
Control group  A group of subjects or people in an experiment Demographics  Data describing objective characteristics of a
who do not receive or are not exposed to a treatment for population including age, level of income or highest edu-
the purpose of comparison. cational degree obtained.
Controlled media  Channels of communication that allow Deontological ethics  System of decision-making that focuses
public relations practitioners to write, edit, produce and on the moral principles of duty and rules.
distribute messages as they see fit. Dialogic communication  Exchanges involving people com-
Conversational voice  An authentic, engaging and natural municating their own views and backgrounds while re-
style of communication that publics perceive to be maining completely open to seeing the world as others do.
personable. Digital divide  Gap between those people with relatively little
Conversion rate  In online strategy, the number of goals access to and use of information and communication tech-
reached divided by the number of unique visitors to nologies and those people with greater access and usage.
a site. Digital watermarking  Information embedded into digital
Cookie  A text file stored on a user’s computer that is used to audio and video signals that can be used to track when and
track and remember the user’s activity online. where the content is delivered.
Copyright  Claim to intellectual property rights of an original Direct lead  A style of beginning a news story that summa-
work of authorship including rights to reproduce, distrib- rizes the story’s main points (e.g., who, what, where, when,
ute, perform, ­d isplay, license and so on. why, how) in the first sentence or two.
Copyright infringement  Use of protected works without Direct-to-consumer  Business model in which organizations
proper permission from the copyright holder. such as home-delivery and subscription services market

422 GLOSSARY
 products and ­services directly to consumers and bypass via electronic media and often unanticipated by those who
­traditional retail channels. are not participants.
Distributed public relations  Intentional practice of sharing Food and Drug Administration (FDA)  U.S. federal agency
public relations responsibilities among a broad cross section responsible for regulating food, drugs and health-related
of an organization’s members or employees, particularly in products and services including the promotion of these
an online context. products and services.
Diversity  Inclusion of different types of people and different Formal research  Research designed with clear rules and pro-
types of views. The more diverse decision-makers within cedures for collection and analysis of information.
an organization, the more effective the organization will Formative research  Research conducted at the beginning of the
be in relating to various publics. planning process, or during the implementation of a plan.
Dominant coalition  Group of people with the greatest influ- Framing  When clickable material in a link is actual content
ence in determining how an organization operates and from the site to which it links.
pursues its mission. Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)  U.S. federal law passed
Economic convergence  When various media organizations to ensure that the government makes its information ac-
and functions are merged under a single ownership struc- cessible to citizens.
ture. This form of media convergence is different from the Freelancers  People who work on a project-by-project basis
term economists use to describe trends in world economies. instead of working more permanently for a single em-
End-user license agreements (EULA)  Legal agreement between ployer (e.g., freelance writers, photographers, video
a software provider and the person using the software. producers).
Engagement  Measure of how (likes, shares, c­ omments, etc.) Frequency  The average number of times people in an audi-
and how often others interact with your content. ence are exposed to a particular message in a defined
Ephemeral content  Images or videos that are available for a period of time.
limited time and then disappear, like Instagram and Snap- Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)  Tests that
chat stories. use magnetic fields to ­generate images of brain activity,
Ethics  Moral principles that govern a person’s or group’s including ­responses to communication and media
behavior. stimuli.
Ethnocentrism  The tendency to judge other cultures based on Funnel  A model for tracking how people move from exposure
one’s own culture, which one considers superior to others. and awareness to action, particularly in online marketing
Exchange relationships  Relationships in which each party where the goal is to convert a large number of web page
gives benefits to the other with the expectation of receiv- viewers to sales leads or purchases.
ing comparable benefits in return. General public  A nonspecific term referring to everyone in
External publics  Groups of people with shared interests outside the world, making the concept rather meaningless in stra-
of an organization. These groups either have an effect on or tegic communication and relationship building.
are affected by the organization. Geofencing  The use of localization technology, like GPS, to
Eye tracking  Process of measuring eye movements to determine create a virtual geographic boundary for a real-world area.
where people are focusing; often used in website testing. Triggers can be set up to alert when a mobile device enters
Fact sheet  Short (often one-page) document that presents or leaves that area.
factual information in concise format. Geofilter  Feature of social media (particularly Snapchat) that
Fair use  An exception to copyright laws that allows for the encourages communication among users within a specified
use of otherwise copyrighted m ­ aterial for purposes such geographic area by allowing users to post images with
as educational use, criticism or commentary. location-specific overlays.
Feature story  A story that explores some angle of an event, a Geolocation  Function of communication devices that identi-
person’s life, an organization or a place. fies the specific geographic location of the device.
Federal Trade Commission (FTC)  U.S. federal agency re- Gig economy  A trend in which people increasingly are hired
sponsible for regulating all types of consumer products for short periods of time to complete specific tasks or proj-
and services, including the promotion of these products ects, including freelancers, independent contractors and
and services. part-time hires.
Feed proofing  Using text, typography and graphics in a video to Glass ceiling  Metaphor used to describe a present but unseen
communicate a message without the need for audio, making it barrier to promotion for women and minorities.
easy to understand and watch without sound in a user’s feed. Goals  Statements that indicate a desired result for public
Feedback  Information returned from the environment in relations efforts. In strategic planning, goals are more
response to an organization’s action or communication specific than the organization’s mission but more general
that can be used for continuous adjustment and improve- than objectives.
ment of the organization. Golden mean  Ethical doctrine holding that the best courses
First-party data  Data on user or consumer behavior that is of action are found between extremes.
collected by an organization from the people who use the Golden rule  Ethic of reciprocity—treat others as you would
organization’s websites or online services. like to be treated yourself.
Flaming  Hostile communication among internet users. Government relations  Management of relationships be-
Flash mob  When a group of people plans and ­e xecutes a sur- tween an organization and government officials who for-
prise public event or performance that is usually organized mulate and execute public policy.

GLOSSARY 423
 High-context communication  Exchanges in which most of Internet of things (IoT)  Global network of physical objects
the meaning conveyed between people lies in the context that are connected to one another in a way that enables
of the communication or is internal to the communicators. them to communicate with one another and the internet
High-context culture  A culture that communicates more at large.
implicitly and relies more on nonverbal cues than a low- Inverted pyramid  A style of newswriting in which the most
context culture. important information is presented at the broad top of a
Human interest  A personal or emotional storytelling angle story and narrower supporting details are written below.
that focuses on the human condition. Investor relations  Management of relationships between an
Hyperlink  A piece of text or an image online that can be organization and publics in the fi­ nancial community—for
clicked on to reach another resource online. example, investors, analysts, regulators.
Impacts  The broadest and furthest-reaching results of public Issue  An important topic or problem that is open for debate,
relations efforts, often stated in terms of societal benefit. discussion or advocacy.
Impression management  Process in which people influence Issues management  Systematic process whereby organiza-
perceptions of themselves or their organizations by regu- tions work to identify and resolve issues before they
lating and controlling information in social interactions. become crises.
Impressions  A measure of how many people were exposed to Landscape orientation  Images or video framed so that width
a message. is greater than height, like traditional movies. The aspect
In house  When public relations people are employed directly ratio is 16:9.
within an organization rather than working for an exter- Latent publics  People who are affected by a problem or issue
nal agency or ­contracted as independent consultants. but don’t realize it.
Inbound marketing  Marketing strategy that ­focuses on tac- Legislative relations  Management of relationships between
tics for attracting customers with useful, entertaining or an organization and lawmakers, staffers and others who
valuable information that customers find on blogs, search influence legislation.
results and other forms of online and social media. Level of involvement  The degree to which people feel or
Independence  In public relations ethics, the value of auton- think that a problem or issue affects them.
omy and accountability in providing objective counsel. Libel  Written or otherwise recorded false communication
Individualism-collectivism  Cultural dimension describing that injures someone’s reputation.
the difference between cultures that value loyalty to self Likert-type items  Questionnaire items that ask people to
and immediate family and those that value loyalty to respond to statements with a range of defined response
larger groups and society. options such as the range from “strongly disagree” to
Influencer  Trusted individual who can influence the opinions “strongly agree.”
of established social media audiences. Linear story arc  Storytelling that follows a logical sequence
Informal research  Research conducted without clear rules or or chronology.
procedures, which makes the findings difficult to replicate Listening  Deliberately paying attention to and processing
or compare to other research or situations. what others are communicating. In public relations and
Ingratiation  A type of reinforcing crisis response strategy in organizational communication, this means processing
which stakeholders are praised or thanked to win their feedback.
good favor. Listicle  An online article presented in the format of a num-
Initial public offering (IPO)  Financial event in which a pri- bered or bulleted list.
vate company offers sale of stocks to public investors for Lobbying  Working to influence the decisions of government
the first time. officials on matters of legislation.
Insider trading  When a company’s employees or executives Long-term orientation  Cultural dimension describing the
buy and sell stock in their own organization or share infor- difference between cultures that value long-held tradi-
mation with others who buy or sell before the information tions and cultures that value entrepreneurship and
has been made public. innovation.
Integrated communication  Communicating with publics con- Looping video  Videos that play and repeat multiple times, in
sistently across organizational ­functions including public a loop.
relations, advertising, marketing and customer service. Low-context communication  Exchanges in which most of
Integrated marketing communication  Strategic coordina- the meaning of messages is stated explicitly in the mes-
tion of communication functions such as marketing, ad- sages and requires little understanding of context.
vertising and publicity to achieve a consistent concept in Low-context culture  A culture that relies on more explicit,
consumers’ minds. direct communication than a high-context culture.
Intellectual property  Any product of the human mind that is Loyalty  A sense of obligation or support for someone or
protected by law from unauthorized use by others. something, including both organizations and publics.
Intercultural public relations  Management of relationships Management function  Part of an organization involved in its
between organizations and publics of different cultures. overall leadership and decision-making, guiding how the
Internal publics  Groups of people with shared interests organization operates in its environment, rather than
within an organization. merely following the instructions of others.
International public relations  Management of relationships Market skimming  Marketing strategy that starts with
between organizations and publics of different nations. higher prices for early adopters of unique products and

424 GLOSSARY
 services and then lowers prices later to sell to a broader are a type of native advertising, as are promoted tweets,
base of consumers when competitors enter the market. sponsored posts and so on. Native advertising should be
Marketing  Business of creating, promoting, d ­ elivering and labeled as “advertising,” “paid content,” “sponsored,” etc.
selling products and services. Natural links  Hyperlinks to a web page that are provided by
Marketing mix  Combination of product, price, place and other people who see value in the content of the page, as
promotion strategies in support of profitable exchange. opposed to links that are posted for the primary purpose
Masculinity-femininity  Cultural dimension d ­ escribing the of manipulating search engines.
difference between cultures that value competition, Net neutrality  When data transmitted on the internet is
achievement and material success and those that value treated equally by governments and service providers in a
care, collaboration and modesty. way that does not slow down, speed up or manipulate traf-
Material information  Any information that could influence fic to create a favorable business environment for some
the market value of a company or its products. organizations or users over others.
Media catching  When journalists post queries online invit- News release  A statement of news produced and distributed on
ing public relations people or others with relevant infor- behalf of an organization to make information public. Tradi-
mation or expertise to r­ espond. Public relations people tionally news releases (aka press releases) have been issued
“catch” these opportunities rather than “pitching” story to news media with the intent of publicizing the information
ideas to journalists. to the news organization’s readers, listeners or viewers.
Media gatekeepers  People or processes that filter informa- Newsjacking  “The art and science of injecting your ideas into
tion by deciding which content is published, broadcasted, a breaking news story so you and your ideas get noticed,”
posted, shared or forwarded. as defined by David Meerman Scott.
Media kits  Packages of information assembled by public rela- Newsworthiness  Standard used to determine what is worth
tions people for news media. Common contents include covering in news media.
news releases, fact sheets, backgrounders, position papers, Non-compete clause  Part of an employment ­contract that
photos, graphics and so on. restricts employees from working for competitors or shar-
Media monitoring services  Vendors that assist public rela- ing competitive information such as trade secrets even
tions practitioners in the collection, analysis and report- after they no longer work for the organization.
ing of media data for evaluation; see also clipping Nongovernmental organization (NGO)  A group of people
services. organized at the local, national or international level,
Media planning  Choosing media channels to achieve strate- often serving humanitarian functions and encouraging
gic communication goals and ­objectives. Media planning political participation. Many NGOs work closely with the
drives advertising purchases. United Nations.
Media relations  Management of relationships between an Non-linear story arc  Storytelling that portrays the story
organization and members of the media who write, edit, seemingly out of order.
produce and deliver news. Nonparticipant observation  Research method in which the
Mediated public diplomacy  A nation’s strategic use of media researcher avoids interaction with the environment or
to promote its agenda abroad to foreign publics. those being observed.
Meta tags  Text used to describe a web page to search engines. Objectives  Statements that indicate specific outputs or out-
Microblog  A shorter blog post limited by space or size con- comes desired. In strategic public relations, objectives are
straints of the delivery platform. specific steps taken to achieve broader goals.
Mission  Overall reason an organization exists. Objectivity  State of being free from the influence of personal
Mission statement  A formal statement of an organization’s feelings or opinions in considering and representing facts.
steady, enduring purpose. One-to-many content (1:many)  Content from one sender
Monologic communication  Communication in which one that is designed to reach mass ­audiences with the same
party attempts to impose its view on others. message.
Morgue  Storage space for archived files of old stories, notes Organic search results  Search engine results that are gener-
and media materials kept by news organizations. ated because of their relevance to the search terms entered
Multimedia  The combination of any two or more forms of by users and not r­ esulting directly from paid placement as
media such as text, graphics, moving images and sounds. advertising.
Multipliers  Formulas applied to circulation or other media Organization  A group of people organized in pursuit of a mis-
reach numbers based on assumptions that more than one sion, including businesses, nonprofits, NGOs, clubs,
person will be exposed to each copy of a message or that churches, unions, schools, teams and government agencies.
being covered as part of a news story is more valuable than Organizational crisis  A major threat to an organization’s
paid advertising in the same media space. operations or reputation.
Multivariate testing  A method of message testing to com- Organizational culture  The unique character of an organiza-
pare how various combinations of message factors (e.g., tion comprised of beliefs, values, symbols and behaviors.
message selection, message placement, image selection, Outcomes  Observable results of public relations work.
headline styles, color) lead to various outcomes (e.g., click- Outputs  Tasks or work attempted and completed, including
through rates, time spent on page, sharing behavior). communication tactics produced. Outputs can be com-
Native advertising  Paid advertising that is presented in the pleted without necessarily leading to meaningful results
form of the media content that surrounds it. Advertorials (i.e., outcomes).

GLOSSARY 425
 Overhead expenses  Costs of running a business that are not Propaganda  The spread of information used to promote or
directly related to the product or services delivered. support a particular point of view. In modern use, the
Participant observation  Research method in which the re- term usually refers to false, misleading or exaggerated
searcher deliberately interacts with the environment and information.
those being observed. Proselytizing  When members of publics advocate or promote
Participatory culture  A culture in which private citizens and to others the goals and objectives of a communication
publics are as likely to produce and share as they are to strategy. Proselytizing is a key part of strategic campaigns
consume; commonly applied in mediated contexts in going viral.
which consumers produce and publish information online. Pseudo-event  An event organized primarily for the purpose
Participatory media  Media in which publics actively partici- of generating media coverage.
pate in producing and sharing content. Psychographics  Data describing psychological characteristics
Patent  Claim to intellectual property rights of an invention. of a population including interests, attitudes and
Pay per click  Model of media sales in which advertisers, mar- behaviors.
keters or sponsors pay an online publisher or website Public affairs  Management of policy-focused relationships
owner for each time the sponsored message or advertise- between an organization, public officials and their
ment is clicked. constituents.
Personal branding  Strategically creating, positioning and Public diplomacy  Subset of international public relations
maintaining a positive impression of yourself to signal that focuses on promoting national interests.
your professional promise. Public domain  Works of intellectual property for which the
Pitching  When a public relations person approaches a jour- copyright has expired, the creator has forfeited rights, or
nalist or editor to suggest a story idea. copyright laws do not apply, making the works freely avail-
Plagiarism  Presenting someone else’s words or ideas as one’s able for public use.
own. Public figures  Someone “of general fame or notoriety in the
Planning  Forethought about goals and objectives and the community” who is subject to less protection in libel cases
strategies and tactics needed to achieve them. than a private individual.
Pop-ups  Planned events or experiences that are set up Public information model  Model of public relations in which
quickly in a temporary location for a short time. communication is mostly one-way, initiated by an organi-
Power distance  Cultural dimension describing the difference zation to inform publics with truthful and accurate
between cultures that value hierarchy and authority and information.
those that value equal distribution of power. Public information officer (PIO)  A public relations person,
Pre-roll advertising  A commercial ad is displayed as online commonly working in a government position, whose job
video before the desired video is shown. focuses on the dissemination of information to appropri-
Press agentry/publicity model  Model of public relations in ate publics in an accurate and timely manner.
which communication is mostly one-way, initiated by an Public relations  Management of communication between an
organization with little concern for accuracy or complete- organization and its publics, or the strategic communica-
ness in order to gain the attention of publics. tion process that builds mutually beneficial relationships
Primary publics  Groups of people identified as most important between organizations and their publics.
to the success of a public relations campaign or program. Publicity  Unpaid media coverage, or the practice of deliber-
Primary research  Systematic design, collection, analysis and ately planning and producing information and activities to
application of original data or observation. attract this coverage.
Privacy  The right to be let alone; or, the right to control access Publics  Groups of people with shared interests. An organiza-
to your personal information. tion’s publics either have an effect on the organization, are
Pro bono  Work conducted as a public service without fee or affected by the organization, or both.
payment. Pure accommodation  Stance in issues management in which
Proactive  A management style that is anticipatory, change- a public relations practitioner fully concedes to a public’s
oriented and self-initiated to improve the organization’s demands.
environment and its future. Pure advocacy  Stance in issues management in which a public
Problem or opportunity statement  A concise written sum- relations practitioner firmly pleads an organization’s case
mary of the situation that explains the main reason for a without compromise.
public relations program or campaign. Qualitative research  Research that results in in-depth de-
Problem recognition  When people detect a problem or situa- scription and understanding without relying on the use of
tion in their environment and begin to think about it. numbers or statistics to analyze findings.
Professional convergence  When various functions of profes- Quantitative research  Research that results in numerical or
sional communication such as publicity, advertising, online statistical data and analysis.
services and marketing are combined to improve strategy. Reach  Percentage or number of people exposed to a message
Programmatic media buying  Automated media buying that at least once via a specific communication channel during
is preprogrammed so that advertising purchases are com- a defined period of time.
pleted when certain criteria set by buyers (marketers) and Reactive  A management style that mainly responds to prob-
sellers (media) are met. Programmatic media buying com- lems as they arise rather than anticipating them and
monly occurs via computer-run, real-time auctions. averting them.

426 GLOSSARY
Relational maintenance strategies  Ways of building and Social media creators  Influential social media users who are
sustaining mutually beneficial relationships between orga- among the first to identify and post about crises online.
nizations and publics. Social media crisis communication model (SMCC) Model
Relational public diplomacy  Engagement between a nation describing the role of social media influencers, followers
and its foreign publics in cultural exchange and two-way and inactives in spreading information in crisis
communication with the goal of achieving mutual situations.
benefits. Social media followers  Social media users who receive crisis
Reliability  Consistency and precision of a particular research information from social media creators.
technique. Social media inactives  People who receive crisis information
Replicability  The ability to perform a research procedure or indirectly from social media via traditional media and
experiment repeatedly to attain comparable results. offline word of mouth.
Reputation management  Acting and communicating—often Social media influencer  Social media user who has earned
in writing—to influence an organization’s reputation as credibility with specific publics and who can be instrumen-
part of a process that includes planning, analyzing feed- tal in strategic communication programs because of his or
back and evaluating. her reach and engagement.
Responsible supply chain management  Careful monitoring Social media release  A news release that applies the conven-
of product production and distribution to ensure that tions of social media and includes content designed for
generally high ethical standards of social and environmen- social media distribution and sharing.
tal responsibility are maintained. Social monitoring  The process of tracking social media men-
Scapegoating  Blaming an outside person or organization for tions and conversations.
a crisis. Spambots  Computer programs that automatically send unso-
Search advertising  Paid placement of advertising on search- licited email or post comments in online forums.
engine results pages. Ads are placed to appear in response Spin  Disingenuous strategic communication involving
to certain keyword queries. skewed interpretation or presentation of information.
Search engine optimization (SEO)  Process of improving the Status conferral  When media pay attention to individuals
position of a specific website in the organic search results and groups and therefore enhance their authority or
of search engines. bestow prestige to them.
Secondary publics  Groups of people who are important to a Stealing thunder  Crisis response strategy in which an organi-
public relations campaign or program because of their zation exposes its own problems (and works to address those
relationship with primary publics. problems) before opponents have the opportunity to do so.
Secondary research  Collection, summary, analysis or appli- Stock image  Image that is professionally produced for selling
cation of previously reported research. or sharing, commonly available in searchable databases.
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC)  U.S. federal Story placement  The outcome of a successful pitch, when a
agency responsible for regulating financial activities and story involving a public relations practitioner’s organiza-
investing. tion or client is covered in the news media.
Selective attention  Process of filtering information by focus- Strategic decision-making  Daily management and commu-
ing on some stimuli in the environment while ignoring nication decisions made with mindfulness of the objec-
others. tives, goals and mission of the organization.
Self-efficacy  One’s belief that he or she can perform certain Strategy  Underlying logic that holds a plan together and offers
behaviors to achieve certain outcomes. a rationale for why it will work.
Sentiment  A measure of the tone or emotion behind social Summative research  Research conducted at the end of a cam-
media mentions or comments, typically categorized as paign or program to determine the extent that objectives
positive, neutral or negative. and goals were met.
Situation analysis  A report analyzing the internal and exter- Sunshine law  State law that stipulates which documents and
nal environment of an organization and its publics as it records must be open to the public and which meetings
relates to the start of a campaign or program. and events must be open.
Situational crisis communication theory (SCCT) Theory SWOT Analysis  Description and discussion of an organiza-
that proposes that effective crisis communication entails tion’s internal strengths and weaknesses and its external
choosing and a­ pplying appropriate response strategies opportunities and threats.
­depending on how much responsibility for the crisis is Symmetrical model  Model of public relations in which two-
attributed to the organization by key publics. way communication is mostly balanced, with the organiza-
Situational theory of publics  Theory that the activity of tion as likely to change attitudes or behavior as its publics.
publics depends on their levels of involvement, problem Tactical decision-making  Daily management and communi-
recognition and constraint recognition. cation tactics implemented without consideration of the
Slander  Oral communication that is false and injures some- strategic objectives, goals and mission of the organization.
one’s reputation. Tactics  Specific actions taken and items produced in public
Snackable content  Easy-to-consume pieces of content that relations.
are available on the go. Target audience  Group of people strategically identified for
Social listening  The process of tracking, analyzing and re- their propensity to consume an organization’s products,
sponding to conversations about specific topics online. services or ideas.

GLOSSARY 427
 Technological convergence (aka digital convergence) When ambiguity (high uncertainty avoidance) and those that are
information of various forms such as sound, text, images at ease with ambiguity.
and data are digitized, affording communication across Unconferences  Meetings or conferences organized by their
common media. participants for active peer-to-peer exchange of ideas and
Tertiary publics  Groups of people who indirectly influence or are information. Unconferences are less structured and more
indirectly affected by a public relations campaign or program. participatory (e.g., fewer one-to-many presentations) than
Third-party credibility  Tendency of people to attribute traditional conferences.
greater trustworthiness or expertise to a source other Uncontrolled media  Channels of communication that are
than the original sender of a persuasive message. outside of the control of public relations practitioners.
Third-party data  Data on user behavior that is collected or Usage divide (or second digital divide)  Gap between people
aggregated by one organization and sold to another who use information and communication technologies for
organization. education, self-betterment, civic engagement, etc. and
Total market approach  A strategic approach that combines those who use the technologies for less constructive
insights and considerations from diverse segments to de- reasons.
liver integrated, culturally nuanced campaigns. User-generated content (UGC)  Content voluntarily created
Trade secret  Business information that is not generally by online users.
known to the public and not readily available to others Uses and gratifications  Approach to studying communica-
who could profit from its disclosure or use. tion that focuses on how people use media and the gratifi-
Trademark  Word, name, phrase, symbol or design used to cations they seek from media.
distinguish a product or service from others in the com- Utilitarianism  Principle that the most ethical course of
petitive marketplace. action is the one that maximizes good and minimizes
Transmedia storytelling  Telling a story across multiple plat- harm for people.
forms like games, web pages, apps, social media and tradi- Validity  Accuracy of a particular research ­technique in mea-
tional media. suring or observing what the researcher intends to mea-
Transparency  Deliberate attempt to make available all legally sure or observe.
reasonable information for the purpose of enhancing the Vertical video  Video framed in an orientation in which
reasoning ability of publics; in research, openness in describ- height is greater than width. The aspect ratio is 9:16.
ing and explaining methods. Video news release  A news release that ­provides broadcast
Treatment group  A group of subjects or people in an experi- journalists with pre-­produced news packages including
ment who receive or are exposed to a treatment. audio and video material.
Two-way communication  When both parties send and re- Vision statement  A declaration of an organization’s desired
ceive information in an exchange, as opposed to the one- end-state.
way dissemination of information from an organization to Visual listening  The use of image recognition to track and
its publics. analyze logos or products in online images.
Uncertainty avoidance  Cultural dimension describing the Word-of-mouth promotion  Passing of information and rec-
difference between cultures that are uncomfortable with ommendations from person to person.

428 GLOSSARY
Credits
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Daily News; 5 ©Kathy Hutchins/Shutterstock; 8 Wiscon- Stringer/Getty Images; 180 MANDEL NGAN/AFP/Getty
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Wheal/Alamy Stock Photo; 14 Courtesy of Dan Ox via Courtesy of Kristi Camara and Kelly Logan; 204 Courtesy
Flickr; 16 Photo by Trust “Tru” Katsande on Unsplash; 22 of VWO.com; 211 Courtesy of the Institute for Public Rela-
Courtesy of Kathy Fitzpatrick; 27 © Hong Vo/Shutter- tions; 225 World Bicycle Relief; 226 Silver Screen Collec-
stock; 30 New York Historical Society Library; 33 ullstein tion/Getty Images; 230 World Bicycle Relief; 236 AP
bild/ullstein bild via Getty Images; 34 Kirn Vintage Stock/ Photo/Frank Franklin II; 240 Cision; 245 Casimiro/Alamy
Contributor/Getty Images; 35 AP Photo/Bullit Marquez; Stock Photo; 249 Courtesy of Cornelius Foote; 256 ©stock-
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Getty Images; 39 From the Collections of The Henry Ford. Photo by JC Gellidon on Unsplash; 264 Geoff Livingston/
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C REDITS 429
 Name Index
Alaimo, Kara, 354 Grunig, James, 3, 28, 31, 37–38, 39, 51, 87, O'Brien, James, 75
Arenstein, Seth, 108 89, 90, 128 Ogden, Joseph, 120
Arthur, Lisa, 207 Grunig, Larissa, 39, 108 Okrent, Arika, 226
Avidar, Ruth, 262
Hall, Edward, 352 Page, Arthur W., 7, 8p, 10, 14, 15, 39, 178, 316
Baer, Jay, 277 Hanson, Arik, 390–91 Parijat, Pramath, 183
Bandura, Albert, 359 Harder, Heather, 111, 112 Pavlik, John Vernon, 9
Baquet, Dean, 293, 293p Harris, Emily, 45 Payne, Katie Delahaye, 218, 218t
Barney, Ralph, 345 Heaney, Katie, 352 Penn, Christopher, 76
Barnum, P. T., 29–30, 29f, 30, 38, 41, 42 Hofstede, Geert, 351, 354, 354f Plaisance, Patrick Lee, 51
Bar-On, Tarim, 365 Holladay, Sherry, 333, 336 Pryor, Brooke, 187p
Bentham, Jeremy, 143 Holmes, Elizabeth, 269–70
Ranadive, Ameet, 169
Bernays, Edward, 29f, 35–38, 38p, 41, 51, 52 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 291
Ratcliff, Christopher, 188
Best, Joel, 220 Hon, Linda, 89, 90
Rawlins, Brad, 8, D–1
Black, Jay, 195, 251, 284, 344–45 Huffington, Arianna, 215
Regester, Michael, 326, 328
Bowen, Shannon, 17, 145, D–1 Hunt, Todd, 3, 28, 31, 37–38, 51, 87
Roberts, Chris, 195, 251, 284, 344–45
Brandeis, Louis, 290, 305
Rockland, David, 209, 218
Breakenridge, Deirdre, 229, 243 Ingram, Matthew, 293
Russell, Karen Miller, 42, 43, 44, 45, 48, 50–51
Breyer, Stephen, 289, 290, 313
Russell, Nan, 101
Brown, Robert E., 42 Jenkins, Henry, 56, 58
Bruning, Stephen, 88 Jin, Yan, 342 Salcedo, Natalia, 50
Buber, Martin, 370 Johnson, Benjamin, 259–60 Sandrow, Kim Lachance, 271
Burke, Tarana, 47–48 Scott, David Meerman, 266
Buss, David, 102 Kahneman, Daniel, 220 Searls, Doc, 73
Kant, Immanuel, 51 Seib, Philip, 17, 20
Calamur, Krishnadev, 293 Kantor, Jodi, 292 Seiner, Jake, 236
Cameron, Glen, 322 Kelly, Kathleen, 106 Sha, Bey-Ling, 350
Canary, Dan, 88 Kendall, Robert, 11 Shadpour, David, 263
Cao, Sissi, 307 Kern-Foxworth, Marilyn, 41 Shogren, Elizabeth, 9
Carroll, Craig, 228 Kietzmann, Jan, 276 Smith, Ronald, 161
Carstarphen, Meta, 235 Kirsch, Noah, 4 Solis, Brian, 229, 243
Cobain, Dane, 5 Krystal, Becky, 30 Stacks, Don, 134, 135, 145
Colvin, Geoff, 336 Stafford, Laura, 88
Confessore, Nicholas, 44 Lamme, Margot Opdyke, 42, 43, 44, 45, Streitfeld, David, 292
Coombs, Timothy, 333, 336 48, 50 Strohmeyer, Robert, 14
Cutlip, Scott, 38, 45 La Monica, Paul, 30 Sun Tzu, 95
Larkin, Judy, 326, 328 Swallow, Erica, 243–45
Defren, Todd, 18–21 Laskin, Alexander, 103–4 Sweetser, Kaye, 45
Deggans, Eric, 195 Lauterborn, Bob, 71, 72, 73
Denning, Steph, 226 Lazarsfeld, Paul, 45 Thiruvengadam, Arvind, 325–26
Dietrich, Gini, 185f Ledingham, John, 88 Thompson, Clive, 33
Doctorow, Cory, 302p, 303 Lee, Ivy Ledbetter, 29f, 32–33, 33p, 35, 38, 41, Tiffany, Kaitlyn, 149
Duncan, Seth, 208 51, 52, 74 Tiku, Nitasha, 82
Lerbinger, Otto, 335–36 Toffler, Alvin, 389
Earley, Christopher, 357–58 Lewin, Kurt, 128 Toth, Elizabeth, 92
Elliot, Stuart, 6 Lichfield, Gideon, 311–12 Tversky, Amos, 220
Liu, Brooke Fisher, 342 Twain, Mark, 220
Ferdman, Roberto, 180 Lukaszewski, James, 168
Finnegan, William, 232–34 Van Ruler, Betteke, 31, 63
Fitzpatrick, Kathy, 17, 18, 19, 20, 22–23, 173 Manning, Andre, 218 Vu, Hong Tien, 361
Foote, Cornelius, 249–50 McBride, Genevieve, 52
Warren, Samuel, 290
Ford, Rochelle, 350 McCarthy, E. Jerome, 66
Weinberger, David, 73
Fraustino, Daisy, 342 McGuire, William, 150–55, 162, 172
Wells, Richard, 235
Friedman, Milton, 111 McIntosh, Shawn, 9
Wilson, Laurie, 120
Meeropol, Abel, 252
Winer, Dave, 243, 244
Garsten, Ed, 76 Men, Rita Linjuan, 101, 127
Wylie, Ann, 231
Giang, Vivian, 394 Merton, Robert, 45
Wynne, Robert, 269
Gilfeather, John, D–1 Mill, John Stuart, 143, 144
Golan, Guy, 367–68 Morgan, David, 137 Yourish, Karen, 44
Gonzalez, Melissa, 149 Mosakowski, Elaine, 357–58 Yuter, Josh, 42
Grewal, David Singh, 58
Griffiths, James, 362 Nathan, Alison, 309 Zinsser, William, 230, 230p, 235–36, 249

430 NAME INDEX

Subject Index
Aarnoutse, Jocelyn, 271 Agitation, 46–48 Asociación de Relactionistas Profesionales de
ABC. See Accredited Business Communicator Agreeing (hierarchy-of-effects model step), 153 Puerto Rico, 24
credential Agricultural Relations Council, 24 Asociación Mexicana de Profesionales de
ABC Studios, 282 Airbnb, 275, 276 Relaciones Públicas (PRORP), 24
Absolut Vodka, 193 Ajax, 9 Asorey, Natalie, 170–71
A/B testing, 203, 204f, 206–7, 208, 213, 217 Albertsons, 104p Associated Press (AP) style, 239, 240, 241p
Accenture, 268, 367 Alexander the Great, 43 Assurances, 89
Accident crises, 335 Algorithms, 46, 190, 191, 220, 246, 247, 248, Asymmetrical model, 28, 29f, 35–38, 39, 371
Accommodation, 322–23, 324, 371 248p case study, 35–37
Accreditation, 24, 390 All England Club, 99 defined, 38
Accredited Business Communicator (ABC) Allstate Foundation Purple Purse, 7, 8p Atlantic, The, 259, 293
credential, 24 Allstate insurance, 109 AT&T, 7, 120p, 128
Accredited in Public Relations (APR) Alm, Robbie, 40–41 Attainable objectives, 160
credential, 24, 390 Amazon.com, 3, 3p, 67, 81p, 82, 97, 98p, Attending (hierarchy-of-effects
Action/acting 127–28, 127p, 187, 277, 292–93, 310, 339 model step), 151
hierarchy-of-effects model step, 153 AMEC. See International Association for Attitudinal outcomes, 210, 212
implementation and, 178–81 Measurement and Evaluation of Attribution, 296–98, 302, 303
loyalty and diversity in, 195 Communication Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
planning for, 163 American Academy of Pediatrics, 218 licenses, 302
in principled public relations, 9, 178 American Airlines, 79, 193 Augmented reality (AR), 57–58, 57p
Active publics, 128, 129, 132 American Association of Advertising Agencies Austin American Statesman, 253
Activists, 108–9, 112 (4A's), 343 Authenticity, 7, 21, 173, 174
Actual malice, 295 American Cancer Society, 38 Automated copy testing, 203
ADCOLOR, 283 American Eagle, 70 Automobile safety improvement, 39, 178
Ad Council, 283 American Heart Association, 38, 105 AVE. See Advertising value equivalency
Adidas, 365 American Humane Society, 124 Award of Excellence (PRSA), 377
Administrative costs and supplies, 168–69 Americanization, 58 Aware publics, 128, 129, 132
Advergize, 9 American Marketing Association, 65 Axe, 283
Advertising, 63–65, 186–87 American Red Cross, 41, 178, 264
corporate, 186 American Time Use Survey, 142 Babineaux, Codey, 43
costs of, 63–65, 68–69, 169–70 American Tobacco Company, 36 Backgrounders, 240–42
defined, 63 American University School of Backlinks, 247
divergence and, 63–65 Communication, 22 Bacon consumption campaign, 37–38, 37p
institutional, 77 Analysis Bad Bunny, 350
native, 186, 187 content, 134–36, 139, 204, 205 Baidu, 369
PR and marketing integration with (see proactive issues management step, 329t, Baker, Joseph V., 41–42, 41p
Integrated marketing communication) 330–31 Ball, LaVar, 7
PR compared with, 77–78, 77t, 79 situation (see Situation analysis) Ball, Stephen (photo by), 297p
publicity compared with, 68–69 SWOT, 120–22, 122p Bandwatch, 267
safety and accuracy of, 305–6 Analytics, 65, 119, 162, 206–9, 245, 391 Bank of America, 388
search, 65 Ancestry.com, 81 Banner ads, 64p, 65
Advertising Age, 71 Anchor text, 247 Barcelona Principles, 209–18, 211f
Advertising value equivalency (AVE), Angie's List, 12 AVE limitations (#5), 216–17
216p, 218, 221 Apologies, 336, 337–38, 340 communication outcome measurement
Barcelona Principles on, 216–17 Apple Computer Inc., 111, 228, 272, (#2), 210–13
defined, 64, 216 284–85, 388 goals and measurement as fundamental
Advertorials, 80, 186, 187 Appropriation of likeness or identity, (#1), 210
Advocacy, 109, 221, 323–24, 371, B–2 290, 311–12 organizational performance measurement
brand, 279, 281 Apptentive, 265 (#3), 213
defined, 48 APR. See Accredited in Public Relations qualitative and quantitative methods (#4),
First Amendment and, 291 credential 213
in journalism, discouraged, 51–52 APR Study Guide, 182, 189 social media measurement, 217 (#6)
pure, 322 AP style. See Associated Press style transparent, consistent and valid
Adweek, 59, 192 AP Stylebook, The, 187–88, 187p, 249 measurement (#7), 217–18
Aerie, 70 Aristotle, 43 Bargiel, Andrzej, 75, 75p
Aflac, 121t Arkell, Bartlett, 37 BarkBox, 177, 191–92, 193f
African Public Relations Association, 24 Arnold, Chris, 180 Barnum's Animals Cracker box, 107–8, 107p
Agencies, 381–82, 383p, 384p Arthur W. Page Society, 17, 22, 111, 195, 219 B2B relationships. See Business to business
“Agencies Must Find Answers for a Lack of Artifactual personal branding, 378–80 relationships
Diversity” (PRWeek editorial), 195 Artificial intelligence, 277 B2C. See Business to consumer relationships
Agility PR, 206t Art of War, The (Sun Tzu), 95 Beats by Dr. Dre, 7

SUBJECT INDEX 431

 Beech-Nut Packing Company, 37, 52 California Air Resources Board, 326, 327 Census data, 132, 133p
Behavioral outcomes, 210, 212–13 Cambridge Analytica, 339–41, 353p Center for Labor Research and Education, 144
“Behind Every Seat Is a Story” Campus crime safety campaigns, 141 Center for Science in the Public Interest
campaign, 281 Canadian Public Relations Society, 6 (CSPI), 112, 113p
Benchmarking, 161–62 Cannes Lions International Festival of Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
Bercovici, Jason, 275 Creativity, 13 (CDC), 330, 331, 336
Berliner Stadtmission, 105p Canva, 272 Certificate in Principles of Public Relations,
Berman, Richard, 144 Cape Town Partnership, 297 390, 390p
Berman and Company, 144 Captions, 269–70 Change.org, 155p, 360
Berry, Judy, 323 Career Arc, 45 Channels (communication), 181–82
Beyond Culture (Hall), 352 Careers, 374–97 Characters (unit of analysis), 135
Bezos, Jeff, 292 areas of specialization, 386–89 Charity: water (organization), 3, 3p
Big data, 207, 208–9, 220 competition, loyalty and job changes, Charles Schwab, 193
Billable rate, 168 394–95 Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools, 212
Billboard, 350 education and continued learning for, Chatbots, 277
Bing, 46, 65 389–91 Chewy.com, 123–24
Biographical profiles (bios), 242 employers, 381–86 China, 362, 369
Biography of an Idea (Bernays), 36 largest employer in the world, 384 Chipotle Mexican Grill, 179–81, 180p, 184,
BK® App, 261–62 personal branding and, 375–81 330–31, 330p, 336
Black box fallacy, 56–57, 57p, 58 salaries in, 382, 383, 384, 385 Chrysler Group LLC, 41, 76
Black Panther (film), 350 Carmel Boutique Inns, 394 Cigarette smoking. See Tobacco products
Blogs, 133, 243–45 Carney, Jay, 292–93 and companies
Blood drives, 133–38, 135p #Carnitasgate, 180 Cil, José, 261
Bloomberg, Michael, 114 Carroll, Dave, 320, 322–23 Cince PR & Branding Group, 393
Bloomberg.com, 99 Case studies Cision, 206t
Blue Apron, 191 Amazon v. NYT, 292–93 Clark, Rob, 110
BODEN, 170–71 BarkBox marks its territory across media, Clear and present danger doctrine, 291, 307
Boing Boing, 303 191–92 Clickbait, 226
Bolstering, 339, 341 Bernays' “Torches of Freedom” march, Click-through rate, 65
Bonaparte, Napoleon, 46 35–37 Clients/customers.
Boomerang effect, 338 Burger King uses mobile app, 260–62 See also Consumers
Boomerang videos, 275 Chipotle's challenge to act on principles, duty to, 17, 20
Booty, Ed, 357 179–81 “firing,” 323–24
Boston Children's Hospital, 109p Coca-Cola and CSR, 111–14 listening to, 10
Boston Tea Party, 43, 44, 44p, 50 Crock-Pot keeps cool, 12–13 management meetings with, 162–63
Bounce rate, 208 Elon Musk vs. feds over free speech, 307–9 tweeting for, 18–21
BP. See British Petroleum Facebook at congressional hearings, 339–41 Clip books, 204
Brand advocates, 279, 281 Gillette's “We Believe” campaign, 214–15 Clipping services, 204–5
Branding, 9, 352. See also Personal branding GOAT's Surf Ranch helped by feature story, Closed captioning, 271
Brand journalism, 76, 80 231–34 Cluetrain Manifesto, The: The End of Business as
Brand Lift, 213 handwashing campaign, 158–61 Usual (Searls and Weinberger), 73
Brand reputation management, 265 IHOP flips name, 30–31 CNN, 76
Bravely, 282, 283 Kimberly-Clark's diversity promotion, CNN Money, 30
Bridgeport Hospital, 41 196–97 Coca-Cola Company, 79, 86, 111–14, 112p,
Brigham Young University, 120 Little Italy Restaurante fires customer, 355, 355p, 365
British Airways, 324 323–24 Coco (film), 350
British Petroleum (BP), 9, 9p, 337–38, 337p MasterCard's World Cup campaign, 365–67 Code of Athens (1965), C–1, 24
Brochureware, 185 Medtronic rebuilds after Hurricane Maria, Code of Brussels (2007), C–1, 24
BTS, 350 102–3 Code of Venice (1961), C–1, 24
Budgets, 165–70, 167f, 171 Mickey Mouse ears for charity, 281–82 Codes of ethics, 23–25.
Buffalo Bicycles, 230 net neutrality and situational theory of See also Institute for Public Relations
Buffer, 269 publics, 128–30 Ethical Standards and Guidelines;
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), U.S., 142 Papa John's fiasco, 4–5 International Public Relations
Burger King, 256, 260–62, 261p Red Bull's content marketing strategy, 75 Association Code of Conduct; Public
BurrellesLuce, 206t Strange Fruit controversy, 251–53 Relations Society of America Code of
Burson, Harold, 15 tweeting for clients, 18–21 Ethics; Society of Professional Journalists
Burson Cohn & Wolfe, 359 Vicks redefines “care,” 356–57 Code of Ethics
Burson-Marsteller, 15, 306, 368 VW issue life cycle, 325–28 Code-switching, 249
Business regulations, 290 World Bicycle Relief storytelling, 229–30 Cognitive outcomes, 210, 212
Business to business (B2B) Yelp CEO vs. new hire, 392–93 Cognitive sources of cultural intelligence, 358
relationships, 98–99 Catalyst Award, 196–97 Collaborative Leaders Network (CLN), 41
Business to consumer (B2C) Catholic Church, 48 Colored ribbon campaigns, 48, 49p
relationships, 97–98 CBS, 38 Columbia University, 43
BusinessWire.com, 94, 250 CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Comcast, 128, 283
Business writing, 249 Prevention “Coming Together” campaign, 112
BuzzFeed, 352, 392 Celebrities, 279 Comments (social media sites), 244, 278
Buzzoid, 172 Censorship, 246, 278, 362 Commerce-driven relationships, 97–104

432 SUB JECT INDEX

Commission on Public Relations Education, divergence and, 62–63 Current/crisis stage (issue life cycle), 324,
359, 389 economic, 59–61, 81–82, 81p, 359 325f, 326–28
Commitment, 90, 91 professional, 61–62 Customer relationship management (CRM), 310
Communal relationships, 90, 106 technological (digital), 56–58, 81–82, 81p, Customers. See Clients/customers
Communication 295–96 Cutlip and Center's Effective Public Relations
AVE limitations in, 216–17 Converging Media (Pavlik and (Broom and Sha), 4
Barcelona Principles on, 210–13 McIntosh), 9
budgeting for expenses, 169–70 Conversational voice, 14 Daily Beast, The, 371
dialogic, 370–71 Conversion funnel, 155 Daily Tar Heel, The, 63
high-context, 352–53 Conversion rate, 208 Dallas Morning News, The, 249
integrated, 15 Convince & Convert, 277 Damage control, 4, 7, 10, 15, 16
in integrated marketing communication, Cook, Tim, 285 Damico, Joan, 268
73, 98 Cookies, 207 Damned Lies and Statistics (Best), 220
low-context, 352–53 Copyright, 272, 289 Data, 206–9, 290
loyalty and diversity in, 195 defined, 296 analyzing and presenting, 391
monologic, 370, 371 fair use and, 298–301 big, 207, 208–9, 220
planning for, 163 linking and, 303 Cambridge Analytica scandal,
production of materials for, 163 symbol of, 296 339–41, 353p
Communications Act 2003 (UK), 360 Copyright infringement, 297–98 first-party, 207
Community-based problem-solving, 40 Copyright Office, U.S., 298 mobile media and, 259–60
Community management, 277–79 Corden, James, 360, 361p protection of, 80–83
Compensation, 338–39 Cornell-Liberty Safety Car, 39p third-party, 207
Competence, 90 Cornell University, 39 Dateline, 239
Competing duties, 17–18, 20 Cornell University Law School Legal Dávalos, Felipe (illustration by), 88p
Competition, 394–95, B–3 Information Institute, 310 Deadspin, 300–301
Comprehending (hierarchy-of-effects Corporate advertising, 186 Dean, Howard, 43–44
model step), 152 Corporate social responsibility (CSR), 87, Decision-making, 18, 21, 174
Condé Nast, 350 331–32, 383 strategic (see Strategic decision-making)
Conductor (typology), 62p, 63 case study, 111–14 tactical, 155
Cone Communications, 113, 114p, 331 defined, 111 “Declaration of Principles” (Lee), 32–33
Confidences, safeguarding. See Safeguarding Corporations, 382–83, 384p Deep links, 303
confidences Cost. See also Budgets; Price Deepwater Horizon rig explosion, 9
Conflict and controversy (in news), 93, 94t administrative, 168–69 Defamation, 290, 294–95
Conflict management, 320–24 of advertising by media type, 63–65, Delayed lead, 235
Conflicts of interest, 344–45, B–5 169–70 Delgado, James, 242
Conlon, Jerome, 352–53 of advertising vs. publicity, 68–69 Dell Computer, 264, 264p
Consent fatigue, 82 integrated marketing communication and, Delta Airlines, 378
Consequentialism, 174 72–73, 98 Delta Airlines Foundation, 190p
Constraint recognition, 129–30 Cost per thousand (CPM), 63–64, 65 Demand-side platforms (DSPs), 169
Consumer Expenditure Survey, 142 Council of Public Relations Firms, 195 Demographics, 129, 209, 350
Consumer-generated media (CGM), 12 Court and the World, The (Breyer), 289 Deny strategies, 336–37, 340
Consumers. See also Clients/customers CPM. See Cost per thousand Deontological ethics, 21, 174
B2C relationships, 97–98 Creative Commons, 272, 302–3 Department of Agriculture, U.S. (USDA),
corporate social responsibility Credibility, 69, 70, 183–84. 152, 152p
and, 112–13 See also Third-party credibility Department of Defense, U.S. (DOD), 384
integrated marketing communication and, Crises, 333–43 Department of Education, U.S., 59, 139
71–72, 98 accident, 335 Department of Health and Human Services,
PR careers in field of, 388 cultural differences in reaction to, 353 U.S., 138
Content organizational, 333 Department of Homeland Security, U.S., 34
ephemeral, 275 preventable, 335 Department of Justice, U.S., 304, 385
latent, 135–36 response strategies to, 335–39 Department of the Army, U.S., 385
for search engines, writing, 248 social media and, 341–44 Department of the Interior,
for social media, 267–76 victim, 333–35 U.S., 385, 385p
user generated, 276 Crisis Manager, The (Lerbinger), 335–36 Dependability, 90
Content analysis, 134–36, 139, 204, 205 Crispin Porter Bogusky, 381 Dependent variables, 203
Content curation, 275–76 Critical Mention, 267 Descriptions, 247
Content marketing, 74–76, 80 Crock-Pot, 1, 12–13, 13p Detroit neighborhood cleanup, 132p
Content Marketing Institute, 74, 268 Crowdsourcing, 6–7, 46, 266 Detroit News, The, 76
Contingency theory, 322–24, 322f CSR. See Corporate social responsibility Dialogic communication, 370–71
Control (of advertising vs. publicity), 68, 69 Cultural convergence, 58–59, 80, 359 Dieselgate, 325–28
Control group, 134 Cultural intelligence, 357–59 Digital convergence. See Technological
Controlled media, 182–84, 194 Culture, 350–59, 368–69 convergence
Control mutuality, 90, 91 defined, 351 Digital divide, 362, 362f, 363
Controversy. See Conflict and controversy dimensions of, 354–56, 354f Digital media. See also Internet; Social media
Convenience, 73, 98 low- vs. high-context, 353 advertising on, 169–70
Convergence, 56–63, 79 organizational, 125 collaborating on, 391
cultural, 58–59, 80, 359 participatory, 59 media monitoring services for, 205

SUBJECT INDEX 433

 Digital media (continued) Employment Policies Institute, 143–44 Exchange relationships, 89, 97
plagiarism on, 296–98 End-user license agreements (EULA), 284 Experiments, 133, 134, 139, 203
planning and, 155 Enearu, Nicole, 156p Expertise, 16, 19, 173, 251, B–2
Digital watermarking, 202 Engagement, 210–12, 269 Exponential, 275
Digitaslbi, 121t Entertainment, PR careers in, 387–88 External publics, 100, 125, 126–28, 173,
Diminish strategies, 337 Entrepreneur.com, 271 310, 390–91
Dine Brands, 32, 33 Entrepreneurship, 388 Extra-Strength Tylenol, 334, 334p
Direct lead, 236–37 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 326–27 Eye tracking, 202
Direct observation, 137–38 Environmental variables, 360–63
Direct-to-consumer (DTC) brands, 177, Ephemeral content, 275 Facebook, 3, 10, 12, 47, 133, 134, 135, 139,
191–92 ePortfolios, 379 151, 162, 192, 214, 237, 245, 270, 271,
Disclosure of information, B–3–B–4 Esawo (Malawian dairy farmer), 229–30 274, 275, 276, 277–78, 281, 282, 310,
Discovery, 283 ESPN, 235, 236, 282, 297, 378 315, 367
Disneyland, 9 Ethics, 15–25 advertising on, 65, 170, 186
Distributed public relations, 15 codes of (see Codes of ethics) conflict management and, 321, 322, 323–24
Divergence, 62–70 competing duties and, 17–18, 20 congressional hearings, 319, 339–41, 340p
advertising and, 63–65 competition, loyalty and job changes and, data use by, 81, 82, 209, 290, 339–41, 353p
marketing and, 65–70 394–95 intellectual property issues and, 296
Diversity, 80, 194, 195, 196–97, 283, 332 conflicts of interest and, 344–45 international differences in, 362
DKNY, 321–23, 321p corporate social responsibility and loyalty libel on, 294
Dodsworth, Sue, 196–97 and, 111–14 mobile media and, 259–60
Doing Ethics in Media (Black and Roberts), 195, defined, 16 net neutrality issue and, 128
344–45 defining specific issues/conflicts in, 18, number of users, 46
Dollar Shave Club, 191 19, 173 reposting on, 303
Dominant coalition, 17 deontological, 21, 174 Facebook Live, 274
Donors, 105–6 dialogic, 370–71 Facebook Messenger, 277
Doritos, 59 diversity and loyalty and, 195 Facial recognition technology, 81
Dormant stage (issue life cycle), 324, free flow of information and data protection FactCheck.org, 334–35
325f, 328 and, 80–83 Fact sheets, 240
#DoUsAFlavor campaign, 266 identifying affected parties in, 18, 20, 173 Fair Labor Association (FLA), 331
Dove, 273p identifying internal/external factors in, Fairness, B–2
Dropbox, 128 18, 19, 173 Fair use, 298–301
Drug use and health study, 138–41 identifying key values in, 18, 19, 173 Falk, Thomas J., 196
Dumb and Dumber (film), 186 of independence, 220–22 False light, portrayal in, 312–13
DuPont, 41, 123 making and justifying a decision in, 18, Fast Company, 394
21, 174 Fault, 294–95
Earl Newsom and Company, 38 reasons for studying, 16–17 FCC. See Federal Communications
Early adopters, 66–67 safeguarding confidences and, 283–85, Commission
Early On® Michigan and Genesee Intermediate 314–16 FDA. See Food and Drug Administration
School District, 121t selecting principles for decision-making in, Feature stories, 231–36
Early/potential stage (issue life cycle), 324, 18, 21, 174 Federal Communications Commission (FCC),
325–26, 325f of transparency, objectivity, and advocacy, 128, 130
Earned media, 44, 189–92, 205, 208, 239, 331 51–52 Federal Emergency Management Agency
eBay, 67, 73, 81 of tweeting for clients, 18–21 (FEMA), 34
Economic convergence, 59–61, 81–82, utilitarianism and, 143–45, 175 Federalist Papers, The, 43
81p, 359 of writing for mutual understanding, 251 Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 281, 305,
Economist, The, 362 of “zombie” followers, 172–74 306
Economy, 361–62, 369 Ethiopian Airlines, 335, 336–37, 336p FedEx Cup, 99
Econsultancy, 188 Ethnocentrism, 350–51 Feedback, 10
Edelman, 12–13, 246, 382 Etsy, 73, 297 Feed proofing, 270p, 271
Edelman Trust Barometer, 363 European Summit on Measurement in FEMA. See Federal Emergency Management
Edison, Thomas, 41 Barcelona, 209 Agency
Education European Union (EU), 81, 82, 290 Female Moral Reform Society, 46
for PR careers, 389–91 Evaluation, 118, 119p, 163, 164–65, 200–224 Fenton, 218, 219t
PR in, 42–43, 43p Barcelona Principles on (see Barcelona Ferrari, Josh, 376, 377, 378, 380, 380p
Electronic Arts Inc. (EA), 182–83, 183p Principles) Fight for the Future, 128, 131p
Electronic House, 66 media monitoring services for, 204–5, Fight for the Internet, 130
eMarketer, 284 205f, 206t Financial field, PR careers in, 388
Emerging stage (issue life cycle), 324, 325f, message testing in, 202–3 Financial information, 306
326, 343 metrics, analytics and data in, 206–9 Finkelstein, Barry, 343–44
Emotional/motivational sources of cultural in proactive issues management, 329t, First Amendment, 291–94, 295, 298, 308, 362
intelligence, 359 332–33 First-party data, 207
Empathy, 95, 195 Evans, Chiquita, 235–36, 236p First sale doctrine, 289
Employees. See also Personnel Event planning, 163–64 Fiske, Rosanna M., 193–94, 195
corporate character expressed by, 15 Excel, 142 Fitbit, 277–78, 306
corporate social responsibility and, 113 Excellence in Internal Communication 5W's, 269f
relations with, 100–103 Management (Men), 127 Flaherty, Rob, 389

434 SUB JECT INDEX

Flaming, 14 Ghiradelli Square, 394 Harris, Neil Patrick, 282
Flash mobs, 35, 35p Gialopsos, P. J., 320, 320p Harvard College, 43
Fleischman, Doris, 38, 38p, 51 Gig economy, 381 Hashimoto, Krislyn, 393–94
FleishmanHillard, 121t, 282, 306, 382 Gillette, 41, 59, 200, 214–15, 214p Hawaiian Electric Co. (HECO), 3, 40–41
Florida Public Relations Association, 24 Girlgaze, 273p Hayward, Tony, 337–38, 337p
Florida State University, 267 Gizmodo, 127, 128 Headlines, 247
Focus groups, 136–37, 137p, 139, 202–3 Glasgow, Amanda, 364 Healthcare, PR careers in, 386–87, 387p
Focus Groups as Qualitative Research Glass ceiling, 196 Heaven (neglected girl), 47
(Morgan), 137 Global Alliance for Public Relations and Hegemony, 58
Fontes, Kimberly, 108 Communication Management, 22, Helvey Communications, 121t
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 305–6 213, 359 Hennessey, Amy, 216
Foote Communications LLC, 250 Global Entrepreneurship Monitor, 364 Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, 302–3
Forbes, 197, 207, 226, 263, 269 Global Handwashing Day, 158–61, 159p Heth, Joice, 28–29, 30p
Forbes.com, 4, 393 Globalization, 359–60, 369 Hewlett-Packard Co., 3
Ford, Henry, 72 Global public relations, 349–73 Hierarchy-of-effects model (McGuire),
Ford, Henry, II, 39 intercultural public relations in, 351, 150–55, 151f, 172
Ford, Patrick, 368–69 368–69 for planning, 154–55
Ford Motor Company, 38–39, 178 international public relations in steps in, 151–54
Formal research, 138–41 (see International public relations) High-context cultures/communication,
Formative research, 118–19, 161–62 public diplomacy in, 367–68 352–53
Fortune, 100, 196, 293, 328, 336 GMMB, 282 Hill, George Washington, 36
Four C's of integrated marketing Goals, 158–59, 158f Hill and Knowlton, 51
communication, 71–73, 98. Barcelona Principles on, 210 Hilton Hotels & Resorts, 394
See also Communication; Consumers; defined, 157 HiSmile, 186
Convenience; Cost social media tracking of, 171 Hispanic Heritage Month, 355
Four P's of marketing, 66–70, 71. writing and, 227–28 Hispanic Public Relations Association, 6
See also Place; Price; Product; Promotion Goal thermometer, 162p Holiday, Billie, 252
Four R's of stewardship, 106 GOAT's Surf Ranch, 231–33, 233p Holmes Report, 356, 382f
Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, 394 Godiva Chcolatiers, 79 Honesty/truthfulness, 7–8, 22, 51, B–2
Fox News, 299, 299p Goebbels, Joseph, 52 Hootsuite, 206t, 267, 271
Framing, 303 Golden hours, 341 Horn, Michael, 327, 327p
Franklin, Nick, 232 Golden mean, 113 H&R Block, 18
Freedom House, 362 Golden rule, 15, 251 HubSpot.com, 167f
Freedom of Information Act (FOIA), 304–5 Google, 46p, 111, 128, 190–91, 193, 204, 213, Huffington Post, 215, 320
Free flow of information, 80–83, B–2–B–3 247, 248, 248p, 310 Hulu, 266p
Freelancers, 272 advertising on, 65 Human interest (in news), 93, 94t, 235
“Free” media, 170 data use by, 81, 290 Humans of New York (photography project), 321
Free Press, 128, 129–30 number of searches per day on, 46 Hunt, Bertha, 36
Free speech, 291–94, 298, 307–9 Google AdWords, 190, 208 Hurricane Maria, 102–3, 110
Frequency, 169 Google alerts, 142, 204, 245 Hyatt Hotels and Resorts, 394
Frito-Lay, 266 Google Analytics, 65, 155, 213 Hyperlinks, 303
Frohnert, Ashley, 108 @GoogleDocs, 278
FTC. See Federal Trade Commission Google Places, 12 IABC. See International Association of Busi-
Functional magnetic resonance imaging GoPro, 188, 188p, 275, 276 ness Communicators
(fMRI), 202 Government I and Thou (Buber), 370
Funnel, 155, 213 careers in, 384–85 IBM, 99, 100p, 354
Future Shock (Toffler), 389 PR in, 43–44 Iceland Foods, 360, 361p
Future Workplace, 45 public information dissemination in, 33–34 Identification (proactive issues management
Government agencies, 109 step), 329–30, 329f
GamingBolt, 183 Government relations, 109 iDigic.net, 172
Gantt charts, 164–65, 164f Grant-Herms, Natalie, 312–13 IG Audit, 174
Gap, 73, 329, 331 “Great Firewall of China, The,” 362 I.G. Farben, 32
Garmin Connect, 378 Great Place to Work Institute, 100 Ikea, 59
Gatorade, 264 Greenpeace, 360 Imada, Bill, 79–80
Gavankar, Janina, 183p Greenwashing, 22 Images (in social media), 271–73
General Data Protction Regulation (GDPR), Grimaldi, Michael, 330 captions for, 269–70
81, 82, 83, 290 Grissom, Stacie, 192 consistent look and feel for, 271
General Electric (GE), 71, 193 Grove, Skye, 297 permission for use, 272–73
General Motors, 76 Güd Marketing, 121t quality maintenance, 272
General public, 2 stock, 273
Geofencing, 260, 261 Halpern, Derek, 268 Impacts, 161
Geofilter, 260, 261 Handwashing campaign, 148, 158–61, Implementation, 118, 177–99
Geolocation technology, 81, 260, 261 159p, 162 choosing channels, 181–82
George Washington University Graduate Harbour, David, 59 by media type, 182–92
School of Political Management, 142 HARO (Help a Reporter Out), 97 in proactive issues management,
Gertz v. Robert Welch, Inc., 295 Harper-Howie, Kerri, 156p 329t, 331–32
Getty Images, 273, 273p, 311–12 Harpers Weekly, 305 taking action, 178–81

SUBJECT INDEX 435

 Impression management, 228–29 International Council on Clean Transportation objectivity and, 51
Impressions, 154, 217 (ICCT), 325 publicity and, 69
Inbound marketing, 74 International House of Pancakes (IHOP), 27, relationship with reporters, 12
Indeed.com, 103 30–31, 31p Journal of Mass Media Ethics, 52, 345
Independence, 19, 220–22, B–2 International Paper Co., 71 Journal of Public Relations Research, 50
Independent variables, 203 International public relations, 369 Joyner, Tom, 249–50
India, 356–57 issues in, 359–64 JPMorgan Chase, 388
Individualism-collectivism (cultural PR careers in, 389 Judicial awareness, 290, 313
dimension), 354, 354f, 355 International Public Relations Association Just Be Inc., 47
Industrial Revolution, 71, 72p, 73 (IPRA), 22, 359, 364 “Just Do It” campaign, 352–53
Influence, 227 International Public Relations Association
Influencer outreach, 391 (IPRA) Code of Conduct, C–1–C–3, Kaepernick, Colin, 95p
Influencers, 279–81. 24–25 Kaiser Health News, 301p, 302–3
See also Social media influencers International Women's Day, 156–57 Kam, Nathan, 216
Informal research, 119, 138–41 Internet, 237. Kana, Ariel, 393
Information See also Digital media; Social media Kardashian, Kim, 279, 335
disclosure of, B–3–B–4 advertising on, 64–65 KC Water, 330
free flow of, 80–83, B–2–B–3 agitation on, 47–48 KD/PR Virtual, 121t
material, 33, 309 data use on (see Data) Kelleher, Tom, 233p, 249p
public (see Public information) digital divide and, 362, 362f, 363 Keller, Andrew, 381
Ingratiation, 339, 341 legitimacy conferred by, 46 “Kelly Slater's Shock Wave” (Finnegan),
In house personnel, 123 marketing on, 67 231–34
Initial public offerings (IPOs), 306 net neutrality issue, 117p, 128–30, Kelly Slater Wave Company, The, 232–34,
Insider trading, 309 130p, 131p 233p, 234p
Instagram, 7, 47, 133, 149, 162, 165, 169, owned media on, 184–85 Ketchum, 59, 121t, 213, 382, 389
170, 172, 192, 214, 245, 270, 271, 275, Internet of Things (IoT), 283–84 Kevo deadbolt, 66, 67, 178
276, 281, 282, 297, 379 Internships, 380–81 Keywords, 46, 65, 208, 212, 246–47, 267
advertising on, 186 Interpublic Group, 59, 79 Keyword stuffing, 247
blocking users or words from, 279p Interviews, 136, 139 Kimberly-Clark Corp., 196–97, 197p
data use by, 80, 209 Intrusion into seclusion, 310 Kim Jong Un, 32
@ihavethisthingwithfloors, 272p Inverted pyramid writing style, 236–37, Kindelan, Megan, 142
integrated marketing communication on, 70 237f, 239 King, Bernice, 215
libel on, 294 Investor relations, 103–4, 113 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 267
mobile media and, 259 Investor's Business Daily, 103 King's College, 43
#sponsored photos on, 279 Iowa State University, 353 Kirtsaeng, Supap, 289
Instagram Live, 274 IPR. See Institute for Public Relations Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 289
Institute for Public Relations (IPR), 89, 145, IPRA. See International Public Relations Kraft, Robert, 336
209, 219, 313, 315, 368 Association Kwi, 121t
Institute for Public Relations (IPR) Ethical IRS, 59 Kwikset, 66, 67, 179
Standards and Guidelines, D–1 Issue, defined, 106
Institutional advertising, 77 Issue life cycle, 324–28, 325f Landscape orientation (video), 274
Integrated communication, 15 Issues-driven relationships, 104–9 Las Vegas Color Run, 163p
Integrated marketing communication, 61–62, Issues management, 324–33, 343–44 Late Late Show with James Corden (television
62p, 63 defined, 324 program), 258
defined, 71 proactive, 328–33, 329t Latent content, 135–36
four C's of (see Four C's of Integrated “It Can Wait” campaign, 120p Latent publics, 128, 129, 132
­marketing communication) Items (unit of analysis), 135 Latino Rebels, 355
hybrid functions, 73–76 “It's a Tide Ad” (commercial), 59–60, 60p Lead
Integrity, 90 iTunes, 67 delayed, 235
Intellectual property, 289–90, 295–303, IW Group, 79 direct, 236–37
313, 322 Learning (hierarchy-of-effects model step),
copyright (see Copyright) James, Lejuan, 280p 152–53
defined, 289 James, Saint, 48 Legal issues, 288–318
digital age issues, 301–3 Jane, Talia, 392–93, 392p data use, 81, 82
fair use and, 298–301 Japan National Tourism Organization, 3 defamation, 290, 294–95
patents, 296 Jenner, Kylie, 7, 279 free speech, 291–94, 298, 307–9
plagiarism, 296–98 Johnson & Johnson, 334 intellectual property (see Intellectual
trademarks, 296 John Wiley & Sons Inc., 289 property)
Interbrand, 111 Jonas Brothers, 258 privacy, 310–13
Intercultural public relations, 351, 368–69. Journalism. See also Media relations; News- protecting publics, 305–9
See also Culture driven relationships public information, 304–5
Internal publics, 100, 125–28, 310, 390–91 advocacy discouraged in, 51–52 Legislative relations, 109
International Association for Measurement being useful to reporters, 96–97 Legitimacy, 45–46
and Evaluation of Communication brand, 76, 80 LEGO, 70
(AMEC), 209 empathizing with reporters, 95 Level of involvement, 129
International Association of Business integrated marketing communication and, Levi's, 9
Communicators (IABC), 24 73–74 Lewis, Wendy, 156

436 SUB JECT INDEX

Li, Tiffany, 82 McCorkindale, Tina, 219–20 personalization in, 259–60
Libel, 294, 303 McDonald's, 18, 58, 79, 156–57, 156p, social networks accessed on, 258–59
Licensure, 23 170–71, 186, 260–62 as ubiquitous, 258
Likert-type items, 212, 212f McDonalidization, 58 uses and gratifications of, 262–63
Liking (hierarchy-of-effects model step), McDowell, Gayle Laakmann, 393 Mondelez International, 107–8
151–52 Measurable objectives, 160 Monitoring (proactive issues
Linear story arcs, 275 Measurement, D–1, 218–19. management step), 328–29, 329f
LinkedIn, 186, 271, 315f, 316, 376, 379 See also Barcelona Principles; Metrics Monologic communication, 370, 371
Links, 247–48, 303 Measure What Matters (Payne), 218 Moore, Carissa, 66, 75
Lion Air, 337 Media, 182–92 Moran, Monty, 336
Listening budgeting for expenses, 169–70 Morano, Robert M., 309
defined, 10 consumer-generated, 12 Morgue (news organization archives), 241
social, 263–67, 277 controlled, 182–84, 194 MSL, 356
visual, 264–67, 277 duty to, 17, 20 MTV Networks, 193
Listicles, 226 earned, 44, 189–92, 205, 208, 239, 331 Mule Deer Foundation, 281
Little Italy Restaurante, 323–24 “free,” 170 Multimedia, 268–69, 283, 391.
Live streaming, 274 global public relations and, 362–63, 369 See also Images; Text; Video
Lobbying, 109 mixed, 191 Multipliers, 216–17, 221
Localization, 364, 364p mobile (see Mobile media) Multivariate testing, 206–7
Lockheed Martin, 188–89, 189p multi- (see Multimedia) Musk, Elon, 288, 307–9, 308f
London Business School, 357 news (see Journalism; News-driven relation- Myers, Cayce, 313–14, 315, 316
Longer form (writing), 243–45 ships; News media; News stories) Mystic Hotel by Charlie Palmer, 394
Long-term orientation, 354, 354f owned, 184–85, 191–92, 194, 208, 331
Looping videos, 275 paid, 186–87, 191–92, 208, 331 NAACP, 41, 51
Love Cobain, Courtney, 294, 295p participatory, 88 Nabisco, 107–8
#LOVEISON, 61p production of materials for, 163 NASA, 274
Low-context cultures/communication, 352–53 shared, 187–89, 191–92, 205, 208, 331 National Association of Black Journalists, 250
Lowe's, 70 uncontrolled, 182–84, 194 National Association of Minority Media
Lowy, Ben, 232 Media catching, 96, 97 Executives, 250
Loyalty, 16, 19, B–2 Media gatekeepers, 190, 192, 238–39 National Black Public Relations Association, 6
corporate social responsibility and, 111–14 Media kits, 241 National Black Public Relations
defined, 195 Media lists, 133 Society Inc., 250
diversity and, 195 Media monitoring services, 204–5, 205f, 206t, National Do Not Call Registry, 306
job changes and, 394–95 298–99 National Education Association, 342
Luquire George Andrews, 343 Media planning, 169 National Employment Law Project, 144
Media relations, 69, 78, 92–93 National Geographic, 218
Macron, Emmanuel, 367 Mediated public diplomacy, 367–68 National Investor Relations Institute, 103
Macy's, 186 Medium.com, 156, 213, 292–93, 392–93, National Jewish Outreach Program, 42
Maine Public Relations Association, 24 392p National Kidney Foundation Serving
Makalima-Ngewana, Bulelwa, 297 Medtronic, 102–3, 110 North Texas, 250
Make-A-Wish® Foundation, 281–82 Memeburn, 5, 297 National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Management by objectives (MBO), 162 Mercedes, 378 Administration (NOAA), 241–42
Management function, 11 Mercer University, 313 National Park Service, 190p
Managing Public Relations (Grunig and Hunt), Merrill Lynch, 38 National Public Radio (NPR), 9, 46, 303
3, 28, 87 Message testing, 202–3 National School Public Relations
Marketing, 65–70 Messi, Lionel, 366, 366p Association, 24
content, 74–76, 80 Meta tags, 247 Native advertising, 186, 187
defined, 65–66 MetLife, 79 Natural links, 247
divergence and, 65–70 #MeToo, 47–48, 47p Nature Conservancy, 105
four P's of (see Four P's of marketing) Metrics, 206–9. See also Measurement Nazis (Lee's work with), 32, 52
inbound, 74 Mexican Association of Public Relations NBA, 231, 235, 283
PR and advertising integration with (see Professionals, 24 NBA 2K (video game), 235–36, 236p
Integrated marketing communication) Miami Herald, The, 249 NBC, 12–13
PR compared with, 77–78, 77t, 79 Microblogs, 245–46 NBC Nightly News (television program), 30
Marketing mix, 66–70 Micro-influencers, 280–81 Netflix, 128, 129, 130p, 266, 310
Market research reports, 132–33 Microsoft, 111, 367 Net neutrality, 117, 128–30, 130p, 131p
Market skimming, 66–67 Milano, Alyssa, 47, 47p, 48 Newell Brands, 12–13
Marriott International, 283 Minimum wage issue, 143–44, 143p, 144p New England Patriots, 336
Martin Luther King, Jr. National Historic Mission, 157, 158f News-driven relationships, 92–97.
Park, 190p Mission statements, 123–24 See also Journalism
Masculinity-femininity (cultural dimension), MIT, 271 Newsjacking, 266–67
354, 354f, 356 MIT Technology Review, 311–12 News media
Mashable, 75 Mixed media, 191 defined, 92
Massachusetts Summer Legislative Intern Mixed-motive model, 39 writing for, 238–42
Program, 388p #MLK2019, 267 Newsom, Earl, 38–39, 178
MasterCard, 365–67, 366p Mobile media, 258–63, 263p, 283 Newspaper advertising, 169
Material information, 33, 309 localization and, 260 News releases, 30, 189, 239–40, 240p, 250

SUBJECT INDEX 437

 News stories past communication records with key proactive issues management step overlap
about key publics, 133 publics, 133 with, 329t
writing, 236–38 as publics, 106–9 strategic (see Strategic decision-making)
Newsworthiness, 74, 93–94, 239, 240 research on, 123–25 timelines, 161–65, 166f
New Yorker, The, 47, 231, 232 Outcomes Policymakers, 114
New York Times, The, 6, 41, 43, 44, 47, 144, attitudinal, 210, 212 Politics
292–93, 326, 336 Barcelona Principles on, 210–13 global public relations and, 360–61, 369
New York Times Co. v. Sullivan, 295 behavioral, 210, 212–13 PR careers in, 388
New York Times Magazine, The, 111 cognitive, 210, 212 PR in, 43–44
Nextdoor, 330 defined, 161 @Pontifex, 42
Neymar Jr., 366, 366p hierarchy of (see Hierarchy-of- Pop-Up Paradigm, The (Gonzalez), 149
NFL, 61, 300–301 effects model) Pop-ups, 65, 149
#NFLBlitz, 274p measurement models, 218–19, 218t, 219t Portlandia (television program), 72–73
NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations Outputs, 160–61, 210, 212 Portmanteu words, 226
Nielsen surveys, 113, 126, 201–2, 258 Overhead expenses, 168 Portrayal in a false light, 312–13
Nike, 7, 329, 331, 352–53, 378 Owned media, 184–85, 191–92, 194, 208, 331 Positive personal branding, 376–77
90-10 rule, 9 Positivity, 88
Nissan North America, 79 Pabst, 378 Postmates, 261
Non-compete clauses, 395, 395p Pacific Gas & Electric Company, 79 Pötsch, Hans-Dieter, 327
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 2, Page titles, 247 Power distance, 354, 354f, 356
108, 383–84 Paid media, 186–87, 191–92, 208, 331 PR Council, 368, 387
Non-linear story arcs, 275 Palestine, UN recognition of, 46 Pre-roll advertising, 64p, 65
Nonparticipant observation, 137 Palm Beach Post, 233 Press agentry/publicity model, 29f, 34, 37, 38
Nonprofit organizations, 105–6, 108, 383–84 Paluzek, John, 213 defined, 31
North Block in Napa Valley, 394 Pandora, 263–64 described, 31–32
NPR. See National Public Radio Panera, 266, 370p Press conferences, 182–83
Papa John's, 4–5, 5p, 33 Press releases. See News releases
Oahu Visitors Bureau, 394 Parker, George, 32 Preventable crises, 335
Obama, Barack, 44 Parker & Lee, 32 Price (in marketing mix), 66–67, 72.
Objectives, 158f Participant observation, 137 See also Cost
defined, 157 Participatory culture, 59 Primary public, 131
SMART, 159–60, 164, 169, 172, 210 Participatory media, 88 Primary research, 138
social media tracking of, 171 Patagonia, 218, 331, 332p Princeton University, 43
writing and, 227–28 Patent and Trademark Office, Principled public relations, 7–15
Objectivity, 51–52 U.S. (USPTO), 296 action in, 9, 178
Obscene material, 303 Patents, 296 company character expression in, 15
Observer, 307 Patterson, Jennifer, 312–13 good-humored attitude in, 12–14
Ocasio-Cortez, Alexandria, 209, 335 Paul, Saint, 42, 42p, 44 listening in, 10
Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, 45 Pay per click, 186 managing for tomorrow in, 10–11
Ogilvy Interactive, 282 PayScale.com, 382 truthfulness in, 7–9
Ogilvy & Mather, 9 PBS, 93 whole company approach in, 11
Ogilvy Public Relations Worldwide, 123 PCWorld, 14 Print media advertising, 63, 169
Oglethorpe, James, 45 Peace Corps, 351 Prioritization (proactive issues
Ohio State University, 380 Pennsylvania Railroad, 32, 33 management step), 329f, 330
Olson, Bo, 292 People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals Pritchard, Marc, 60, 215
Omar, Ilhan, 335 (PETA), 105, 107–8, 281 Privacy, 81, 283–85, 339–41
Omnicom, 59, 359 Personal branding, 375–81 defined, 290
One Billion Rising movement, 35, 35p Person-centric personal branding, 377–78 legal issues, 310–13
#175Stories, 281 Personnel. See also Employees “Privacy-Focused Vision for Social
One-to-many approach, 277 budgeting for, 165–68 Networking, A” (Zuckerberg), 341
Openness, 88, 89 in house, 123 PRNews, 92, 108, 200, 215
OpenSecrets.org, 109 Persuasion, 227 PRNewswire, 94, 97, 250
OPI, 275p PETA. See People for the Ethical Treatment of Proactive issues management, 328–33, 329t
Opinion elites, 280 Animals Proactive management style, 10–11, 16
Opponents (publics as), 131 Pew Research Center, 51, 259, 362 Problem recognition, 129, 130
Opportunities (SWOT analysis), 120, 121–22 Physical sources of cultural intelligence, Problem statements, 120
Opportunity statements, 120 358–59 Pro bono work, 165
Opportunity to see (OTS), 217 Pinterest, 70, 143, 170, 190, 191, 212p, 271, Procter & Gamble (P&G), 41, 60, 215
Oracle Arena, 99 296, 303 Product (in marketing mix), 66, 71
Organic search results, 46 Pitching, 93–97 Professional associations, 24–25
Organizational crises, 333 Place (in marketing mix), 67, 73 Professional convergence, 61–62
Organizational culture, 125 Plagiarism, 296–98 Profit, 48–49
Organizations, 2–3 Plank Center for Leadership in Public ProfNet, 96p, 97
Barcelona Principles on Relations, 368, 383p Programmatic media buying, 169–70
performance of, 213 Planning, 118, 148–76 Projects, 380–81
defined, 2 of budgets, 165–70 Promising personal branding, 377
beyond offerings, 77 defined, 149 Promotion, 48, 68–70, 73

438 SUB JECT INDEX

Propaganda, 48 on honesty, B–2 Reddit, 190
Proponents (publics as), 131 on independence, 221, B–2 Reinforce strategies, 339, 341
Proselytizing (hierarchy-of-effects on loyalty, 112, 195, 395, B–2 Relational maintenance strategies, 88–89
model step), 153–54 member pledge, B–6 Relational public diplomacy, 367–68
PRovoke18 Global Public Relations member statement of values, B–1–B–2 Relationship management, 86–116
Summit, 356 preamble, B–1 commerce-driven, 97–104
Proximity (of news), 93, 94t provisions of, B–2–B–6 issues-driven, 104–9
PRSA. See Public Relations Society of America on safeguarding confidences, 284, 314, key outcomes of, 89–92
PR Squared (blog), 18 B–4–B–5 news-driven, 92–97
PRSSA. See Public Relations Student Society Public Relations Strategist, The, 218 strategies for, 88–89
of America Public Relations Student Society of America Relationship nurturing
PR Watch, 9 (PRSSA), 3, 6, 111 (stewardship step), 106
PRWeek, 195, 368 Public Relations Tactics (PRSA), 354 Relationships
Pseudo-events, 42, 43, 44p, 45 Publics, 2–3 communal, 90, 106
Psychographics, 129 active, 128, 129, 132 exchange, 89, 97
Psychology Today, 101 beyond audiences, 77–78 beyond sales, 78
Public affairs aware, 128, 129, 132 social media for, 88, 276–81
defined, 109 defined, 2, 126, 351 taking care of, 88–89
PR careers in, 388 external, 100, 125, 126–28, 173, 310, writing to build, 227
Public affairs officers (PAOs), 34 390–91 Relevance (of news), 93, 94t
Public diplomacy, 367–68 general, 2 Relevant objectives, 160
Public disclosure of private facts, 312 internal, 100, 125–28, 310, 390–91 Reliability, 139–40, 141
Public domain, 272, 304–5 latent, 128, 129, 132 Religion, 42, 43p, 45, 48
Public figures, 295, 309 as organizations, 106–9 Religion Communicators Council
Public information, 304–5 primary, 131 (RCC), 24, 42
Public information model, 28, 29f, 38, 41, 51 protecting, 305–9 Remembering (hierarchy-of-effects
defined, 32 public utilities and, 40–41 model step), 153
described, 32–34 research on, 125–33 Renshae, Mark, 13
Public information officers (PIOs), 33–34 secondary, 131 Replicability, 218
Publicis Communications Asia Pacific, 357 situational theory of, 128–30 Reporting (stewardship step), 106
Publicis Groupe, 59, 359 tertiary, 131 Reposting, 303
Publicity, 68–70, 78, 87, 88, 183, 189 Public utilities, 40–41 Reputation management, 228, 265
Public relations Publix, 2, 2p Research, 117–47, 163
core differences in, 77–78 Pulizzi, Joe, 268 ethical standards for, D–1
defining, 2–7 Pure accommodation, 322 formal, 138–41
distributed, 15 Pure advocacy, 322 formative, 118–19, 161–62
duty to profession, 17, 20 Putting the Public Back in Public Relations (Solis informal, 119, 138–41
major motivations for, 44–49 and Breakenridge), 229 primary, 138
social history of, 41–44 proactive issues management step
Public Relations as Relationship Management QSR Magazine, 261 overlap with, 329t
(Ledingham and Bruning), 88 Qualitative research, 136–38, 141, 215, 245 qualitative (see Qualitative research)
Public Relations Consultants' Association of Barcelona Principles on, 213 quantitative (see Quantitative research)
Malaysia (PRCA Malaysia), 24 defined, 136 secondary, 138
Public Relations Ethics (Seib and Qualtrics, 339 situation analysis (see Situation analysis)
Fitzpatrick), 17 Quantitative research, 133–36, 141, 215, 245 summative, 119
Public Relations Institute of Ireland (PRII), 24 Barcelona Principles on, 213 Research Triangle Institute, 138
Public Relations Journal, 142 defined, 133 Responsibility (stewardship step), 106
Public relations models, 28–41. Quiamno, Sage, 376, 377, 379p, 380 Responsible supply chain
See also Asymmetrical model; Press Quintos, Karen, 264 management, 329
agentry/publicity model; Public Restaurant Brands International Inc., 261
information model; Symmetrical model RACE mnemonic, 118, 119 Reuters, 336
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA), 2, “Racial Image Challenges Big Business” (Times Revlon, 61p
41, 142, 174, 194, 330, 343, 354 article), 41 Risk Issues and Crisis Management in Public
Award of Excellence, 377 Radio advertising, 169 Relations (Regester and Larkin), 326
PR defined by, 6–7 Ranker, 393 Ritchie, Steve, 5
Silver Anvil awards, 120, 121t, 193 Rao, Rekha, 356 Rite Aid, 104p
Public Relations Society of America (PRSA) RCC. See Religion Communicators Council Rockefeller family, 32
Code of Ethics, 22, 23, 24, B–1–B–6 Reach, 169 Rodriguez, Rafael, 103
on advocacy, 48, 51–52, 291, B–2 Reactive management style, 10, 16 ROPE mnemonic, 118, 119
on competition, 395, B–3 Readability tests, 203 ROSIE mnemonic, 118
on conflicts of interest, 344, B–5 Real-time bidding (RTB), 169 Royal Dutch Shell, 388
on disclosure of information, B–3–B–4 “Real You Is Sexy, The” campaign, 70 RPIE Cycle, 118–19, 118f, 125, 149f, 161, 178,
diversity and, 195 Rebelez, Darren, 30–31 178f, 192, 201, 201f, 209, 328, 329t.
on enhancing the profession, 174, B–5–B–6 Rebuild strategies, 337–39, 340 See also Evaluation; Implementation;
on expertise, 251, B–2 Reciprocity (stewardship step), 106 Planning; Research
on fairness, B–2 Recruitment, 44–45 Rumors, 334–35
on free flow of information, 82, B–2–B–3 Red Bull, 55, 75, 75p Russian government (as a client), 59

SUBJECT INDEX 439

 Saatchi & Saatchi, 60 Small businesses, 385–86, 386p Sony Pictures, 283
Safeguarding confidences, 283–85, 314–16, SMART objectives, 159–60, 164, 169, 172, 210 Southwest Airlines, 281, 312–13
B–4–B–5 SMCC. See Social media crisis Space (unit of analysis), 135
Salaries. See under Careers communication model Spam, 278
Salem State University, 42 Snackable content, 274 Spambots, 221
Salesforce.com, 18 Snapchat, 186, 210, 245, 259, 260, 260p, 270, “Special Message from This Is Us,
SAMHSA. See Substance Abuse and Mental 271, 274, 275 A” (video), 13
Health Services Administration Snopes.com, 334–35 Specific objectives, 159
Samsung Electronics, 186, 388 Social and Environmental Responsibility (SER) Speech, free, 291–94, 298, 307–9
San Diego State University, 45, 143 audits, 331 Spin, 4, 7, 10, 15, 16
Santiago, Shane, 282–83 Socialbakers, 174 “Spin Sucks” (blog), 185f
Satisfaction, 90, 91 Social listening, 263–67, 277 Sports, PR careers in, 387–88
Saturday Night Live (television program), 350 Social media, 263–82. See also Digital media; Sports Illustrated, 267
“Save the Internet” campaign, 128 Internet Spotify, 259–60, 259p
Sawant, Gauri, 356–57 accounts of key publics' representatives, 133 Sprout Social, 269
SBNation, 300–301, 300p analytics, 162 St. John & Partners, 283
SBS Studios, 282–83 Barcelona Principles on, 217 St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, 91p
Scapegoating, 336 career skills needed for, 391 Standard Oil, 38
SCCT. See Situational crisis comments on, 244, 278 Stanton, Brandon, 321–23
communication theory community management on, 277–79 Starbucks, 262, 264, 378
Schnatter, John, 4, 5p conflict management on, 320–24 “Start Something Priceless” campaign,
Search advertising, 65 content creation for, 267–76 365–467
Search engine optimization (SEO), 46, crises and, 341–44 Starwood Hotels & Resorts, 394
190–91, 246, 248 duty to, 20 Statista.com, 46
Search engines, writing for, 246–48 employee relations and, 101 Status conferral, 45
@SearchLiaison, 248 ethical communication in, 18, 22 Stealing thunder, 345
SEC. See Securities and Exchange Commission global public relations and, 362, 363 Stefani, Gwen, 282
Secilmis, Argu, 149 images in (see Images) Stettner, Jon, 282
Seclusion, intrusion into, 310 intellectual property issues, 301–3 Stewardship, 106
Secondary publics, 131 mobile devices and, 258–59 Stills, Kenny, 95p
Secondary research, 138 moderating pages on, 278–79 Stock images, 273
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC), 3, organizational control of, 314–16 Stoppelman, Jeremy, 392–93
33, 305, 306, 307–9, 328 politics and, 43–44 Story arcs, 275
See-say-feel-do model, 218, 219t production of materials for, 163 Story placement, 97
SEGA, 277 recruitment via, 45 Storytelling, 74, 229–38, 257
Segmenting referring sources, 208 relationship management and building on, Strange Fruit Public Relations, 251–53
Selective attention, 257 88, 276–81 Strategic Business Insights, 133
Self, duty to, 17, 20 religions using, 42 Strategic Communications Planning (Wilson and
Self-efficacy, 359 rumors on, 334–35 Ogden), 120
Self-employment, 385–86, 386p sharing on, 187–89 Strategic decision-making, 155–61, 171
Sentiment, 265 social listening and, 263–67, 277 defined, 155
SEO. See Search engine optimization text in, 269–71 in proactive issues management,
Sexual assault and harassment, 47–48 tracking objectives and goals on, 171 329t, 331
“Share a Coke” campaign, 355, 355f video in, 273–75 Strategic personal branding, 375–76
Shared media, 187–89, 191–92, 205, 208, 331 visual listening and, 264–67, 277 Strategic Planning for Public Relations
#ShareYourEars campaign, 281–82, 282p writing for, 243–46, 250 (Smith), 161
Sharing tasks, 89 “zombie” followers on, 172–74 Strategy, 157
SHIFT Communications, 18–21, 76 Social media creators, 342 Strengths (SWOT analysis), 120–21, 122
Shorter form (writing), 245–46 Social media crisis communication model Stryker, Weiner & Yokota, 393
#ShotoniPhone campaign, 272 (SMCC), 342–43, 345 Student Reporting Labs (television
#ShowUs project, 273p Social media followers, 342 program), 93
Silver Anvil awards, 120, 121t, 193 Social media inactives, 342 Subaru, 362
Silver Lion award, 13 Social media influencers, 7, 70, 227. Subject matter experts (SMEs), 280
Simorangkir, Dawn, 294 See also Influencers Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services
Situational crisis communication theory Social media releases, 239 Administration (SAMHSA), 138–39,
(SCCT), 333, 336 Social monitoring, 264 139p, 140
Situational theory of publics, 128–30 Social Native, 263 Subtitles, 270–71
Situation analysis, 120–33 Social networking, 89 Summative research, 119
defined, 120 “Social Responsibility of Business Is to Sunshine laws, 290, 304–5
examples of, 121t Increase Its Profits, The” (Friedman), 111 Super Bowl advertising, 59–61, 63, 215
organization research, 123–25 Social Triggers, 268 Supply-side platforms (SSPs), 169
publics research, 125–33 Society, duty to, 17, 20 Supreme Court, U.S., 289, 291, 295
situation research, 120–23 Society of Professional Journalists (SPJ) Surfrider Foundation, 108p, 109
Situation research, 120–23 Code of Ethics, 51, 52 Surveys, 132, 133, 134, 139
Slander, 294 Sonic the Hedgehog, 277 Swift, Taylor, 43
Slater, Kelly, 231–34, 236 Sons of Liberty, 44 Swiss Red Cross, 134
Small Business Administration, 385 Sons of Maxwell, 320 SWOT analysis, 120–22, 122p

440 SUB JECT INDEX

Symbols (unit of analysis), 135 Tuning in (hierarchy-of-effects Usage divide (second digital divide), 363
Symmetrical model, 28, 29f, 371 model step), 151 USAJOBS.gov, 384–85
defined, 38 Turnitin, 296 usaspending.gov, 304, 304f
described, 38–41 TVEyes, 298–99 USA Today, 30, 130, 184, 267
Sysomos, 264 TweetDeck, 267, 268 Useful Community Development, 131
Twibel, 294 User generated content (UGC), 276
Tactical decision-making, 155 Twitter, 7, 10, 12, 43, 47, 59, 133, 169, 180, Uses and gratifications, 262–63
Tactics, 149, 157, 158f, 171 187, 188–89, 191, 210, 237, 245–46, Utilitarian calculus, 144
Talkwalker, 264 245f, 248, 263, 271, 276, 281, 342 Utilitarianism, 15, 143–45, 175
Tannehill, Ryan, 300p advertising on, 65 UTi Wordwide, Inc., 309
Target, 73, 192, 338–39, 338p asking questions on, 371
Target audience, 78 data use by, 81, 209 Validity, 140–41, 217–18
TechCrunch, 18 integrated marketing communication on, 70 VALSTM (values, attitudes and
Tech for Good Summit, 367, 368p intellectual property issues and, 296, 301–2 lifestyles), 133
Technological (digital) convergence, 56–58, international differences in, 362 Values, 18, 19, 22, 173
81–82, 81p, 295–96 libel on, 294 Ventimiglia, Milo, 13
Television advertising, 169, 170 #MLK2019, 267 Verizon, 128
Television coverage evaluation, 204 number of daily views on, 273 Vertical videos, 274
“10 Skills the PR Pro of 2022 Must Have” Pope's page, 42 Vicks, 349, 356–57, 357p
(Hanson), 390–91 reposting on, 303 Victim crises, 333–35
Tertiary publics, 131 @StrangeFruit controversy, 252–53, 252p Video, 273–75
Tesla, 288, 307–9 Tesla stock tweet, 307–9 Video news releases (VNRs), 239
Text (in social media), 269–71 tweeting for clients, 18–21 Vimeo, 128, 212, 273
Texting, 352 Two-way communication, 10, 163, 181, 227, Vine, 274
Them, 350 276, 362, 371. See also Asymmetrical Viral posts, 187, 233, 296, 320, 323, 357
Third-party credibility, 69, 184, 217 model; Symmetrical model Virginia Tech, 313
Third-party data, 207 Tyson Foods, 18 Virtual reality headsets, 202p
This Is Us (television program), 12–13 Visa, 365
Threats (SWOT analysis), 120, 121–22 UAB. See Universal Accreditation Board Visa Everywhere Initiative, 364
3M, 9 Uber, 367 Visa Everywhere Initiative: Women's
Tide, 59–60 Uber Eats, 261 Global Edition, 364
Timberland, 149, 150p Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC), Vision statements, 124
Time (unit of analysis), 135 300–301 Visual listening, 264–67, 277
Time-bound objectives, 160 Uncertainty avoidance, 354, 354f, 355–56 Voice of Business, The: Hill and Knowlton and
Timelessness (of stories), 235 Uncommitted (publics as), 131 Postwar Public Relations (Russell), 50
Timelines, 161–65, 166f Unconferences, 164 Volkswagen, 325–28, 328p
Timeliness (of news), 93, 94t Uncontrolled media, 182–84, 194 Volunteers, 105
T-Mobile, 280p UNICEF, 158–59, 160, 161, 162 Vox, 149
Tobacco products and companies, 35–37, United Airlines, 320–23, 324 Vyond, 274
38, 61 “United Breaks Guitars” (video), 320, 320p
Tom Joyner Morning Show United Nations, 46, 158, 270p Wa'ahila ridge, 40p, 41
(television program), 249 United Nations Foundation, 218 Wall Street Journal, The, 60, 63, 99,
Top-tier influencers, 279–80 Universal Accreditation Board (UAB), 24, 50, 154, 169, 269
“Torches of Freedom” march, 35–37 390, 390p Walmart, 73, 79
Torts, 310 Universal Accreditation Board (UAB) Walt Disney Co., 17, 281–82, 283
Total market approach, 350 competencies, 398–401 Walt Disney Imagineering, 79
“Touch of Care” campaign, 356–57, 357p Universal Pictures, 186 Walt Disney Television Studios, 282
Town crier (typology), 31, 62p, 63 University of Alabama, 42 Warby Parker blog, 244p
Toyota, 79, 228 University of Amsterdam, 31 Washington, George, 28
Tracking visitor behavior, 208 University of California Berkeley, 144 Washington Post, The, 30, 108, 180, 249
Trademarks, 296 University of Chicago Magazine, The, 226 Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative
Trade secrets, 315–16, 395 University of Colorado, 357 Council (WSSCC), 158–59
Transmedia storytelling, 233 University of Florida, 11, 170, 376 Watson, Matt, 278
Transparency, 8–9, 17, 19, 21, 33, 51–52, 173, University of Georgia, 42, 50, 313 Weaknesses (SWOT analysis), 120, 121, 122
174, 221 University of Hawaii, 216, 376 Web 1.0, 185, 303
Barcelona Principles on, 217–18 University of Maryland, 39 Web 2.0, 303
on data use practices, 81, 82 University of Miami, 134 “We Believe: The Best a Man Can Be”
defined, 8 University of Missouri, 322 campaign, 200, 214–15, 214p
in nonprofit organizations, 106 University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 63 Weber Shandwick, 364, 382
TransWorld Airlines, 38 University of Oregon, 124 WeChat, 369
Treatment group, 134 University of Southern California School of Weibo, 245–46, 245f, 369
Trebek, Alex, 237–38, 238p Communication, 362 Weinstein, Harvey, 47
TripAdvisor, 12 Unnatural links, 247 “Welcome to the Global Collaboratory”
True North, 79 Unseen Power, The: Public Relations, campaign, 123
Trump, Donald, 32, 44, 68p, 130, 335 A History (Cutlip), 38 Wells Fargo, 193–94
Trust, 78, 90, 91, 100–101, 363 URLs, 247 Wendy's, 59
Truthfulness/honesty, 7–8, 22, 51, B–2 U.S. Steel, 41, 109 West Virginia University, 325

SUBJECT INDEX 441

 “What The New York Times Didn't Tell You” World Press Freedom Day, 363p Yahoo, 46, 65
(Carney), 292–93 World Through Soccer, The (Bar-On), 365 Yahoo News, 30
Whirlpool, 121t WPP, 59, 359 Yale Law School's Information
White House home page, 184p Wrapped, 259–60, 259p Society Project, 82
White House Office of National Drug Control Writing, 225–55 “Year 3000” (song), 258
Policy, 139 business, 249 Yelp, 12, 14, 14p, 392–93
Whole Foods, 127–28, 127p career skills needed for, 390–91 YouTube, 9, 10, 129, 188, 188p,
“WHOPPER® Detour” stunt, 260–62, 261p ethical, 251 212, 213, 214, 215, 228,
Wikipedia, 190, 226 feature stories, 231–36 237, 258, 379
Williams, Patricia, 156p goals and objectives in, 227–28 average length of videos on, 274–75
Williams, Serena, 7, 8p impression management and, child exploitation scandal, 278–79
Wilson, Albert, 95p 228–29 conflict management on, 320
Wimbledon tennis championships, 99, 100p for influence and persuasion, 227 integrated marketing
Winterkorn, Martin, 327 for intermediaries, 238–48 communication on, 70
Wired, 33, 82 for news media, 238–42 number of monthly users, 273
Word of Mouth Marketing Association news stories, 236–38 “United Breaks Guitars” video,
(WOMMA), 6, 69 relationship building and, 227 320, 320p
Word-of-mouth promotion, 69–70 reputation management and, 228 Yue, Cathy, 246
Words (unit of analysis), 135 for search engines, 246–48
World Bicycle Relief Organization, 225, 229–30 for social media, 243–46, 250 Zappos.com, 67, 73
World Cup (FIFA), 365–67 storytelling and (see Storytelling) Zillow, 73
World Economic Forum, 384 Writing PR: A Multimedia Approach “Zombie” followers, 172–74
World Food Programme, 366–67 (Carstarphen and Wells), 235 Zuckerberg, Mark, 339–41, 340p, 353p
#WorldPhotoDay, 188–89, 189p Wylie, Christopher, 339 Zurich Blood Donation Service, 134

442 SUB JECT INDEX