Republic of the Philippines

Romblon State University

Romblon, Philippines

Module 2. Facilitating Learner Centered

Teaching

Module No/Title 2 Facilitating Learner Centered Teaching

Welcome dear student to another important course in your

Module journey to become an excellent teacher. Indeed, if you have the
Overview desire to become an effective 21st century teacher for millennial
learners, this module will help you reach that goal. You are
highly encourage to embrace a growth mindset as you go
through the lessons. This module will open your mind to what is
learner centered teaching, what teaching approaches promote
learner-centeredness, and how it is applied in a face-to-face
classroom setting or even in a virtual learning environment.
Apply principles of learner –centered teaching in planning
Module instructional activities for students
Outcomes
Lesson 2.1 Introduction to Learner Centered Teaching
Lesson in the Lesson 2.2 Learner Centered Teaching Approaches
Module Lesson 2.3 Theories of Learning
Lesson 2.4 Outcomes of Teacher Education

Lesson 2.1 Introduction to Learner-Centered

Teaching

Learning Outcomes
1. Apply principles of learner –centered teaching in planning instructional activities for
students.

Introduction

Hello dear learner! Welcome to another exciting course that will deepen your
understanding on how to become proficient in implementing a learner-centred teaching
approach.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

1
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

In the last 20 years of research in the field of learner-centred teaching, the evidence
points strongly to bringing the students at the center or the focus of the learning process.
As a future teacher, you need to consider very well your students’ learning goals, the
subject matter they want students to learn, and select an appropriate pedagogical
approach that will really enable them to learn.

Activity
Take time to thoughtfully answer the checklist below for you to reflect on your prior
knowledge and experience related to student-centred teaching. Check your response
under the YES and NO column.

Checklist on Learner-Centred Pedagogy

Yes No
1. Were you allowed by your teachers to set specific learning goals for
your self?

2. Have you experienced being given the freedom to choose a topic

for a course requirement?

3. Have you experienced being asked by your teacher for your input or
opinion in deciding what topics to learn in a course?

4. Have you experienced being given a chance to choose a type of

assessment task you can do to effectively demonstrate what you
already know?

5. Do your teachers frequently check first what you already know

about a certain lesson?

6. Has collaboration among students emphasized more than

competition in your learning experience through the years?

7. Have you experienced being given the opportunity to develop your

self- and peer assessment skills?

Have you experienced being given a flexible date for submitting your
project?

Analysis
Let us now examine closely your response to the checklist.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

2
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

1. Where did most of your responses fall in the checklist? More of Yes or more of No?

2. If more of yes, how did you feel about those experiences?

3. If more of No, how did you feel under those circumstances?

4. For items which you answered NO, which of these would you have liked to really have
or experience in the past? Why do you say so?

For items in the checklist which you responded to as yes, they are some clear examples
of your own experiences which reflect a learner-centered teaching approach. To know
more about the essential features of Learner-Centred Pedagogy, let us now turn to the
next section.

Abstraction
Learner Centered Teaching (LCT) has become a popular phrase among educators
nowadays. It has been named in several ways such as student-centred approach or
learner-centered pedagogy in many textbooks and journal articles. Looking at the
research literature surrounding learner-centred teaching in the past 20 years, a book
published in 2002 by Maryllen Weimer stands as one of the earlier attempts to
comprehensively discuss and define what is LCT about.

In Weimer’s book titled, ‘Learner-Centered Teaching: Five Key Changes to Practice’,

five key changes were significantly taking place in schools. Each of the features will be
discussed briefly below and are presented in Figure 1.

Balance of
Power

Evaluation
Responsibility Purpose &
of Learner Process
5
Features

Function of Role of
Content Teacher

Figure 1.Five Key Changes in Learner Centered Teaching Practices

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

3
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Balance of Power

In a traditional classroom, the power to decide what lessons to discuss, what learning
activities students must engage in, and what assessment tasks to give mainly belongs to
the teacher with little input from students. On the other hand, in a student-centered
classroom, a teacher shares that power by consulting learners prior to making final
decisions.

The traditional exercise of power in the classroom often benefits the teacher more
than it promotes student learning. The uniform instructional approach or ‘one-size-fits-all’
concept certainly is more convenient on the part of the teacher who has worked hard in
planning, implementing, and assessing outcomes of learning. However, this uniform
approach has been criticized by scholars by being unresponsive to the diversity of needs,
interests, and readiness among students.

In order to balance power in the classroom, learners are frequently consulted and
given immediate and ongoing feedback by the teacher. The teacher empowers students
by giving them the opportunity to choose and make decisions like selecting among lesson
topics, choose learning activities, determine pace of learning, and select an assessment
task to demonstrate one’s mastery of targeted learning competencies.

Function of Content

Current research evidence from educational psychology calls for a change in the
function of curriculum content which should be less on covering it and more on using
content to develop a learner’s individual way of understanding or sense-making.
Teachers need to allow learners to raise their own questions,
generate their own answers or solutions.

From a constructivist perspective, knowledge cannot simply be given to students:

Students must construct their own meanings” (Stage, Muller, Kinzie, and Simmons, 1998,
p. 35). In other words, learners are capable of constructing and reconstructing their
knowledge through active personal effort. This view debunks the current belief about
students’ learning from passively receiving information transmitted from teachers via
lectures.

In order to facilitate learning that changes how students think

and understand, teachers must begin by finding out students’ prior knowledge or
conceptions and then design learning activities that will change these pre-instructional
concepts.

Learner-centered teaching also regards content as more of competency-based

learning in which students master targeted skills and content before progressing to

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

4
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

another lesson. The more important practice here is to accommodate students’ differing
pace of learning. For instance, some students may be able to demonstrate they know
how to use a microscope in 1 hour while others need 2 hours of practice to demonstrate
proficiency in manipulating it.

With patient guidance and ongoing support from teachers, competency-based learning
would ensure that students advance to new material when they are ready, at their own
pace, whether they can move quickly or whether they need more time.

Role of the Teacher

Constructivism theory brings the role of the teacher as that of a facilitator of learning,
not as the fountain of learning. He/she instead encourages students to explore multiple
knowledge sources, make sense of it, and personally organize the information taken from
different sources.

As generally observed, less knowledgeable and experienced learners will interact with
content in less intellectually robust ways, but the goal is to involve students in the process
of acquiring and retaining information.

This shifting view on the role of the teacher deemphasizes the focus on teaching
techniques and methods if they are considered separate from the subject matter and
learning structures of the discipline.

Teachers no longer function as exclusive content expert or authoritarian classroom

managers and no long work to improve teaching by developing sophisticated presentation
skills.

Greater involvement with students by the teacher is central to student motivation.

Diekelmann et al (2004) show how a nursing teacher increasingly included students in
‘cocreating compelling courses’ and was surprised ‘by the insights students shared
regarding how to create compelling courses and their willingness to collaborate
with …[her] to improve teaching and learning experiences’ (Diekelmann et al, 2004,
p.247).

Maclellan finds that ‘the teacher is involved in clarifying the subject matter, offering
examples, or suggesting arguments for or against a point of view may minimize the
students’ need to think’ while, equally, ‘little engagement by the tutor, leaving students to
determine both what and how to learn without any criteria to judge their process, is
unsatisfactory, inefficient and makes a nonsense of formal, higher education as a planned
and designed system (Maclellan, 2008, p.418). Teachers must become comfortable with
changing their leadership style from directive to consultative-- from "Do as I say" to
"Based on your needs, let's co-develop and implement a plan of action.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

5
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Responsibility for Learning

In recent years, work on self-regulated learning has advanced, and the goal of 21st
century education ought to be the creation of independent, autonomous learners who
assume responsibility for their own learning.

Adults are known to be capable of self-directed learning and that continuous learning
occurs across their career span and lifetime.

Each student may require different ways of learning, researching and analysing the
information available. It establishes that students can and should be made responsible for
their own learning.

Learning skills of autonomous self-regulating learners can be learned and must be

taught even at an early age. This is even more important when entering higher education.

The learning skills acquired in basic education and higher education will be used
throughout the course of their professional and personal lives.

Learning is cooperative, collaborative, and community-oriented.

Students are encouraged to direct their own learning and to work with other students
on research projects and assignments that are both culturally and socially relevant to
them.

Class often starts with a mini-lesson, which then flows into students making choices
about what they need to do next to meet specific learning targets aligned to the
standards.

Evaluation Purpose and Process

The literature on self-directed learning also underscores the importance of

assessment, only in this case it is the ability of students to self-assess accurately.
Sophisticated learners know when they do or do not understand something. They can
review a performance and identify what needs improvement.

They have mechanisms for its collections and methods for evaluating it and acting on
it.

Four Principles of Student-centered Approach

A more recent research on the student-centered approach was reported by Kaput in

2018 that was funded by the Nellie Mae Education Foundation and UMass Donahue

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

6
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Institute. This study surveyed 12 public high schools in New England in terms of how they
apply learner-centered teaching in their classroom practices.

The said survey summarized their findings in to 4 tenet which are:

Learning is Students engage in different ways and in

Personalized different places.

Learning is Students move ahead when they have demonstrated mastery of

competency content, not when they’ve reached a certain birthday or endured the
based required hours in a classroom.

Learning Learning takes place beyond the traditional school day, and even
happens anytime, the school year.
anywhere Learning is also not restricted to the classroom.

Students take Students are engaged in their own success, as well as incorporate
ownership of their interests and skills into the learning process.
their learning

Kaput’s study reported that the majority of the participating schools were effective in
personalizing the learning of their students and creating an environment where students
took ownership of their learning. However, the study also found that the participating
schools struggled with implementing and practicing “anytime, anywhere learning” due to a
series of challenges that both teachers and administrators faced. Teachers from the
participating schools largely responded that student-centered learning promoted higher
student engagement and facilitated learning that was more relevant to students. Further,
a large percentage of the teachers contended that students in student-centered
environments explored the curriculum with more depth and retained knowledge more
effectively than in traditional settings.

Top 20 Principles for PreK–12 Teaching and Learning

The American Psychological Association (APA) published in 2015 its top 20 principles for
teaching and learning for basic education teachers. These principles were based on
decades of research on human learning and can well serve as lampposts for today’s
teachers on how to facilitate learner-centered teaching. A brief statement of APA on the
implications of the top 20 principles to current teaching practices is quoted below:

“Psychological science has much to contribute to enhancing teaching and learning in the
classroom. Teaching and learning are intricately linked to social and behavioral factors of
human development, including cognition, motivation, social interaction, and
communication”

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

7
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

(APA, 2015, p.8)

As a future educator, the top 20 principles revolve around the following key concepts
to keep in mind whenever we design our instructional plans and implement them with our
students.

 Prior Knowledge  Self-Regulation  Formative Assessment

 Learner’s Belief on  Mastery Goals  Summative Assessment

Intelligence

 Creativity  Interpersonal  Measuring with

Relationships Standards

 Long Term Knowledge  Emotional Well-being  Feedback

 Contextual Learning  Positive  Student Support

Relationships

 Student Support  Practice

Application
It would be good at this time for you to personally find out how Filipino teachers are
currently practicing the student centred approach in teaching.

You may conduct a one-on-one interview with a new and seasoned teacher in your
school, or among your relatives and friends, or those within your neighborhood. List down
his or her practices in terms of applying the learner-centred teaching approach. Write their
responses on the table below:
New Teacher Seasoned Teacher
(below 5 years of teaching (more than 10 years of teaching
experience Experience)

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

8
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

After conducting the interview, what was the most interesting response you received
from your interviewees? Why do you say so?
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________

Closure

Congratulations for finishing your first lesson on learner-centered pedagogy. By

becoming aware of the essential features and principles of learner centered pedagogy,
you are now informed on how to appropriately design your teaching practice in a way that
would be best serve the interest, needs and abilities of your future students.

In Lesson 2, you will have a closer look at some available pedagogical approaches
that will equip you with a more practical ideas how to facilitate a learner-centered
classroom.

Lesson 2.2 Learner-Centered Approaches

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the basic principle of the different theories of learning.

2. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning

Introduction
Prepare yourself for an exciting lesson on Learner-Centred Pedagogical Approaches.
I am sure you are very interested to understand how to really help your future students to
learn, which is basically the ultimate desire of every teacher. You are fortunate indeed to
have access to a number of teaching models and approaches that have already been
heavily researched. Let us now turn our attention to three pedagogical approaches that
are recognized as more learner-centred rather than teacher centered as was observed in
the traditional instructional approach.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

9
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

You may proceed to answering the given activity below.

Activity

Instructor/Facilitation Assessment
Source: Center of Excellence for Careers in Education

Check the item that most nearly describes an instructor’s interaction with you as a student
that reflects a more learner-centered approach.

_____1.The instructor is clear when he/she tells me what to do.

_____2.The instructor’s questions are helpful in assisting me in making decisions.
_____3. The instructor meets class on time.
_____4. The instructor’s availability schedule is posted.
_____5. The instructor works effectively with me one on one.
_____6. The instructor always meets with the class as a whole.
_____7. The instructor always offers me options rather than telling me what to do.
_____8. The instructor makes corrections to my work that are clear and gives me
direction.
_____9. The instructor’s interactions with me, have helped me become a better problem
solver.
_____10. The instructor always has the right answer.
_____11. The instructor always gives me several suggestions to
choose from.
_____12. The instructor solves problems for me.
_____13. The instructor lets me work problems out for myself.
_____14. The instructor is more like a band conductor than an advisor.
_____15. The instructor is more like a coach than a director.
_____16. The instructor is a good listener.
_____17. The instructor’s instructions are helpful.
_____18. The instructor uses “What if you ....” statements rather than “ You should do
this...”
_____19. The instructor is good at finding answers to my questions.
_____20. I always feel that the project is mine and I am responsible for thinking it through.
_____21. I can count on the instructor coming up with the right idea if I am stuck.
_____22. The instructor values my ability to figure things out for
myself.
_____23. My instructor values me following his/her instructions.
_____24. The instructor shares with me his/her thinking.
_____25. I have no idea how the instructor solves problems.
_____26. The instructor sets all the timelines for meeting deadlines.
_____27. I am responsible for the timelines for meeting deadlines.
_____28. The instructor comes to class with prepared class activities.
_____29. The instructor builds the class activity around student’s questions and
concerns.
_____30. The instructor gives suggestions as to where I can find information.
_____31. The instructor will find information for me.
_____32. The instructor encourages me to discover things for myself.
_____33. The instructor answers my questions in a way easy for me to understand.
_____34. The instructor answers my questions with questions.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

10
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

_____35. The instructor always has the right answer.

After carefully answering the Instructor Facilitation assessment, refer to the answer key
posted at the end of the analysis section

Analysis
Let us now begin to deeply reflect on your response to the assessment. Try to briefly
answer to each question.
1. What do you consider as the most noticeable practice of a learner- centred instructor?

2. What do you also observe as the most noticeable practice of the teacher-centred
instructor?

3. If you had a more learner-centered instructor, how would feel

about your learning experience under those circumstances?

4. On the other hand, if you had a more teacher-centred instructor, how would you feel
about your learning experience under such circumstances?.

To know more about the essential features of Learner-Centred Pedagogy, let us now turn
to the next section.

Answer Key to Instructor/Facilitation Assessment

The following item identify learning-centered facilitation behaviors of an instructor.: (2, 4,
6, 8, 13, 15, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 32, 34)

Abstraction

Learner Centered Pedagogical Approaches

According to this image of teaching and learning, the ideal classroom for the 21st century
learners will no longer be one in which 30-50 students are always listening to the teacher

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

11
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

or silently working on their own. Although contemporary teaching practices still involve
lecture, drill, and practice, students need to be trained to work in alternative arrangements
such as:
talking to each other in small and large groups
making public their personal knowledge and beliefs
constructing and testing their knowledge with peers and teachers.

Among the popular instructional approaches that have been extensively researched
for more than two decades are the Cooperative Learning Approach, Differentiated
Instruction Approach, and the Personalized Learning Approach. A comparison of these 3
pedagogical approaches along with the traditional approach is shown in the table below
using the 5 essential elements of Learner-Centered Pedagogy by Weimer.

Table 1. A Comparison of Teaching Approaches

Elements Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized

Instructional Learning Instructional Learning
Approach Approach approach Approach

Balance of Dominant Dominant More choices given Mostly reliant on

Power teachers teachers to students based student motivation,
on their ability levels engagement, interest
Minor role Empowered and interest
learners students teams for
learning

Function of Imposed a highly Same content Differentiated Flexible curriculum

content structured processed by content in terms of content according
curriculum content students in groups, difficulty levels, ore personalized learning
in a fixed pace and fixed timeline of flexible pace of paths, highly flexible
timeline of learning learning pace of learning
learning

Role of Knowledge Facilitator of Designer of Collaborator/co creator

teacher Expert learning tasks differentiated of knowledge
Authoritarian done in learning tasks to
classroom collaborative accommodate
manager peer-group settings readiness, profile
and interest of
students

Responsibility Students are Learning is co Learning co Students design

for expected to fully created by created with individualized
Learning understand students in group students in group learning plans to
knowledge settings settings achieve mastery
passed on by of targeted
their teachers learning
outcomes

Cooperative Learning Approach (CLA)

The Cooperative learning Approach (CLA) started becoming popular in the 1990’s in
an attempt to move away from traditional pedagogical approach that relied heavily on

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

12
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

uniform instruction for a large-sized classroom. The CLA used the social interdependence
theory, which proposes that the behavioral outcomes of a person are affected by their
own and others' actions. Said theory became the framework for designing
teaching-learning activities in peer group settings.

Johnson and Johnson (1994) described five factors that influence the effectiveness
of cooperation in classrooms which are shown in the figure below.

Figure 1. Five Factors for an Effective Cooperative Learning Approach

Positive Interdependence

Students commit to personal success as well as the success of every member of the
group. If students are having difficulties, their group mates are there to support them.

Positive interdependence can also promote motivation to learn, because students are
learning not just for themselves but also for the benefit of their groups.

Working in groups involved sharing information helping each other in doing the group
task so that they progress together.

Individual and group accountability.

The group is accountable for achieving its goals, and each member must be
accountable for contributing a fair share of the work toward the group goal.

Interpersonal and small group skills

Group members learn how to apply teamwork skills that has collaborative leadership,
making fair decisions. Students also develop friendship by building trust, communicating
freely, and resolving conflict.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

13
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Promotive Interaction

Students promote each other's success by sharing resources or information that will
help every member. Peers take time to encourage, and praise each other's efforts to
learn.

Group Processing

Group members need to feel free to communicate openly with each other to express
concerns as well as to celebrate accomplishments.

Learners take time to monitor and discuss how well they are achieving their goals and
maintaining effective working relationships.

Students frequently reflect and discuss on how well they are achieving their goals and
work to maintain effective working relationships.

Differentiated Instructional Approach (DIA)

The pedagogical concept of differentiation as opposed to uniform instruction was first

popularized by Carol Ann Tomlinson with her book How to Differentiate Instruction in
Mixed-Ability Classrooms, published in 1995. In Tomlinson’s 2nd edition in 2014, she
described teachers in differentiated classes as using time flexibly, applying a range of
instructional strategies, and becoming partners with their students so that both what is
learned and the learning environment are shaped to authentically support the learning
process of the student.

In DI approach, teachers usually differentiate their teaching by modifying three

aspects in his/her classroom practice. Each aspect of practice is presented below with
examples on how each is applied in actual teaching practice.

Content Process Product

lessons that teaching-learning performance of

students learn activities students
that help students
to learn

Figure 2. Differentiating 3 Aspects of Pedagogy

Differentiating Content

 The most important part is to diagnose the learners’ prior knowledge so as to

determine his/her readiness to learn new content. In fact, diagnostic

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

14
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

assessments form the foundation for designing differentiated teaching-learning

activities to better construct or build upon students’ prior knowledge.

 Via differentiation, teachers respond proactively to differences in students'

knowledge, skills, learning styles, interests, and cognitive needs in order to
create multiple access points to content.

 Teachers may differentiate several learning tasks or pathways within the same
lesson that match the needs of specific students or student groups.

 Teachers should hold all students to the same expectations and goals related to
mastery of essential content but may utilize different techniques and modified
activities to help each student meet outlined objectives (Bondie, Dahnke & Zusho,
2019).

Differentiating Process

 Teachers utilize whole-class, small-group, and individual explorations. Students

are allowed to work with peers who show similar academic needs at a given time.
 Students of mixed readiness are also allowed to work together so that they may
draw upon the strengths of others.
 Students may also choose to work with classmates who have similar interests or
learning styles or even collaborate with those who have different interests or
learning style profile.
 Students themselves sometimes decide on their work groups and arrangements,
and sometimes teachers also decide.
 Teachers may also use technology to create blended learning classrooms that
allow for multiple leveled activities and centers.

Differentiating Product

 Flexibility in the work products and performances that students complete to

demonstrate newly acquired knowledge or skills supports accurate evaluation of
students' capabilities while also allowing students to leverage their strengths to
achieve the same standards as their peers.
 Assessments can be implemented before, during, and after instruction to monitor
student progress relative to differentiated instruction.
 Create and implement assessments that accurately measure competencies,
analyze assessment results to identify students who are below mastery level.
 Students are provided with alternative ways to act skillfully and demonstrate
what they know.

Personalized Learning Approach (PLA)

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

15
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

In personalized Learning systems, instead of counting the number of hours students are
in their seats, students move through coursework and graduate based on their ability to
show they have mastered the material.

The United States National Education Technology Plan 2017 defines personalized
learning as follows:

Personalized learning refers to instruction in which the pace of learning and the
instructional approach are optimized for the needs of each learner. Learning objectives,
instructional approaches, and instructional content (and its sequencing) may all vary
based on learner needs.

Personalized learning is a progressively student–driven model where students deeply

engage in meaningful, authentic, and rigorous challenges to demonstrate desired
outcomes (Zmuda, Curtis & Ullman, 2015). Four design elements have been associated
to the personalization movement (Olofson et. al, 2018) which are shown in the Figure 3.

Competency-Based Personalized Learning

Graduation Requirements Plans

Four Design Elements

Student Ownership and Flexible Learning
Agency Pathways

Figure 3. Design Elements of Personalized Learning Approach

Flexible Pathways

 Learning activities must be meaningful and relevant to learners, driven by their

interests, and often are self-initiated.

 Students are provided the opportunity to choose in-school and out-of-school

learning modalities that are attuned to their socioeconomic capability, interests
and needs.

Personalized Learning Plans

 Learning plans are co-crafted by students with their parents and teachers which
best suit their needs, interests, and abilities. This plan creates a customized
approach that uniquely responds to the ability and interest profile of the learner.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

16
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

 Students are encouraged to identify their own interests, passions, and strengths
and integrate these, in partnership with educators, into meaningful learning
experiences with clear goals.

Competency-Based Graduation Requirements

 Competency standards are made clear to students at the beginning of the course
as well as and how these are to be assessed at the end.
 Teachers must continuously assess student learning against clearly defined
standards and goals and students’ input into the assessment process is
essential.
 Students must also have access to real-time feedback and performance data for
self-monitoring.

Student Ownership and Agency

 Teacher refrains from imposing or fully controlling the pathways of learning.

Instead, student and teacher collaborates in designing learning activities that will
help them meet the competency based-graduation requirements.
 Students will work with the teacher to develop a challenge, problem, or idea
clarify learning goals, envision the assessment, and create a personal learning
plan.
 Ownership within the context of personalized learning also requires students to
set, monitor, and reflect on their personal progress towards their set learning
goals. This is a way to empower them with ownership over their own work and
progress.

The table below provides a list of commonly applied teaching strategies under CLA, DIA
and PLA.

Table 2. Teaching Strategies According to Approach

Traditional Cooperative Differentiated Personalized

Instructional Learning Instructional Learning
Approach Approach Approach Approach

Lecture Thin-Pair-Share Tiered Lessons Team Wikis

Teacher-demo Jigsaw II Choice Boards Group Blogs
Drills Team-Game Graphic Organizers Personal Vlogs
Recitation Tournaments Web-Quests Discussion Threads
Student Report (TGT) Learning Logs Chat Groups
Role Play Student-Teams Learning Contracts Polling
Games Achievement Gallery Walk Project e-Portfolio
Division (STAD)
Numbered Heads
Inside-Outside
circle

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

17
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

In summary, as you progress from a beginning career stage educator into a

distinguished career stage teacher, you will definitely grow in your teaching competencies
in using a Learner-Centered Pedagogical Approach which now favors heavily on the
Personalized learning Approach. This is primarily due to the availability of education
technology tools that can be accessed by both students and teachers alike.

Application

Now that you have a better and deeper understanding of how a learner-centred
pedagogy approach looks like, it’s now a great time to integrate those lessons in our
personal belief system.

You are now task to create a PowerPoint Presentation showcasing your future
teaching practices that applies the elements, features and strategies of a learner
Centered Pedagogy. Try to provide a brief answer to each question in your slides and
present this to your peers and teacher.

Guide Questions for the Powerpoint Presentation:

 In what way will I invite students to express their thoughts and opinions to their
peers?
 In what way can I create an environment of safety for my students to respectfully
disagree with one another (and me)?
 In what way will I provide my students with the opportunity to reflect on their
learning?
 In what way will I provide the opportunity for my students to see the growth of
their work over time?

Closure

Your patience and persistence finally paid off. Bravo for a job well done in finishing
lesson 2.2. I hope that by becoming aware of different approaches to facilitate a more
student-centered teaching, you now know how to design and plan your future teaching
practice in a way that would be best serve the diverse interest, needs and abilities of your
students.

In Lesson 2.3, you will learn about the evolution of learning theories that have served
as the backbone and framework of teaching practices. This lesson will help you see the
impact of the evolution of learning theories and its impact in shifting the field of education

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

18
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

from a teacher-centered teaching approach to that of a student-centered pedagogical

approach for 21st century learners.

Lesson 2.3 Learning Theories

Learning Outcomes

1. Explain the basic principle of the different theories of learning.

2. Make a simple plan applying the primary laws of learning
3. Determine how to use rewards in the learning process more effectively
4. Explain Tolman’s purposive behaviorism
5. Explain Banduras’s social learning theory.
Give specific applications of each theory in teaching.

Introduction

With new researches, explanations provided but the basic principles of behaviorism
appeared not satisfy all learning scenarios. New theories came into view which
maintained some of the behaviorist concepts but excluded others, and added new ideas
which later came to be associated with the cognitive views of learning. The
neo-behaviorist, then, were transitional group, bridging the gap behaviorism and cognitive
theories learning.

Activity

ACTIVITY 1 (BEHAVIORISM)
1. Observation
a. Choose a place where you can observe adult-child interactions – such as mall, in
church, parks or at the playground, etc. Spend one hour observing such adult-child
interactions. Focus your attention on the stimulus – response – consequence patter
you observe.

b. Describe the consequences you observe. (It is better to write or scribble the details
on the spot or as soon as you finish your observation).

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

19
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

ACTIVITY 2 (CONNECTIONISM)

Primary Laws How would I apply the primary law

Law of Readiness

Law of Effect. Indicate

specifically how you will use
positive/negative
reinforcements (rewards)

Law of Exercise

ACTIVITY 3

Working on Maze

ACTIVITY 4

Reflecting Chart of Tolman and Bandura

Reflecting on the different theories of both psychologists.
Tolman Your Reflection Bandura Your Reflection

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

20
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

What are the herbs approved by the Department of Health?

1. For ringworm and other skin (fungal) infections.

2. For non-insulin dependent diabetic patients
3. For blood pressure control.
4. For use antiseptic disinfect wounds for mouthwash or tooth decay
and gum infection.
5. For cough and asthma
6. For intestinal worms, particularly ascaris and trichina.
7. For urinary stones
8. For mouthwash
9. For arthritis and gout
10. For relief from body aches and pains.

Analysis
Activity 1: BEHAVIORISM
Answer the questions.
1. What kind of stimuli for children’s and adult behavior did you observe?

3. What kinds of behaviors on the part of children elicit reinforcement and punishment
consequences from the adult?

4. What kind of behaviors of adults are reinforced or punished by the children?

5. What kinds of reinforcement and punishments seem to be most “successful”?

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

21
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

5. Given this experience, what are your thoughts about operant conditioning? Do you
think children reinforce and punish adults reinforce and punish them? How might the two
be interdependent?

Activity 3: WORKING ON A MAZE

1. How did you solve maze A.? What strategy did you use? (trial and error, examined the
maze before proceeding with your pen etc.

2. Was it easier to solve maze B? Why?

Activity 5: WORD PUZZLE/GARDEN OF HERBS

Reflection Questions;
1. As a student, what factor influence learning?

2. What are the negative implications of technology to intellectual and social

development of young children?

Abstraction
People learn through repetition. Learner is a passive blank slate shaped by
environmental stimuli, both positive and negative reinforcement. This topic helps you
understand behaviorism and its connection to learning reinforcement.

BEHAVIORISM

This particular learning theory assumes that the learner is essentially passive, simply
responding to their environmental stimuli. Behavioral theorists therefore believe that a
learner basically begins as a clean slate, and their behavior is shaped by
positive/negative reinforcement The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of
observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned
through conditioning and reinforcement (rewards and punishment). It does not give much
attention to the mind, and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind.
Contributions in the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov,
Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

22
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiological is well known for his

work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution.
Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involved meat, a dog
and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring the dog’s
salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he
stumbled upon classical conditioning.

Pavlov’s Experiment.

Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog.
Placing dog food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation
(unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before
the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned
stimulus) alone produce salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning.

Figure 1. Pavlov’s Experiment Schematic

PAVLOV ALSO HAD THE FOLLOWING FINDINGS:

Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it
well salivate at the other similar sounds

Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in
response to the bell.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

23
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” after an elapsed

time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.

Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and
discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell
with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same
time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without
the sound of the bell.

CONNECTIONISM

Connectionism is a learning theory developed by George Siemens and Steven Downs. It

stresses the connections and combinatorial creativity. All the knowledge is out there – it’s
a matter of making the connections. Siemens (2004) states, “A community is the
clustering of similar areas of interest that allows for interaction, sharing, dialoguing, and
thinking together.”
For example, if a learner is trying to learn how Donald Trump has risen to power, they
may start on a Facebook post that a friend made, which could then take them to an article,
but the text is dense and confusing, so instead the student the student scroll down to the
comments sections and finds another link to blog, and from the blog there is an
embedded YouTube video that they watch to more fully understand the issue. The
student has used various forms of gathering information using the internet, and has
gleaned the most salient information by using many different modes to more fully
understand the issue.

Edward Lee Thorndike

1904-1990
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism theory gave us the original S-R framework of
behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago he
wrote a text book entitled, Educational Psychology. He was
the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the
result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or
weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings.
The model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which
certain responses came to be repeated than others because
of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all
behavioral theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without considering
any unobservable internal states. Thorndike’s theory on connectionism stated that
learning has taken place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and
response is formed. He came up with three primary laws.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

24
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Edward Thorndike (1898) is famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that
lead to the development of operant conditioning within Behaviorism. Whereas classical
conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning
involves learning from the consequences of our behavior.

Skinner wasn’t the first psychologist to study learning by consequences. Indeed,

Skinner's theory of operant conditioning is built on the ideas of Edward Thorndike.

Figure 2. Simplified graph of the result of the puzzle box experiment.

He placed a cat in the puzzle box, which was encouraged to escape to reach a scrap
of fish placed outside. Thorndike would put a cat into the box and time how long it took to
escape. The cats experimented with different ways to escape the puzzle box and reach
the fish.

Eventually they would stumble upon the lever which opened the cage. When it had
escaped it was put in again, and once more the time it took to escape was noted. In
successive trials the cats would learn that pressing the lever would have favorable
consequences and they would adopt this behavior, becoming increasingly quick at
pressing the lever.

Edward Thorndike put forward a “Law of effect” which stated that any behavior that
is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed
by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

THORDIKE’S THEORY ON CONNECTIONISM stated that learning has taken place

when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up
with three primary laws:

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

25
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Law of Effect
The Law of Effect stated that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the
stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike
later on, revised this “law” when he found that negative reward, seemingly pleasurable
consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.

Law of Exercise.
Tell us that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond in practice the stronger it will
become. “Practice makes perfect” seem to be associated with this. However, like the law
of effect, the law of exercise also had to revise when Thorndike found that practice
without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.

Law of Readiness.
This states that, the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to a stimulus and is not
made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. Example, if the teacher says, “Okay
we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power
goes off, the
students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were
prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not at all ready to respond to stimuli
and is asked to respond, that becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher asks the
question and expects the students to respond right away when he is still not ready. This
will be annoying to the student. This is why teacher should remember to say the question
first, and wait for a few seconds before calling on anyone to answer.

Principles Derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and reward (laws of effect/exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action
(law of readiness)
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

Behaviorism: Tolman & Bandura

Generalization: Tolman’s Purposive Behaviorism

Usually, people who worked on a maze activity, which you just did, would say they found
the second maze easier. This is because they say that the two mazes were identical,
except that the entrance and exit points had been reversed. Their experience in Maze A
was much easier for them to answer Maze B. People are building mind maps of events
that they perceived. These mental maps help them to respond to other things or tasks
later, particularly if they see the similarity. You may start responding with trial and error

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

26
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

(behavioral), but later on your response becomes more internally driven (cognitive
perspective). This is what neo-behaviorism is all about. It has behavioral aspects, but it
also has a cognitive perspective.

There are two neo-behaviorism-reflecting theories that stand out. Edward Tolman's
purposive behaviorism and Albert Bandura's theory of social learning. Both theories are
influenced by behaviorism (focused on internal elements and learning).

Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism

Purpose behaviorism has also been referred to as sign learning theory and is often
seen as a link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Tolman 's theory was based on
the psychological views of the Gestalt Psychologist and the behaviorist John Watson.

Tolman believes that learning is a cognitive process. Learning

involves
building belief in the acquisition of knowledge about the
environment and then the discovery of knowledge through
purposeful and objective behavior.

Tolman stated in his sign theory that an organism learns by

pursuing signs for a goal, i.e. learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior. He stressed that the organized aspect of
learning is acquired through meaningful behavior. He emphasized that the organized
aspect of learning is that the stimuli allowed in are not connected by simple one-to-one
switches to the outgoing reactions. Rather, the incoming impulses are usually worked out
and elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive environment map.
And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and pathways, and environmental relations
that finally determines what kind of response the animal will finally make.

Tolman's form of behaviorism underscored the relationship between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (sign) would be associated with
already meaningful stimuli (significant ones) through a series of pairings; there was no
need for reinforcement to establish learning. In your labyrinth activity, the new stimulus or
"sign" (maze B) has become associated with the already meaningful stimulus, the
signicate (maze A). So you may have connected the two stimuli, Labyrinth A and
Labyrinth B, and used your knowledge and experience in Labyrinth A to learn how to
respond to Labyrinth A.

Tolman’s Key Concepts

This is a learning theory that was in response to behaviorism. Psychologist who promoted
this idea claimed that behaviorism failed to explain cognition. In this theory, mind is an

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

27
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

information processor. It emphasizes understanding the concept as a whole instead of

just the piece.

This is the learning theory that was taught in developing online education using Blooms
Taxonomy. Examples of cognitivist strategies for learning higher-level thinking are
starting a lesson with a hook to create interest, a review quiz to promote prior learning,
using learning outcomes, chunking content into organized bite-sized pieces, using
graphic organizers, and the student takes on an active role on learning. The teacher gives
lots of encouragement and positive feedback.

Social Learning Theory:

Albert Bandura

The social learning theory of Bandura emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Bandura (1977) states: “Learning would be exceedingly
laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely
solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to
do. Fortunately, most human behavior is learned
observationally through modeling: from observing others one
forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on
later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for
action. Social learning theory explains human behavior in
terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive,
behavioral, an environmental influences.

The component processes underlying observational learning are:

1. Attention - includes modeled events (distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity,

prevalence, functional value) and observer characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement).

2. Retention - includes symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal,

motor rehearsal)

3. Motor Reproduction - includes physical capabilities, self-observation of reproduction,

accuracy of feedback.

4. Motivation, including external, vicarious and self-reinforcement.

General Principles of Social Learning Theory

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of the others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

28
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior.

3. Cognition plays a role in learning.
4. Social learning can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning
theories and cognitive learning theories.

How environment punishes modeling

People are often to reinforced for modeling the behavior of others. Bandura suggested
that the environment also reinforces modeling. This is several possible ways;
1. The observer is reinforced by the model
2. The observer reinforce by a third person
3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences
4. Consequences of the model’s behavior affect the observer’s
behavior vicariously.

Contemporary Social Learning Perspective of

Reinforcement and Punishment
1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and
punishment have indirect effects on learning.
2. Reinforcement ad punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a
behavior that has been learned
3. The expectation of reinforcement process that promote learning.

Cognitive Factors in Social Learning

1. Learning without performance. (through observation and actual imitation)

2. Cognitive processing during learning (attention)
3. Expectations (consequences)
4. Reciprocal causation (person, behavior and environment)
5. Modeling (live models, and symbolic models)

Four Elements of Observational Learning

1. Attention – mental focus or concentration, willingness of the child to observe and mimic
the behavior of a model.
2. Retention – To encode the behavior in the memory, ability to store information.
3. Motor Production – To actually perform the behavior observe
4. Motivation/Reinforcement – Force that drives one to act.

COGNITIVISM

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

29
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Cognitivism revived the psychological study of thinking, developing scientifically

rigorous ways of studying unobservable mental activity. In this module you will encounter
different questions on how cognitivism brings on the development of learning, and you will
find answers or solution to these questions.

What is Cognitivism?

Cognitivism is "the psychology of learning which emphasizes human cognition or

intelligence as a special endowment enabling man to form hypotheses and develop
intellectually" (Cognitivism) and is also known as cognitive development. The underlying
concepts of cognitivism involve how we think and gain knowledge. Cognitivism involves
examining learning, memory, problem solving skills, and intelligence. Cognitive theorists
may want to understand how problem solving changes throughout childhood, how cultural
differences affect the way we view our own academic achievements, language
development, and much more. (Feldman, Cognitivism)

How Does Learning Occur?

Cognitive theories stress the acquisition of knowledge and internal mental structures
and, as such, are closer to the rationalist end of the epistemology continuum (Bower &
Hilgard, 1981). Learning is equated with discrete changes between states of knowledge
rather than with changes in the probability of response. Cognitive theories focus on the
conceptualization of students’ learning processes and address the issues of how
information is received, organized, stored, and retrieved by the mind. Learning is
concerned not so much with what learners do but with what they know and how they
come to acquire it (Jonassen, 1991b). Knowledge acquisition is described as a mental
activity that entails internal coding and structuring by the learner. The learner is viewed as
a very active participant in the learning process.

Which factors Influence Learning?

Cognitivism, like behaviorism, emphasizes the role that environmental conditions

play in facilitating learning. Instructional explanations, demonstrations, illustrative
examples and matched non-examples are all considered to be instrumental in guiding
student learning. Similarly, emphasis is placed on the role of practice with corrective
feedback. Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories.
However, the “active” nature of the learner is perceived quite differently.

The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to
a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and
organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental
“cues” and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results
from an instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners
attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information. Learners’ thoughts,

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

30
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

beliefs, attitudes, and values are also considered to be influential in the learning process
(Winne, 1985). The real focus of the cognitive approach is on changing the learner by
encouraging him/her to use appropriate learning strategies.

How Does Transfer Occur?

According to cognitive theories, transfer is a function of how information is stored in

memory (Schunk, 1991). When a learner understands how to apply knowledge in
different contexts, then transfer has occurred. Understanding is seen as being composed
of a knowledge base in the form of rules, concepts, and discriminations (Duffy &
Jonassen, 1991). Prior knowledge is used to establish boundary constraints for identifying
the similarities and differences of novel information. Not only must the knowledge itself be
stored in memory but the uses of that knowledge as well. Specific instructional or
real-world events will trigger particular responses, but the learner must believe that the
knowledge is useful in a given situation before he will activate it.

Classroom Implications

In a classroom environment, there are many variables that influence and contribute to
learning. When creating and implementing a learning environment, it is imperative that
the teachers not only create a setting that promotes learning, but also take the time to
understand each child. Classrooms are widely diverse and complex. Students learn
differently and are at various developmental levels. Teachers who properly manage their
classrooms and establish expectations will be able to incorporate diverse teaching
philosophies and create an excellent learning environment for each student. It is
important that teachers create a learning environment that encourages students to do
their best and makes learning interesting. This creates a motivational climate within the
classroom.

There are two factors that are critical to motivate students, value and effort.
(Classroom Management) Students must understand that the work they are performing is
worthwhile. Value measures the importance of a student's work to himself and others.
Effort is the amount of time and energy students put into their work. Understanding the
value of academic tasks and the effort needed to complete those tasks can motivate
students to perform better in the classroom environment (Classroom Management)

Cognitive Development Implied in the Classroom (“Piaget’s Theory”)

 Teachers should carefully assess the current stage of a child's cognitive development
and only assign tasks for which the child is prepared. The child can then be given
tasks that are tailored to their developmental level and are motivating.
 Teachers must provide children with learning opportunities that enable them to
advance through each developmental stage. This is achieved by creating

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

31
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

disequilibrium. Teachers should maintain a proper balance between actively guiding

the child and allowing opportunities for them to explore things on their own to learn
through discovery.
 Teachers should be concerned with the process of learning rather than the end
product. For example, the teacher should observe the way a child manipulates play
dough instead of concentrating on a finished shape.
 Children should be encouraged to learn from each other. Hearing others' views can
help breakdown egocentrism. It is important for teachers to provide multiple
opportunities for small group activities.
 Piaget believed that teachers should act as guides to children's learning processes
and that the curriculum should be adapted to individual needs and developmental
levels.

Examples of Cognitive Games in the Classroom

Cognitive games are designed to help stimulate various regions of the brain. These
games are used to improve reflexes, help people learn, promote critical thinking, and help
people learn different patterns of association. Cognitive games are helpful when used to
learn a foreign language and memorize new material. Various learning techniques are
used in the classroom because there are various learning styles. There are many games
that promote and influence cognitive learning. Examples of cognitive games include:

Educational Websites and Computer Games

Most educational websites computer games focus on stimulating a young child's

senses while engaging them in various cognitive tasks. Below are three of the many
learning websites that are available to enhance cognitive development in young children.
Example, PBS kids Educational Games, Spelling City, Cognitive Fun Games etc. Sorting
Games Sorting games require individuals to utilize recognition and reasoning.
Teachers can engage children in games in which the children sort items by various
criteria, such as color, size, texture, and other physical attributes of the items. A more
advanced approach to sorting is discussing how the items are similar. This process
promotes critical thinking.

Flash Cards

Flash cards can be used various tasks. This involves notecards or an even scrap of
paper in which two parts of information is written on either side of the notecard. These can
be as simple as having cards with a red dot on one side and the word red on the other.
Flash cards are typically used in a classroom for drills or in private study. These cards are
used to aid memorization. Pre-made flash cards are available for many subjects.
Teachers and students may also make homemade flash cards, depending on how and
what they are studying. Flash cards may also be personalized and printed from certain
websites. (Flashcards) Flash cards can be utilized into various games as well.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

32
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Board Games

Teachers may include board games in their classrooms to promote cognitive

development. Unlike computer and video games, board games are tangible. Children can
manipulate different pieces in the game. Board games can be implemented to enhance
mathematical and linguistic skills and enhance a child's ability to understand and follow
directions. Example, monopoly and bingo.

Puzzles

Finding a solution to a puzzle develops a child's problem solving ability.Children who

actively solve puzzles that they are able to touch and piece together are more likely to
understand certain concepts and develop their own theories about those concepts.

CONSTRUCTIVISM

In this unit you will be introduce to many of the issues understanding and applying
constructivism and constructivist principles for instructional design purposes.

Students learn new things through experience. They build knowledge through
experiences and interactions. In cognitive learning, the students are taught to do
something in constructivism. The students are encouraged to discover something on their
own; this is known as self-directed learning. The major difference is that cognitive learning
is about building on prior knowledge, and constructivism is about building new ideas and
concepts based on your own discoveries.

What are the principles of constructivism?

1. Knowledge is constructed, rather than innate, or passively absorbed

Constructivism's central idea is that human learning is constructed, that learners build
new knowledge upon the foundation of previous learning. This prior knowledge influences
what new or modified knowledge an individual will construct from new learning
experiences (Phillips, 1995).

2. Learning is an active process.

The second notion is that learning is an active rather than a passive process. The
passive view of teaching views the learner as ‘an empty vessel’ to be filled with
knowledge, where constructivism states that learners construct meaning only through
active engagement with the world (such as experiments or real-world problem solving).
Information may be passively received, but understanding cannot be, for it must come

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

33
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

from making meaningful connections between prior knowledge, new knowledge, and the
processes involved in learning.

3. All Knowledge is socially constructed

Learning is a social activity - it is something we do together, in interaction with each

other, rather than an abstract concept (Dewey, 1938). For example, Vygotsky (1978),
believed that community plays a central role in the process of "making meaning." For
Vygotsky, the environment in which children grow up will influence how they think and
what they think about.Thus, all teaching and learning is a matter of sharing and
negotiating socially constituted knowledge. For example, Vygotsky (1978) states
cognitive development stems from social interactions from guided learning within the
zone of proximal development as children and their partner's co-construct knowledge.

3. All knowledge is personal

Each individual learner has a distinctive point of view, based on existing knowledge
and values.This means that same lesson, teaching or activity may result in different
learning by each pupil, as their subjective interpretations differ.This principle appears to
contradict the view the knowledge is socially constructed. Fox (2001, p. 30) argues (a)
that although individuals have their own personal history of learning, nevertheless they
can share in common knowledge, and (b) that although education is a social process,
powerfully influenced by cultural factors, nevertheless cultures are made up of sub-
cultures, even to the point of being composed of sub-cultures of one. Cultures and their
knowledge-base are constantly in a process of change and the knowledge stored by
individuals is not a rigid copy of some socially constructed template. In learning a culture,
each child changes that culture.

4. Learning exists in the mind

The constructivist theory posits that knowledge can only exist within the human mind,
and that it does not have to match any real world reality (Driscoll, 2000). Learners will be
constantly trying to develop their own individual mental model of the real world from their
perceptions of that world. As they perceive each new experience, learners will continually
update their own mental models to reflect the new information, and will, therefore,
construct their own interpretation of reality.

What are the three main types of constructivism?

Typically, this continuum is divided into three broad categories:

Cognitive constructivism based on the work of Jean Piaget, social constructivism

based on the work of Lev Vygotsky, and radical constructivism. According to the GSI
Teaching and Resource Center (2015, p.5): Cognitive constructivism states knowledge is

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

34
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

something that is actively constructed by learners based on their existing cognitive

structures. Therefore, learning is relative to their stage of cognitive development.

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to

existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their
existing intellectual framework to accommodate that information. According to social
constructivism learning is a collaborative process, and knowledge develops from
individuals'
interactions with their culture and society.

Social constructivism was developed by Lev Vygotsky (1978, ) who suggested that,
every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level
and, later on, on the individual level; first, between people (interpsychological) and then
inside the child (intrapsychological).

Radical constructivism was developed by Ernst von Glasersfeld (1974) and states that
all knowledge is constructed rather than perceived through senses. Learners construct
new knowledge on the foundations of their existing knowledge. However, radical
constructivism states that the knowledge individuals create tells us nothing about reality,
and only helps
us to function in your environment. Thus, knowledge is invented not discovered. The
humanly constructed reality is all the time being modified and interacting to fit ontological
reality, although it can never give a ‘true picture’ of it. (Ernest, 1994)

What is the role of the teacher in a constructivist classroom?

The primary responsibility of the teacher is to create a collaborative problem-solving

environment where students become active participants in their own learning. From this
perspective, a teacher acts as a facilitator of learning rather than an instructor. The
teacher makes sure he/she understands the students' preexisting conceptions, and
guides the activity to address them and then build on them (Oliver, 2000).

Scaffolding is a key feature of effective teaching, where the adult continually adjusts
the level of his or her help in response to the learner's level of performance. In the
classroom, scaffolding can include modeling a skill, providing hints or cues, and adapting
material or activity (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Features of a Constructivist Classroom

Tam (2000) lists the following four basic characteristics of constructivist learning
environments, which must be considered when implementing constructivist teaching
strategies:
1) Knowledge will be shared between teachers and students.
2) Teachers and students will share authority.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

35
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

3) The teacher's role is one of a facilitator or guide.

4) Learning groups will consist of small numbers of heterogeneous students.

Application

Now let us turn to applying what we have learned about learning theories that guide
the teaching practice of educators like your. As an example, try thinking of how to apply
Thorndike’s Connectionism by following the instructions below.

a. Choose a topic you want to teach

b. Discuss the ways you can apply the three primary laws while you teach the topic.

Prepare a 2-minute recorded speech on your response. Request a fellow student

and/ or teacher to comment on it.

Closure

Congratulations learner for finishing this lesson! You may have arrived already at a
conclusion at this point that there is no single or perfect learning theory that applies to
every student. What is more important to remember is that, for the novice learner,
behaviorism will be applied to novice learner where they study fact based on information,
cognitivism will be applied to established learner where they make connections using fact
based information, while constructivism will be applied to sophisticated-learners where
they use fact based information and knowledge of connections to create greater
understanding of a content area.

The typical classroom has myriads of learners who have different experiences, needs
and learning styles. Teaching and learning methodologies have to be constantly revised,
changed and modified. Therefore, different learning theories should be utilized to
accommodate a variety of learner, in order to create an environment that will be beneficial
to both the teacher the learners.

You are about to begin Lesson 4 in the next page. This lesson will help you
understand why becoming knowledgeable about learner- centred pedagogical
approaches and knowing the learning theories on which they are founded will help you
successfully develop your skill-set or teaching competencies. The said teaching
competencies of a Filipino teacher like you in the near future are expected to become

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

36
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

proficient in what is referred to as the PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR

TEACHERS or PPST.

Let us now proceed to Lesson 4.

Lesson 2.4 Outcomes of Teacher Education

Learning Outcomes

1. Set out clear expectations of teaching standards for professional development from
beginning to distinguished career stage of teachers;
2. Actively embrace a continuing effort to attaining teaching proficiency; and
3. Apply uniform measure to assess teacher performance, identify needs, and provide
support for professional development

Introduction

In desiring to become a teacher someday, you will in fact play a crucial role in nation
building. Put in mind that through quality teachers, the Philippines can develop holistic
learners who are steeped in values, equipped with 21st century skills, and able to propel
the country to development and progress. Once you graduate and become a licensed
professional teacher, you will now be an official member of the community of educators in
the country. Under the Department of Education’s VISION of producing: “Filipinos who
passionately love their country and whose values and competencies enable them to
realize their full potential and contribute meaningfully to building the nation” (DepED
Order No. 36, s. 2013).

Keep in mind, dear future teacher, that so much research evidences unequivocally
show that good teachers are vital to raising student achievement, i.e., quality learning of
your students is will be dependent upon learner-centered teaching. Hence, enhancing
yourself in terms of in the 7 domains of teaching practice reflected in the Philippine
Professional Standards for Teachers should become of utmost importance to you.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

37
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Activity

Activity 1: Concept Map of a Professional Teacher

Develop a concept map of a professional teacher as provided for in the Philippine

Professional Standards for Teachers.

Activity 2: WEB ORGANIZER

The teachers are not simply the implementers of the strategies in teaching.
They are the creators of the conditions of learning bedrock on their personal, professional,
and ethical qualities.

Identify the qualities of professional teacher. Fill in the concept organizer below.

The Professional
Teacher

As As
Individual Professional

Analysis
Activity 1

1. Based from the concept map you’ve made, describe a professional teacher as
provided in the Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

38
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Activity 2

1. What are the qualities a professional teacher should have as an individual and as a
professional?

2. Which is more important, the professional or the personal attribute of a teacher? Why?

3. What should be the first and most important quality of a good teacher?

Abstraction

Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers

The Philippine Government has consistently pursued teacher quality reforms through
a number of initiatives. As a framework of teacher quality, the National
Competency-Based Teacher Standards (NCBTS) was institutionalized through CHED
Memorandum Order No. 52, s. 2007 and DepED Order No. 32, s. 2009. It emerged as
part of the implementation of the Basic Education Sector Reform Agenda (BESRA), and
was facilitated by drawing on the learning considerations of programs, such as the Basic
Education Assistance for Mindanao (BEAM), the Strengthening Implementation of
Visayas Education (STRIVE) project and the Third Elementary Education Project (TEEP).

The K to 12 Reform (R.A. 10533) in 2013 has changed the landscape of teacher
quality requirements in the Philippines. The reform process warrants an equivalent
supportive focus on teacher quality – high quality teachers who are properly equipped
and prepared to assume the roles and functions of a K to 12 teacher.

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers, which is built on NCBTS,

complements the reform initiatives on teacher quality from pre-service education to
in-service training. It articulates what constitutes teacher quality in the K to 12 Reform
through welldefined domains, strands, and indicators that provide measures of
professional learning, competent practice, and effective engagement. This set of
standards makes explicit what teachers should know, be able to do and value to achieve
competence, improved student learning outcomes, and eventually quality education. It is
founded on teaching philosophies of learner-centeredness, lifelong learning, and

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

39
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

inclusivity/inclusiveness, among others. The professional standards, therefore, become a

public statement of professional accountability that can help teachers reflect on and
assess their own practices as they aspire for personal growth and professional
development.

Teacher Quality in the Philippines

The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers defines teacher quality in the
Philippines. The standards describe the expectations of teachers’ increasing levels of
knowledge, practice and professional engagement. At the same time, the standards allow
for teachers’ growing understanding, applied with increasing sophistication across a
broader and more complex range of teaching/learning situations.

The following describes the breadth of 7 Domains that are required by teachers to be
effective in the 21st Century in the Philippines. Quality teachers in the Philippines need to
possess the following characteristics:
 Recognize the importance of mastery of content knowledge and its
interconnectedness within and across curriculum areas, coupled with a sound
and critical understanding of the application of theories and principles of teaching
and learning. They apply developmentally appropriate and meaningful pedagogy
grounded on content knowledge and current research. They display proficiency
in Mother Tongue, Filipino and English to facilitate the teaching and learning
process, as well as exhibit the needed skills in the use of communication
strategies, teaching strategies and technologies to promote high-quality learning
outcomes.
 Provide learning environments that are safe, secure, fair and supportive in order
to promote learner responsibility and achievement. They create an environment
that is learning-focused and they efficiently manage learner behavior in a
physical and virtual space. They utilize a range of resources and provide
intellectually challenging and stimulating activities to encourage constructive
classroom interactions geared towards the attainment of high standards of
learning.

 Establish learning environments that are responsive to learner diversity. They

respect learners’ diverse characteristics and experiences as inputs to the
planning and design of learning opportunities. They encourage the celebration of
diversity in the classroom and the need for teaching practices that are
differentiated to encourage all learners to be successful citizens in a changing
local and global environment.

 Interact with the national and local curriculum requirements. They translate
curriculum content into learning activities that are relevant to learners and based
on the principles of effective teaching and learning. They apply their professional
knowledge to plan and design, individually or in collaboration with colleagues,

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

40
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

well-structured and sequenced lessons that are contextually relevant, responsive

to learners’ needs and incorporate a range of teaching and learning resources.
They communicate learning goals to support learner participation, understanding
and achievement.

 Apply a variety of assessment tools and strategies in monitoring, evaluating,

documenting and reporting learners’ needs, progress and achievement. They
use assessment data in a variety of ways to inform and enhance the teaching
and learning process and programs. They provide learners with the necessary
feedback about learning outcomes that informs the reporting cycle and enables
teachers to select, organize and use sound assessment processes.

 Establish school-community partnerships aimed at enriching the learning

environment, as well as the community’s engagement in the educative process.
They identify and respond to opportunities that link teaching and learning in the
classroom to the experiences, interests and aspirations of the wider school
community and other key stakeholders. They understand and fulfill their
obligations in upholding professional ethics, accountability and transparency to
promote professional and harmonious relationships with learners, parents,
schools and the wider community.

 Value personal growth and professional development and exhibit high personal
regard for the profession by maintaining qualities that uphold the dignity of
teaching such as caring attitude, respect and integrity. They value personal and
professional reflection and learning to improve their practice. They assume
responsibility for personal growth and professional development for lifelong
learning.

PHILIPPINE PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS FOR TEACHERS

The 7 Domains of teacher practice comprise of 37 strands that refer to more specific
dimensions of teacher practice.

Domain 1
Content Knowledge &Pedagogy
(7 strands)

1. Content knowledge and its application

within and across curriculum areas
2. Research-based knowledge and principles
of teaching and learning
3. Positive use of ICT
4. Strategies for promoting literacy and numeracy
5. Strategies for developing critical and creative thinking, as well as other

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

41
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

higher-order thinking skills

6. Mother Tongue, Filipino and English in teaching and learning
7. Classroom communication strategies

Domain 2
Environment (6 stands)

1. Learner safety and security

2. Fair learning environment
3. Management of classroom structure and activities
4. Support for learner participation
5. Promotion of purposive learning
6. Management of learner behavior

Domain 3
Diversity of Learners (5 strands)

1. Learners’ gender, needs, strengths,

interests and experiences
2. Learners’ linguistic, cultural, socio
economic & religious backgrounds
3. Learners with disabilities,
giftedness and talents
4. Learners in difficult circumstances
5. Learners from indigenous groups

Domain 4
Curriculum and Planning (5 strands)

1. Planning and management of teaching and learning process

2. Learning outcomes aligned with learning competencies
3. Relevance and responsiveness of learning programs
4. Professional collaboration to enrich teaching practice
5. Teaching and learning resources including ICT

Domain 5
Assessment and Reporting (5 strands)

1. Design, selection, organization and utilization of assessment strategies

2. Monitoring and evaluation of learner progress and achievement
3. Feedback to improve learning
4. Communication of learner needs, progress and achievement to key stakeholders
5. Use of assessment data to enhance teaching and learning practices and programs

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

42
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Domain 6
Community Linkages and Professional Engagement (4 strands)

1. Establishment of learning environments that is responsive to

community contexts Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers 7
2. Engagement of parents and the wider school community in the educative process
3. Professional ethics
4. School policies and procedures

Domain 7
Personal Growth and Professional Development (5 strands)

1. Philosophy of teaching
2. Dignity of teaching as a profession
3. Professional links with colleagues
4. Professional reflection and learning to improve practice
5. Professional development goals

Career Stages of Filipino Professional Teachers

Teacher professional development happens in a continuum from beginning to exemplary

practice. Anchored on the principle of lifelong learning, the set of professional standards
for teachers recognizes the significance of a standards framework that articulates
developmental progression as teachers develop, refine their practice and respond to the
complexities of educational reforms.

The following statements, which define the work of teachers at different career stages,
make explicit the elements of high-quality teaching for the 21st century. They comprise
descriptors that have been informed by teachers’ understandings of what is required at
each of the four Career Stages. The descriptors represent a continuum of development
within the profession by providing a basis for attracting, preparing, developing and
supporting teachers.

Career Stage 1 or Beginning Teachers have gained the qualifications recognized for
entry into the teaching profession. have a strong understanding of the subjects/areas in
which they are trained in terms of content knowledge and pedagogy. possess the
requisite knowledge, skills and values that support the teaching and learning process.
manage learning programs and have strategies that promote learning based on the
learning needs of their students. seek advice from experienced colleagues to consolidate
their teaching practice.

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

43
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Career Stage 2 or Proficient Teachers professionally independent in the application of

skills vital to the teaching and learning process. provide focused teaching programs that
meet curriculum and assessment requirements. display skills in planning, implementing,
and managing learning actively engage in collaborative learning with the professional
community and other stakeholders for mutual growth and advancement. reflective
practitioners who continually consolidate the knowledge, skills and practices of Career
Stage 1 teachers.

Career Stage 3 or Highly Proficient Teachers consistently display a high level of

performance in their teaching practice. manifest an in-depth and sophisticated
understanding of the teaching and learning process. have high education-focused
situation cognition, are more adept in problem solving and optimize opportunities gained
from experience. work collaboratively with colleagues and provide them support and
mentoring to enhance their learning and practice. continually seek to develop their
professional knowledge and practice by reflecting on their own needs, and those of their
colleagues and
students.

Career Stage 4 or Distinguished Teachers embody the highest standard for teaching
grounded in global best practices. exhibit exceptional capacity to improve their own
teaching practice and that of others. recognized as leaders in education, contributors to
the profession and initiators of collaborations and partnerships. create lifelong impact in
the lives of colleagues, students and others. consistently seek professional advancement
and relevance in pursuit of teaching quality and excellence. exhibit commitment to inspire
the education community and stakeholders for the improvement of education provision in
the Philippine.

Application

At this point , after knowing the 7 domains of teaching considered as standards of the
professional practice of teachers, as well as the career stages we go through over time,
you may now check yourself in terms of how far you have developed already at this time.
Use the checklist below to find out.

Self Assessment Checklist

Domains for Teaching Practice

Y = Yes, I believe I already have developed the competencies in this domain

S = Somewhat, I believe I already have developed some competencies in this domain

NY= Not Yet, I believe I have not yet developed any competency in this domain

Y S NY Domain of Teaching Standards

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

44
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Content Knowledge and Pedagogy

Learning Environment
Diversity of Learners
Curriculum and Planning
Assessment and Reporting
Community Linkages & Professional
Engagement
Personal Growth and Professional Development

Reflection Question:
1. For domains in which you answered SOMEWHAT or NOT YET, what will you do in
order to develop the teaching competencies
under those domain?

3. Can you develop to yourself progress from a beginner teacher stage to a distinguished
teacher in 10-15 years?

Closure

Congratulations learner! You already completed 4 lessons in Module 1. You have

also come to find out about the outcomes of your learning journey in the teacher
education department, the main reason why you are being trained as teacher through
your enrolment in a BSED, BTLED or BEED program. Always remember that this course
in facilitating learner-centred teaching is intended to help you acquire the competencies
listed as strands in at least 5 domains of the PPST which are: content knowledge &
pedagogy, learning environment, diversity of learners, curriculum and planning, and
assessment and reporting

Let us continue to deepen your understanding of your future learner by turning to module
3.

Module Summary

 Learner centered teaching has brought significant changes from the

traditional teacher-centered approach. These changes involve balance of
power between teacher and student, evaluation of purpose & process,
role of teacher, responsibility of learner and function of content.
 Four principles are also notable in a student centered teaching approach
which are: learning is personalized; learning is competency-based;

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

45
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

learning happens anytime, anywhere; and students take owner ship of

their learning.
 The American Psychological Association also published the top 20
principles of teaching and learning in Prek-12 education for teachers. The
principles are distilled from decades of research on how cognition,
emotion and motivation are enable students to really learn.
 Three pedagogical approaches that promote learner centeredness are
cooperative learning approach, differentiated instruction approach, and
personalized learning approach.
 Learning theories that inform the teaching practices of contemporary
teachers are drawn from behaviorism, cognitivism, constructivism,
connectivism.
 The Philippine Professional Standards for Teachers clarifies the 7
domains of teaching practice which emphasizes the competence of
teachers to help student with diverse abilities and background in a learner
centered learning environment.

References

Abramczyk, A. & Jurkowski, S. (2020): Cooperative learning as an evidence-based

teaching strategy: what teachers know, believe, and how they use it, Journal of
Education for Teaching. DOI: 10.1080/02607476.2020.1733402

Bondie, R.S., Dahnke, C., & Zusho, A. (2019). How does changing “one-size-fits-all” to
differentiated instruction affect teaching?. Review of Research in Education, 43, pp.
336–362. DOI: 10.3102/0091732X18821130

Bouser & Hilgard (1981) “Epistemology Continuum”, 23-26

Dep. Ed Order No. 36 s. 2013 “Outcomes of Teacher Education”. 10m pages

memorandum

Department of Education (2015) “Grade 10 Learners Guide” Garden of Herbs. L3,

125-130

Driscoll (2000) “Learning Exist in the Mind” 78-83

Duffy & Jonassen (1991) “How Does Transfer Occur?” 7-11

Ernest (1994) “Ontological Reality”

Feldman, W (2009) “Cognitivism, Theories of Learning”. 35-42

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

46
 Republic of the Philippines
Romblon State University
Romblon, Philippines

Instructor Facilitation Assessment. Curriculum Guide: Teaching & Facilitating Learning.

Retrieved from www.careersined.org/documents/prof-tech/Teaching
Facilitating-Learning-2%20.pdf

Johnson, D.W. (2009). An educational psychology success story: social interdependence

theory and cooperative learning. Educational Researcher. 38 (5): 365–379.
doi:10.3102/0013189x09339057. August 1, 2020

Jonassen, D (1991) “Hoe Does Learning Occur” (1) 10-13

McCarthy, E.M., Liu, Y. & Schauer, K.L. (2020). Strengths based blended personalized
learning: An impact study using virtual comparison group, Journal of Research on
Technology in Education, 52:3, 353-370, DOI: 10.1080/15391523.2020.1716202

Oliver, C. (2000) “What is the Role of Teacher in Constructivism Classroom?” 1. 13-

17.

Olofson, M.W., Downes, J.M., Smith, C., LeGeros, L., & Bishop, P.A. (2018) An
Instrument to Measure Teacher Practices to Support Personalized Learning in the
Middle Grades, RMLE Online, 41:7, 1-21, DOI: 10.1080/19404476.2018.1493858

RODEL Teacher Council, (2014). Blueprint for Personalized Learning Approach.

https://www.k12blueprint.com/sites/default/files/Personalized-LearningGuidebook.p
df

Senate Committee on Education. Act 77. An act relating to encouraging flexible pathways
to secondary school completion., Pub. L. No. S130 (2013). Retrieved from
http://www.leg.state.vt.us/ docs/2014/Acts/ACT077.pdf

Shuel (1986) “Factors Influence Learning” 35-42.

Siemens & Downs (2004) “The Framework of Behaviorism” 2 10-15.

Tam (2000) “What are the features of a Constructivist Classroom?. 2 (23) 25-30

Tomlinson,C., Brighton, c., Hertberg, H., Callahan, C., Moon, T., Brimijoin, L.,

Conover, A. & Reynolds, T. (2003). Differentiating Instruction in Response to Student

Readiness, Interest, and Learning Profile in Academically Diverse Classrooms: A
Review of Literature. Journal for the Education of the Gifted. Vol. 27, No. 2/3, 2003,
pp. 119–145. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ787917.pdf

Zmuda, A, Curtis, G. & Ullman, D. (2015). Learning personalized: The evolution of the
contemporary classroom. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass

Adopted Source: Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching, Module for Project Write RO XI S.Y. 2020-2021

Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching

47