UNIT-2

CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
OIC751-TRANSDUCER ENGINEERING
2 MARKS, 13 MARKS AND PROBLEM
2 MARKS
1. Compare static and dynamic characteristics of an instrument.
Static characteristics - the performance criteria for the measurement of quantities that remain
constant, or vary only quite slowly.
Dynamic characteristics - the relationship between the system input and output when the
measured quantity (measurand) is varying rapidly.

2. Compare repeatability and reproducibility.

Repeatability (equipment variation): variation in multiple measurements of a quality
characteristic by an individual using the same instrument.
Reproducibility (appraiser variation): the variation when using the same measuring instrument
by different individual to measure the same parts.

3. What is meant by an order of a system?

The order of the system is defined by the number of independent energy storage elements in the
system, and intuitively by the highest order of the linear differential equation that describes the
system. In a transfer function representation, the order is the highest exponent in the transfer
function.

4. Define zero order transducer. Give an example.

The output of a zero order system is proportional to the input. At all times, the output is equal to the input multiplied by
some constant of proportionality. Where k is a proportionality constant. Example – rheostat, potentiometer.

5. Define first order transducer. Give an example.

One of the most important groups of first order controlled system is that in which speed is controlled variable. For
example, the control of the speed of all type of vehicles, motors, and machines.

6. Define second order transducer. Give an example.

Second order transducer is defined as a second order system if it has two predominant energy
stores. Consider, as an example, a spring balance. The spring can obviously store strain energy.
Additionally the mass of the system (the mechanism as well as the mass we are measuring) can
store energy – kinetic energy.
The second-order system is the lowest-order system capable of an oscillatory response to a step
input. Typical examples are the spring-mass-damper system and the electronic RLC circuit.

7. What is meant by time constant?

The time constant is equal to the value of the resistance in ohms multiplied by the value of
capacitance in Farads. The time constant is measured in seconds

8. What is meant by settling time?

Settling time (ts) is the time required for a response to become steady. It is defined as the time
required by the response to reach and steady within specified range of 2 % to 5 % of its final
value.

9. What is meant by dynamic / measurement error?

Dynamic Error is the difference between the measured value of the instrument changing with
time and the value indicated by the instrument if no static error is assumed.

10. What is meant by steady state error?

A steady-state error is defined as the difference between the desired value and the actual
value of a system when the response has reached the steady state. We can calculate the
steady-state error of the system using the final value theorem.

11. Infer the significance of damping ratio.

The system parameter like damping ratio is used to describe how quickly the oscillations
decompose from one bounce to another. The damping ratio symbol is zeta (ζ), that can change
from undamped like ζ = 0, underdamped like ζ < 1, critically damped like ζ = 1 & overdamped like
ζ > 1.

12. What is damping ratio?

The damping ratioζ is an important parameter which decides the nature of oscillation in the
transducer output. Whenζ =0, the second order system is said to be undamped and the system
behaves like an oscillator. Whenζ =1, the second order system is said to be critical damped and
when ζ >1 , the second – order system is said to be over damped.

13. Classify second order system based on damping ratio.

The damping ratioζ is an important parameter which decides the nature of oscillation in the
transducer output. Whenζ =0, the second order system is said to be undamped and the system
behaves like an oscillator. Whenζ =1, the second order system is said to be critical damped and
when ζ >1 , the second – order system is said to be over damped.

14. A thermometer has a time constant of 3.5 s. It is quickly taken from a temperature 0 °C
to a water bath having temperature 100 ° C. Examine the value of temperature that will be
indicated after 1.5sec?

θ = θo [ 1- exp(1-t/τ)]
=100[ 1- exp(1-1.5 /3.5)] = 34.86℃.

15. A thermometer has a time constant of 3.5 s. It is quickly taken from a temperature 0 ° C
to a water bath having temperature 200 ° C. Examine the value of temperature that will be
indicated after 1.5sec?

Same as 14.

PART-B
1. Summarize the desirable static characteristics of a measuring system. (13)
Static characteristics are the set of performance characteristics that describes the quality of
measurement while the measurand are either constant or vary slowly. Simply ,Both input and
output are time invariant.
 Static Characteristics Of A Transducer

1.1 STATIC SENSITIVITY

Static Sensitivity is defined as magnitude of unit change in output per unit change in
measurand.
Static Sensitivity of a transducer can be defined as the slope of the static calibration curve.
CLASSIFICATION OF STATIC SENSITIVITY:

Classification of Static Sensitivity

HIGH AND LOW SENSITIVITY:

Figure 1 Graph of High & Low sensitivity

For example, a blood pressure transducer with 1 mV per mmHg sensitivity shows an output of 80
mV to 80 mmHg pressure.

The transducer has high sensitivity if a small variation in the blood pressure is indicated in its o
utput as a large voltage variation.

On the contrary, the sensitivity is low if a large variation in the input results in a small output
variation.
CONSTANT & VARIABLE SENSITIVITY:

Based on the slope of a calibration curve, sensitivity can be defined as follows

SENSITIVITY DRIFT:

 Also known as scale factor drift/span drift.

 It defines the amount of drift for a unit change in each environmental parameter to which the
instruments are sensitive.
 It is quantified by sensitivity drift coefficients.

Figure 2 Graph of sensitivity drift.

For Example, consider temperature as an input to the pressure gauge.Temperature can alter the
modulus of elasticity of the pressure-gauge spring, thereby affecting the pressure sensitivity. Here, it
is a modifying input. This effect is a sensitivity drift or scale-factor drift.

ZERO DRIFT

 Zero drift is sometimes known by the alternative term, bias.Zero drift or bias describes the effect
where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change in ambient conditions.
 This causes a constant error that exists over the full range of measurement of the instrument.
 Figure 3 Graph of Zero drift

For Example, consider temperature as an input to the pressure gauge. Temperature can cause a
relative expansion and contraction that will result in a change in output reading even though the
pressure has not changed. Here, the temperature is an interfering input. This effect is called a zero
drift.

1.2 LINEARITY

Linearity is the transducer characteristic of providing proportional outputs to distinct inputs. If to an

input Vin1, the output is Vout1, and for Vin2, is Vout2, then to an input (a1Vin1+a2Vin2) the output
will be a1Vout1+a2Vout2; a1 and a2 are constants.

Figure 4 Graph of Zero drift

Linearity error is a measure of the maximum deviation of the plotted transducer response from a
specified straight line. The allowed maximum error of linearity for a transducer is defined by the
values in the Vout versus Vin region delimited(bounded) by linearity drift and zero drift

1.3 ACCURACY

Accuracy is the closeness/extent to which the result of a reading of a transducer approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. Thus, it is a comparison between true and measured values. The
closer to the real value, the smaller the error and more accurate is the measurement.

Figure 5 Accuracy of a measurement

Accuracy can also be indicated as an error percentage value:

Error% = Where,

yt is the true value of the variable,

Ym is the transducer output or the measured value of the variable.

Accuracy can be expressed in the following ways,

Figure 6 Ways to Express Accuracy

POINT ACCURACY:

 This is the accuracy of the instrument only at one point on its scale.
 The specification of this accuracy does not give any information about the accuracy at other
points on the scale.
 In other words, this accuracy does not give any information about the general accuracy of the
instrument.

ACCURACY AS 'PERCENTAGE OF SCALE RANGE’:

When an instrument has uniform scale, its accuracy may be expressed in terms of scale range. For
example, the accuracy of a thermometer having a range of 500 °C may be expressed as ±0.5 percent of
scale range. This, means that the accuracy of the thermometer when the reading is 500°C is ±O.5
percent.

ACCURACY AS 'PERCENTAGE OF TRUE VALUE’:

This type of accuracy of the instruments is determined by identifying the measured value regarding
their true value.The accuracy of the instruments is neglected up to ±0.5 percent from the true value.

1.4 PRECISION:

 The term precision means two or more values of the measurements are closed to each other. The
value of precision differs because of the observational error.
 The precision is used for finding the consistency or reproducibility of the measurement.
 The conformity and the number of significant figures are the characteristics of the precision.
 The high precision means the result of the measurements are consistent or the repeated values of
the reading are obtained.
 The low precision means the value of the measurement varies.
 Figure 2.8 Ways to Express Accuracy

The high precision means the result of the measurements are consistent or the repeated values of the
reading are obtained. The low precision means the value of the measurement varies.

Example – Consider the 100V, 101V, 102V, 103V and 105V are the different readings of the voltages
taken by the voltmeter. The readings are nearly close to each other. They are not exactly same
because of the error. But as the readings are close to each other then we say that the readings are
precise.

Figure 2.9 Accuracy and Precision

SIGNIFICANT FIGURE:

 A Significant Figure is a number or digit, which tells how accurate and precise our measurement
is. (or) The term “significant figures” refers to the number of important single digits (0 to 9
inclusive) in the coefficient of expression in the scientific notation.
 The more the significant figures, the greater the precision of measurement.

EXAMPLES OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

For example, if a voltage is specified as 230 V its value should be taken as closer to 230 V than to
either 231 V or 229 V.

If the value of voltage is specified as 230.0 V, it means that the voltage is closer to 230.0 V than it is to
230.1 V or 229.9 V.

In 230 there are three significant figures while in 230.0 V there are four.

BASIC LAWS OF SIGNIFICANT FIGURES:

All non zero digits are significant. For example, in 2345 cm there are four significant figures and in
0.234 there are three significant figures. If any zero precedes the non-zero digit then it is not
significant. The preceding zero indicates the location of the decimal point, in 0.005 there is only one
and the number 0.00232 has 3 figures. Zeroes between non zero digits are significant.

For Example, 4.5006 have five significant figures.

A trailing zero or final zero in the decimal portion only are significant. For Example, 0.500 has three
significant figures & 86.00 has four significant figures.

INFINITE FIGURES:

Counting the number of objects for example 5 Cars 10 bikes have infinite figures as these are inexact
numbers.

1.5 STABILITY

Stability deals with the degree to which transducer characteristics remain constant over time. Zero
stability defines the ability of an instrument restore to zero reading after the input quantity has been
brought to zero, while other conditions remain the same.

1.6 HYSTERESIS

Transducer output has hysteresis if the relation between the output value and the input variable
depends on their previous state. Hysteresis is a phenomenon which depicts different output effects
when loading and unloading ·whether it is a mechanical system or an electrical system. Hysteresis is
non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves. In other words, if the input is monotonically
incremented and then decremented, the output values do not coincide to the same input value in the
upward and downward curves.

For example, the electric energy applied as AC current to the primary coil of an inductive
displacement transducer is stored as magnetic energy and dissipated as heat.

Figure 2.10 Hysteresis Figure 2.11 Hysteresis Effects

1.7 THRESHOLD

 The threshold is the minimum value of the input below which no output is detected.
 It defines the smallest measurable input, starting from rest.
 This phenomenon is due to input hysteresis.

For Example, In mechanical instruments, the first noticeable measurable change may not occur on
account of backlash.
 Figure 2.12 Threshold of an instrument

In the figure which shows a gear train, the driven gear will not move i.e. there will be no noticeable
change in the movement of the driven gear unless the driving gear moves through a distance x which
is the backlash between the gears.

DEAD TIME

Dead time is defined as the time required by a measurement system to begin to respond to a change in
the measurand.

It is basically the time before the instrument begins to respond after the measurand has been
changed.

Figure 2.13 Graph of Dead Time

DEAD ZONE :

Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument. It is basically range of input value for which output is zero. Dead zone is also known as
Dead band or dead space or neutral zone.

For example, If the input applied to the instrument is insufficient to overcome the friction, it will not
move at all. It will only move when the input is such that it produces a driving force which can
overcome friction forces.
 Figure 2.14 Graph of Dead Zone

1.8 RESOLUTION

 When the input to a transducer is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) value, the
change in output is not detected at all until a certain input increment is exceeded. The increment
is called resolution or discrimination of the instrument.
 Thus the smallest increment in input (the quantity being measured) which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument is its resolution or discrimination.
 The resolution of digital instruments is decided by the number of digit used for display.

For example, the resolution of a four-digit voltmeter with a range of 999.9 volts is 0.1 volt. Whereas
for a five-digit voltmeter of the same range, the resolution would be 0.01 volt.

Figure 2.15 Threshold & Resolution of an Instrument

From the figure, It is clear that Resolution defines the smallest measurable input change. The
threshold defines the smallest measurable input.

1.9 RANGE & SPAN

 The range of the transducer is specified as from the low value of input to the high value of input. It
is defined as the largest reading that an instrument can read.
 The span of the transducer is specified as the difference between the high and the low limits of the
input values.
 Let us consider an instrument that can take reading to the largest value of Y units. It can take
 smallest of X units,

Range of Instrument: Y units or ( X-Y range)

Span of Instrument: (Y – X) units

For Example, When an ammeter is specified to be used between 0 and 100 mA, Its Range is 0 to 100
mA & Its span is 100 mA (i.e. 100 mA - 0 mA=100 mA). If a temperature transducer is recommended
to be used between 1000 °C and 500°C, Its range is specified as 1000 °C to 500°C & Its span is 400°C
(i.e. 500°C - 100°C = 400°C).

1.10 INPUT IMPEDANCE AND LOADING EFFECT

LOADING EFFECT :

A transducer used for any measurement normally extracts some energy from the measuring medium
and thereby disturbs the value of the measured quantity. This property is known as the loading effect
of the transducer. The loading effect is usually expressed in terms of input impedance and stiffness.

IDEAL TRANSDUCER:

An ideal transducer is one which does not absorb any energy and hence does not disturb the
prevailing state of the measured quantity.

INPUT IMPEDANCE :

The magnitude of the impedance of element connected across the signal source is called "Input
Impedance“. For Example :The input impedance of a voltmeter is nothing but the input impedance of
the deflection coil plus any resistance connected in series. When the input impedance is high, it draws
less current from the circuit

The definition of input impedance and stiffness is comprised of two terms called The flow variable
(or) across variable, The effort Variable (or) through variable

Input impedance = Flow variable/ Effort Variable.

Consider a Voltmeter connected across two nodes in an electrical circuit.

Figure 2.16 Input Impedance of a Voltmeter

The current drawn by the voltmeter im is the flow variable &

The voltage across the meter em is the effort variable.

Input Impedance, Zm = em / im

Power extracted from the device, P=

From the equation, It is clear that a low input impedance device connected across the voltage signal
source draws more current and drains more power from signal source than a high input impedance
device.

INPUT ADMITTANCE:

When the signal is of the form of current then series input devices, are used. Consider an ammeter
connected between source and load.

From the above equations, it is clear that if the input admittance of the device is high, then the power
drawn from the current signal source is small in case of series elements (i.e.) input impedance is low.
Therefore, the loading effects are small when their input admittance is large.

STATIC STIFFNESS:

In case of Mechanical System, Input Impedance and Admittance are not used. Hence the concept of
stiffness is introduced.
 Figure 2.18 Stiffness Of A Spring Scale

Here a force measuring instrument called spring scale is considered. Force is effort variable and
velocity is the flow variable.

S= effort variable/(flow variable)dt

S= force/velocity * dt

S= force/displacement

Here if we calculate mechanical impedance of the instrument, it becomes infinity as velocity of motion
becomes zero at steady state. So, we calculate Static stiffness.
Explain the dynamic characteristics of a measuring system. (6)
 Measurement Systems especially in industrial, aerospace and Biological applications are subject
to inputs which are not static but dynamic in nature i.e. the inputs vary with time and also the
output vary with time.
 The Dynamic characteristics of any measurement system described by,

Figure :1 Dynamic Characteristics

SPEED OF RESPONSE:

It is defined as the rapidity with which an instrument or measurement system responds to changes
in measured quantity.

RESPONSE TIME:

Time elapsed between an input is applied and the time in which the system gives an output
corresponding to some specified percentage.

Example : 95%, of its final value

MEASURING LAG:

An instrument does not immediately react a change in output. Measuring Lag is defined as the delay
in the response of an instrument to a change in a Measuring quantity.

Two types of Measuring Lag:

Retardation type: In this case the response of the instrument begins immediately after a change in
the measured has occurred.

Time Delay type: In this case the response of the system begins after a “Dead Time” that means
after the application of the input.

FIDELITY:

Fidelity of a measurement system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the output in
the same variation of the input. In Fidelity measurement system , there is no time lag or Phase shift
between the input and output.
2. Derive the transfer function of a first order system. (7)
3. Develop the operational transfer function of a zero order system
with an example. (7)
5. Explain the different types of standard inputs for studying the dynamic response of a system and sketch
them. (6)

TEST INPUTS:

The transducers are normally subjected to inputs of random nature. The following test inputs are
applied to the transducer to determine its dynamic behaviour,
 Table:1 Test Inputs to determine the dynamic behaviour of a Transducer

4. i. Examine the response of a zero order instrument for impulse input.

(5)
ii. Examine the response of a first order instrument for step input. (8)
6. i. Develop the operational transfer function of a second-order
instrument. (6)
ii. Examine the response of a undamped second-order instrument
system for impulse input. (7)
ii. Analyze the response of an underdamped second-order instrument
system for impulse input. (7)
5. Analyze the response of an under damped second-order
instrument system for step input. (13)
8.Analyze the response of an undamped second-order instrument
system for step input. (6)
ii. Examine the response of a critically damped second-order
instrument system for step input. (7)
9. i. Examine the response of a undamped second-order instrument
system for ramp input. (7)
ii. Examine the response of a critically damped second-order
instrument system for ramp input. (8)
10. Analyze the response of an underdamped second-order
instrument system for ramp input. (15)
11. A temperature sensing transducer with a time constant of 6 Sec
subjected to the step input of 1500C to 250C. What temperature will
be indicated in 10 sec after the process has started?