Introduction to Embedded Systems

UNIT – I: Introduction to Embedded Systems

Definition of Embedded System
An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to
perform a specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware
(software).
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is
highly specialized to the application domain. Embedded systems are becoming an
inevitable part of any product or equipment in all fields including household appliances,
telecommunications, medical equipment, industrial control, consumer products, etc.

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 Difference between Computer and Embedded System

1. Computer:
A computer is a combination of hardware and software resources which integrate
together and provides various functionalities to the user.
2. Embedded Device:
An embedded device is a part of an integrated system which is formed as an combination
of computer hardware and software for a specific function and which can operate without
human interaction.

Difference between Computer and Embedded System:

S. No. Category Computer Embedded device

An embedded device is a part of an integrated

A computer is a combination of system which is formed as a combination of
hardware and software resources which computer hardware and software for a specific
integrate together and provides various function and which can operate without human
1. Description functionalities to the user. interaction.

A computer needs Human Interaction Embedded device does not need Human
2. Human Interaction to perform tasks. Interaction to perform tasks.

Analog computer, Digital computer,

Hybrid computer, Harvard architecture, Small Scale Embedded System,
Types based on Von Neumann architecture, Reduced Medium Scale Embedded Systems,
3. architecture instruction set computer. Sophisticated or Complex Embedded Systems.

It has 3 parts: Hardware, Firmware and

4. Parts It has 2 parts: Hardware and Software. Software.

5. Tasks It can perform many tasks. It performs limited tasks.

The user has to pay more for a The user incurs lesser cost for an embedded
6. Cost to user computer. system.

Embedded Devices have peripherals such as

Computers have peripherals such as Serial Communication Interfaces (SCI),
keyboard and mouse, display, printer, Synchronous Serial Communication Interface,
Hard disk drives, floppy disk drives, Universal Serial Bus (USB), Multi Media
7. Peripherals optical disc drives etc. Cards (SD cards, Compact Flash) etc.

Computers can be reprogrammed to for Embedded Devices are made only for a specific
8. Purpose a new purpose. set of purposes.

Computer needs more operational Embedded Device needs lesser operational

9. Power Consumption power than Embedded Devices. power than a Computer.

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S. No. Category Computer Embedded device

Computers are more complex devices Embedded Devices are less complex devices
10. Complexity than Embedded Devices. than Computers.

Need of another Computers may be installed in other Embedded Devices only exist inside other
11. device devices but are self-sufficient to exist. Systems.

Computers are more Difficult when

used, compared to an Embedded
12. Usage Difficulty System. Embedded are easier to use than Computers.

For certain category of embedded systems like

Response requirements are not time mission critical systems, the response time
13. Time Specificity critical. requirement is highly critical.

Computers are usually bigger in size

with larger hardware and input output Embedded Devices are smaller in size than
14. Size devices attached to it. Computers, with limited hardware.

Computers have larger memory

Memory requirement due to a lot of storage of
15. Requirement data. Embedded Devices need lesser Memory.

Contain a General Purpose Operating May or may not contain an operating system
16. GPOS Requirement System (GPOS). for functioning.

Applications are alterable

(programmable) by user (It is possible
for the end user to re-install the The firmware of the embedded system is pre-
Programming Operating System, and add or remove programmed and it is non-alterable by end-
17. Flexibility user applications). user.

Performance is the key deciding factor Application specific requirements (like

on the selection of the system. Always, performance, power requirements, memory
18. Selection Criterion “Faster is Better” . usage etc) are the key deciding factors.

Execution behavior is deterministic for certain

Need not be deterministic in execution type of embedded systems like “Hard Real
19. Execution Behavior behavior. Time” systems.

Digital cameras, Digital wristwatches, MP3

players, Calculators.
Desktop PC, Laptop PC, Palmtop PC, Appliances, such as refrigerators, washing
20. Examples Tablet computer. machines, and microwave ovens

21. Developer Charles Babbage Charles Stark Draper

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History of Embedded Systems
Embedded systems were in existence even before the IT revolution. In the olden days
embedded systems were built around the old vacuum tube and transistor technologies and the
embedded algorithm was developed in low level languages. Advances in semiconductor and nano-
technology and IT revolution gave way to the development of miniature embedded systems. The first
recognized modem embedded system is the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC) developed by the
MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for the lunar expedition. They ran the inertial guidance systems of
both the Command Module (CM) and the Lunar Excursion Module (LEM). The Command Module
was designed to encircle the moon while the Lunar Module and its crew were designed to go down to
the moon surface and land there safely. The Lunar Module featured in total 18 engines. There were
16 reaction control thrusters, a descent engine and an ascent engine. The descent engine was
„designed to‟ provide thrust to the lunar module out of the lunar orbit and land it safely on the moon.
MIT‟s original design was based on 4K words of fixed memory (Read Only Memory) and 256 words
of erasable memory (Random Access Memory). By June 1963, the figures reached 10K of fixed and
IK of erasable memory. The final configuration was 36K words of fixed memory and 2K words of
erasable memory. The clock frequency of the first microchip proto model used in AGC was 1.024
MHz and it was derived from a 2.048 MHz crystal clock. The computing unit of AGC consisted of
approximately 11 instructions and 16 bit word logic. Around 5000 ICs (3-input NOR gates, RTL
logic) supplied by Fairchild Semiconductor were used in this design. The user interface unit of AGC
is known as DSKY (display/keyboard). DSKY looked like a calculator type keypad with an array of
numerals. It was used for inputting the commands to the module numerically.

The first mass-produced embedded system was the guidance computer for the Minuteman-I
missile in 1961. It was the „Autonetics D-l7 guidance computer, built using discrete transistor logic
and a hard-disk for main memory. The first integrated circuit was produced in September 1958 but
computers using them didn‟t begin to appear until 1963. Some of their early uses were in embedded
systems, notably used by NASA for the Apollo Guidance Computer and by the US military in the
Minuteman-II intercontinental ballistic missile.

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Classification of Embedded Systems
Embedded Systems are classified as:
 Based on Generation
 Based on Complexity & Performance Requirements
 Based on deterministic behavior
 Based on Triggering

1. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Generation

First Generation: The early embedded systems built around 8-bit microprocessors like
8085 and Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers.
EX: Stepper motor control units, Digital Telephone Keypads etc.

Second Generation: Embedded Systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8 or

16-bit microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems.
EX: SCADA (Supervisory control and data acquisition), Data Acquisition Systems etc.

Third Generation: Embedded Systems built around high performance 16/32 bit
Microprocessors/controllers, Application Specific Instruction set processors like Digital
Signal Processors (DSPs), and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs).The
instruction set is complex and powerful.
EX: Robotics, industrial process control, networks etc.

Fourth Generation: Embedded Systems built around System on Chips (SoC‟s), Re-
configurable processors and multicore processors. It brings high performance, tight
integration and miniaturization into the embedded device market.
EX: Smart phone devices, Mobile Internet Devices (MIDs) etc.

2. Embedded Systems - Classification based on Complexity & Performance

➢ Small Scale: The embedded systems built around low performance and low cost 8 or
16 bit microprocessors/ microcontrollers. It is suitable for simple applications and where
performance is not time critical. It may or may not contain OS.
➢ Medium Scale: Embedded Systems built around medium performance, low cost 16 or
32 bit microprocessors / microcontrollers or DSPs. These are slightly complex in
hardware and firmware. It may contain GPOS/RTOS.
➢ Large Scale/Complex or Sophisticated: Embedded Systems built around high
performance 32 or 64 bit RISC processors/controllers, Reconfigurable System on Chip
(RSoC) or multi-core processors and PLD. It requires complex hardware and software.
These system may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main processor. It
contains RTOS for scheduling, prioritization and management.

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3. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on deterministic behavior: It is applicable for
Real Time systems. The application/task execution behavior for an embedded system can be
either deterministic or non-deterministic:
These are classified in to two types
1. Soft Real time Systems: Missing a deadline may not be critical and can be
tolerated to a certain degree.
2. Hard Real time systems: Missing a program/task execution time deadline can
have catastrophic consequences (financial, human loss of life, etc.).

4. Embedded Systems - Classification Based on Triggering:

These are classified into two types
1. Event Triggered: Activities within the system (e.g., task run-times) are dynamic
and depend upon occurrence of different events.
2. Time triggered: Activities within the system follow a statically computed
schedule (i.e., they are allocated time slots during which they can take place) and
thus by nature are predictable.

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Major Application Areas of Embedded Systems
Embedded Systems play a vital role in our day-to-day life, starting from home to Computer/IT
industry. The application and the products in the embedded systems are countless. A few of the
important domains and products are listed as follows:

 Consumer Electronics: Camcorders, Cameras etc.

 Household Appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, Fridge, Microwave

Oven etc.

 Home Automation and Security Systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, Intruder

detection alarms, Closed Circuit Television Cameras, Fire alarms etc.

 Automotive Industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), Engine Control, Ignition

Systems, Automatic Navigation Systems etc.

 Telecom: Cellular Telephones, Telephone switches, Handset Multimedia Applications

etc.

 Computer Peripherals: Printers, Scanners, Fax machines etc.

 Computer Networking Systems: Network Routers, Switches, Hubs, Firewalls etc.

 Health Care: Different Kinds of Scanners, EEG, ECG Machines etc.

 Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, Digital CROs, Logic Analyzers
PLC systems etc.

 Banking & Retail: Automatic Teller Machines (ATM) and Currency counters, Point of
Sales (POS).

 Card Readers: Barcode, Smart Card Readers, Hand held Devices etc.

 Entertainment, Gaming and Toys: Play stations, Set-top box, Music Systems, FM
Radio, Graphic Cards, and Electronic Toys.

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Purpose of Embedded Systems
Each Embedded Systems is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.

i. Data Collection/Storage/Representation
ii. Data Communication
iii. Data (Signal) Processing
iv. Monitoring
v. Control
vi. Application Specific User Interface

Data Collection/Storage/Representation:

 Performs acquisition of data from the external world.

 The collected data can be either analog or digital.
 Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
 The collected data may be stored directly in the system or may be transmitted to some
other systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after
giving a meaningful representation.

Data Communication:

 Embedded Data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from

complex satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems.
 Embedded Data communication systems are dedicated for data communication.
 The data communication can happen through a wired interface (like Ethernet, RS-
232C/USB/IEEE1394 etc) or wireless interface (like Wi-Fi, GSM,/GPRS, Bluetooth,
ZigBee etc).
 Network hubs, Routers, switches, Modems etc are typical examples for dedicated data
transmission embedded systems.

Data (Signal) Processing:-

 Embedded systems with Signal processing functionalities are employed in applications

demanding signal processing like Speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec,
transmission applications etc.,
 Computational intensive systems.
 Employs Digital Signal Processors (DSPs).

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Monitoring:

 Embedded systems coming under this category are specifically designed for monitoring
purpose.
 They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.
 They cannot impose control over variables.
 Electro Cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heart beat of a patient is a typical
example for this.
 The sensors used in ECG are the different Electrodes connected to the patient‟s body.
 Measuring instruments like Digital CRO, Digital Multi meter, Logic Analyzer etc used in
Control & Instrumentation applications are also examples of embedded systems for
monitoring purpose.

Control:

 Embedded systems with control functionalities are used for imposing control over some
variables according to the changes in input variables.
 Embedded system with control functionality contains both sensors and actuators.
 Sensors are connected to the input port for capturing the changes in environmental
variable or measuring variable.
 The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the changes in
input variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled variable
to the specified range.
 Air conditioner for controlling room temperature is a typical example for embedded
system with “Control” functionality.
 Air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature.
 The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to
the current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.

Application Specific User Interface:

 Embedded systems which are designed for a specific application.

 Contains Application Specific User interface (rather than general standard UI ) like key
board, Display units etc.
 Aimed at a specific target group of users.
 Mobile handsets, Control units in industrial applications etc are examples.

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Characteristics of Embedded systems:
Embedded systems possess certain specific characteristics and these are unique to each
embedded system.
1. Application and domain specific
2. Reactive and Real Time
3. Operates in harsh environments
4. Distributed
5. Small Size and weight
6. Power concerns
7. Single-functioned
8. Complex functionality
9. Tightly-constrained
10. Safety-critical

1. Application and Domain Specific:

 Each Embedded System has certain functions to perform and they are developed in
such a manner to do the intended functions only.
 They cannot be used for any other purpose.
 Example – The embedded control units of the microwave oven cannot be replaced
with AC‟S embedded control unit because the embedded control units of microwave
oven and AC are specifically designed to perform certain specific tasks.

2. Reactive and Real Time:

 Embedded Systems are in constant interaction with the real world through sensors
and user-defined input devices which are connected to the input port of the system.
 Any changes in the real world are captured by the sensors or input devices in real
time and the control algorithm running inside the unit reacts in a designed manner to
bring the controlled output variables to the desired level.
 Embedded Systems produce changes in output in response to the changes in the input,
so they are referred as reactive systems.
 Real Time system operation means the timing behavior of the system should be
deterministic i.e., the system should respond to requests in a known amount of time.
 Example – Embedded Systems which are mission critical like flight control systems,
Antilock Brake Systems (ABS) etc are Real Time systems.

3. Operates in Harsh Environment:

 The design of Embedded Systems should take care of the operating conditions of the
area where the system is going to implement.
 Example – If the system needs to be deployed in a high temperature zone, then all the
components used in the system should be of high temperature grade.
 Also proper shock absorption techniques should be provided to systems which are
going to be commissioned in places subject to high shock.

4. Distributed:
 It means that embedded systems may be a part of a larger system.
 Many numbers of such distributed embedded systems form a single large embedded
control unit.

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  Example – Automatic vending machine. It contains a card reader, a vending unit etc.
Each of them are independent embedded units but they work together to perform the
overall vending function.

5. Small Size and Weight:

 Product aesthetics (size, weight, shape, style, etc) is an important factor in choosing a
product.
 It is convenient to handle a compact device than a bulky product.

6. Power Concerns:
 Power management is another important factor that needs to be considered in
designing embedded systems.
 Embedded Systems should be designed in such a way as to minimize the heat
dissipation by the system.
7. Single-functioned:
 Dedicated to perform a single function.

8. Complex functionality:
 We have to run sophisticated algorithms or multiple algorithms in some applications.

9. Tightly-constrained:-
 Low cost, low power, small, fast, etc.

10. Safety-critical:-
 Must not endanger human life and the environment.

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Quality Attributes of Embedded System:
Quality attributes are the non-functional requirements that need to be documented properly in
any system design. Quality attributes that need to be addressed in any embedded system can be
classified as:

I. Operational quality attributes

II. Non-operational quality attributes

I. Operational Quality Attributes:

The operational quality attributes represent the relevant quality attributes related to the embedded
system when it is in the operational mode or online mode.

Operational Quality Attributes are:

1. Response:-
It is the measure of quickness of the system. It tells how fast the system is tracking the changes
in input variables. Most of the Embedded Systems demands fast response which should be
almost real time.
Ex – Flight control application.

2. Throughput:-
It deals with the efficiency of a system. It can be defined as the rate of production or operation of
a defined process over a stated period of time. The rates can be expressed in terms of products,
batches produced or any other meaningful measurements.
Ex – In case of card reader throughput means how many transactions the reader can perform in a
minute or in an hour or in a day. Throughput is generally measured in terms of “Benchmark”. A
Benchmark is a reference point by which something can be measured.

3. Reliability:-
 It is a measure of how much we can rely upon the proper functioning of the system.
 Mean Time between Failure (MTBF) and Mean Time To Repair (MTTR) are the terms
used in determining system reliability.
 MTBF gives the frequency of failures in hours/weeks/months.
 MTTR specifies how long the system is allowed to be out of order following a failure.
 For embedded system with critical application need, it should be of the order of minutes.

4. Maintainability:-
 It deals with support and maintenance to the end user or client in case of technical issues
and product failure or on the basis of a routine system checkup.
 Reliability and maintainability are complementary to each other.
 A more reliable system means a system with less corrective maintainability requirements
and vice versa.
 Maintainability can be broadly classified into two categories
i. Scheduled or Periodic maintenance (Preventive maintenance)
ii. Corrective maintenance to unexpected failures
Maintainability is simply an indication of the product‟s availability for use, the ideal value for
availability for use is expressed as AoU = MTBF/(MTBF + MTTR)

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5. Security:-
Security of data and application can be determined by the three major measures of information
security -- Confidentiality, Integrity and Availability.
 Confidentiality deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized
disclosure.
 Integrity deals with the protection of data and application from unauthorized
modification.
 Availability deals with protection of data and application from unauthorized users.

6. Safety:-
Safety deals with the possible damages that can happen to the operator, public and the
environment due to the breakdown of an Embedded System. The breakdown of an embedded
system may occur due to a hardware failure or a firmware failure. Safety analysis is a must in
product engineering to evaluate the anticipated damages and determine the best course of action
to bring down the consequences of damage to an acceptable level.

II. Non-Operational Quality Attributes:

The quality attributes that needs to be addressed for the product not on the basis of
operational aspects are grouped under this category.

Non- Operational Quality Attributes are:

1. Testability and Debug-ability:-

 Testability deals with how easily one can test the design, application and by which means
it can be done.
 For an Embedded System testability is applicable to both the embedded hardware and
firmware.
 Embedded hardware testing ensures that the peripherals and total hardware functions in
the desired manner, whereas firmware testing ensures that the firmware is functioning in
the expected way.
 Debug-ability is a means of debugging the product from unexpected behavior in the
system
 Debug-ability is two level process
i. Hardware level: It is used for finding the issues created by hardware problems.
ii. Software level: It is employed for finding the errors created by the flaws in the
software.

2. Evolvability :-
 It is a term which is closely related to Biology.
 It is referred as the non-heritable variation.
 For an embedded system evolvability refers to the ease with which the embedded product
can be modified to take advantage of new firmware or hardware technologies.

3. Portability:-
 It is the measure of system independence.
 An embedded product is said to be portable if the product is capable of functioning in
various environments, target processors and embedded operating systems.

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  “Porting” represents the migration of embedded firmware written for one target processor
to a different target processor.

4. Time-to-Prototype and Market:-

 It is the time elapsed between the conceptualization of a product and the time at which
the product is ready for selling.
 The commercial embedded product market is highly competitive and time to market the
product is critical factor in the success of commercial embedded product.
 There may be multiple players in embedded industry who develop products of the same
category (like mobile phone).

5. Per Unit Cost and Revenue:-

 Cost is a factor which is closely monitored by both end user and product manufacturer.
 Cost is highly sensitive factor for commercial products
 Any failure to position the cost of a commercial product at a nominal rate may lead to the
failure of the product in the market.
 Proper market study and cost benefit analysis should be carried out before taking a
decision on the per-unit cost of the embedded product.
 The ultimate aim of the product is to generate marginal profit so the budget and total cost
should be properly balanced to provide a marginal profit.

Figure: Product Life Cycle (PLC) Graph

Embedded System Design Metrics

Common Design Metric: It is a measurable feature of a system‟s implementation

NRE cost  Non-Recurring Engineering Cost

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