BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

K. R. Road, V. V. Pura, Bangalore – 560004

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VII SEMESTER
Optical Communication (18TE71) -Module 3-Part-3
Optical Sources, Detectors and receiver
SEPTEMBER-DECEMBER-2022
Faculty: Prof. Sudha. B, Dept of ETE, BIT
COURSE:OPTICAL COMMUNICATION SUB CODE:
18TE71
SEMESTER: VII CIE MARKS: 40

TOTAL NO. OF LECTURE HOURS: 3 HOURS + 2 HOURS SEE MARKS: 60

TUTORIAL
 BANGALORE INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VISION
To establish and develop the Institute as a center of higher learning, ever abreast with expanding
horizon of knowledge in the field of engineering and technology, with entrepreneurial thinking,
leadership excellence for life-long success and solve societal problem.
MISSION
1. Provide high quality education in the engineering disciplines from the undergraduate through
doctoral levels with creative academic and professional programs.
2. Develop the Institute as a leader in Science, Engineering, Technology and management,
Research and apply knowledge for the benefit of society.
3. Establish mutual beneficial partnerships with industry, alumni, local, state and central
governments by public service assistance and collaborative research.
4. Inculcate personality development through sports, cultural and extracurricular activities and
engage in the social, economic and professional challenges.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

VISION
Empower every student to be creative and productive in the field of
Telecommunication Engineering, by imparting excellent Technical Education and
inculcating Human Values
MISSION
M1. To make our Students acquaint with the Global requirements such as Problem
Solving Skills, Cultural Sensitivity, Ethical behavior and Social Responsibility.
M2. To motivate our Students to pursue Higher Education and engage in continuous
upgradation of their Professional Skills.
M3. To encourage students to develop Communication Skills, Professional Values and
Positive Attitude that in turn leads to fostering Leadership Qualities.
 Program specific Outcomes(PSO)
• PSO1: Specify, design, build and test analog, digital
and embedded systems for signal processing

• PSO2: Understand and architect wired and wireless

analog and digital telecommunication systems as
per specifications, and determine their
performance.
 COURSE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
This course will enable the Students to:
• Learn the basic principle of optical fiber communication with
different modes of light propagation.
• Understand the transmission characteristics and losses in
optical fiber.
• Study of optical components and its applications in optical
communication networks.
• Learn the network standards in optical fiber and understand
the network architectures along with its functionalities.
 COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course the students will be able to:
1. Understand the working of optical fiber with different modes of signal propagation.
2. Explain the transmission characteristics and Estimate losses in optical fiber
communication.
3. Outline the constructional features and the characteristics of optical sources and
detectors.
4. Classify the construction and working principle of optical connectors, multiplexers and
amplifiers.
5. Illustrate the networking aspects of optical fiber and describe various standards
associated with it.
6. Make use of Modern Simulation tools to Estimate the Optical fiber losses and
Demonstrate communication skills / ability to work as a team.
 Syllabus-Module -1

• Optical fiber Communications: Historical development, The general

system, Advantages of optical fiber communication
• Optical fiber waveguides: Ray theory transmission, Modes in planar
guide, Phase and group velocity,
• Cylindrical fiber: Modes, Step index fibers, Graded index fibers,
Single mode fibers, Cutoff wavelength, Mode field diameter, effective
refractive index. Fiber Materials, Photonic crystal fibers. (Text 2)
 Module -2

• Transmission characteristics of optical fiber: Attenuation, Material

absorption losses, Linear scattering losses, Nonlinear scattering losses,
Fiber bend loss, Dispersion, Chromatic dispersion.
• Intermodal dispersion: Multimode step index fiber.
• Optical Fiber Connectors: Fiber alignment and joint loss, Fiber splices,
Fiber connectors, Fiber couplers. (Text 2)
 Module – 3
• Optical sources: Energy Bands, Direct and Indirect Band gaps, Light
Emitting diodes: LED Structures, Light Source Materials, Quantum
Efficiency and LED Power, Modulation.

Laser Diodes: Modes and Threshold conditions, Rate equation, External

Quantum Efficiency, Resonant frequencies, Laser Diode structures and
Radiation Patterns: Single mode lasers.

• Photodetectors: Physical principles of Photodiodes, Photodetector noise,

Detector response time.

• Optical Receiver: Optical Receiver Operation: Error sources, Front End

Amplifiers, Receiver sensitivity, Quantum Limit. (Text 1)
 Module – 4
• WDM Concepts and Components: Overview of WDM: Operational
Principles of WDM, WDM standards, Mach-Zehnder Interferometer
Multiplexers, Isolators and Circulators, Fiber grating filters, Dielectric
Thin-Film Filters, Diffraction Gratings, Active Optical Components,
Tunable light sources.

• Optical amplifiers: Basic application and Types, Semiconductor optical

amplifiers, Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifiers, Raman Amplifiers, Wideband
Optical Amplifiers. (Text 1)
 Module – 5
• Optical Networks: Optical network evolution and concepts: Optical
networking terminology, Optical network node and switching elements,
Wavelength division multiplexed networks, Public telecommunication
network overview.
• Optical network transmission modes, layers and protocols: Synchronous
net works, Asynchronous transfer mode, OSI reference model, Optical
transport network, Internet protocol
• Wavelength routing networks: Routing and wave length assignment, Optical
switching networks: Optical circuit switched net works, packet switched
networks, Multiprotocol Label Switching, Optical burst switching networks.
• Optical network deployment: Long-haul networks, Metropolitan area
networks, Access networks, Local area networks. (Text 2)
 TEXT BOOKS/ REFERENCE BOOK
Text books
1. Gerd Keiser, Optical Fiber Communication, 5th Edition, McGraw Hill Education(India)
Private Limited, 2015. ISBN: 1-25-900687-5
2.John M Senior, Optical Fiber Communications, Principles and Practice, 3rd Edition,
Pearson Education, 2010, ISBN: 978-81-317-3266-3
Reference books:
1. Joseph C Palais, Fiber Optic Communication, Pearson Education, 2005,ISBN
0130085103
Web Reference:
NPTEL: https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117101002
Virtual Labs: https://bop-iitk.vlabs.ac.in/exp/numerical-aperture-measurement/

https://vlab.amrita.edu/index.php?sub=1&brch=189
 OPTICAL RECEIVER OPERATION
An optical receiver consists of a photodetector, an amplifier, and signal-processing circuitry.
• The receiver has the task of first converting the optical energy emerging from the end of a fiber into an
electric signal, and then amplifying this signal to a large enough level so that it can be processed by the
electronics following the receiver amplifier.
• In these processes, various noises and distortions will unavoidably be introduced, which can lead to errors
in the interpretation of the received signal.
• When this electric signal output from the photodiode is amplified, additional noises arising from the
amplifier electronics will further corrupt the signal. Noise considerations are thus important in the design
of optical receivers, since the noise sources operating in the receiver generally set the lowest limit for the
signals that can be processed.
• In designing a receiver, it is desirable to predict its performance based on mathematical models of the
various receiver stages.
• The average error probability is the most meaningful criterion for measuring the performance of a digital
communication system.
In an analog system the fidelity criterion normally is specified in terms of a peak signal-to-rms-noise ratio.
• The calculation of the error probability for a digital optical communication receiver differs from that of
conventional electric systems. This is because of the discrete quantum nature of the photon arrival and
detection processes and the random gain fluctuations when an avalanche photodiode is used.
Fundamental Receiver Operation :
• The design of an optical receiver is much more complicated than that of an optical transmitter because
the receiver must be able to detect weak, distorted signals and make decisions on what type of data was
sent based on an amplified and reshaped version of this distorted signal.
• Optic communication links are intensity-modulated direct-detection (IM-DD) systems that use a binary
on-off keyed (OOK) digital signal.
Digital signal transmission :
Q:Explain the operation of a digital optical receiver with a block diagram showing basic sections.
• Here we can analyse direct-detection receiver performance by using (OOIL) Signal format.
• Fig.(a) shows the signal path through an optical link(digital) with the shape of a digital signal at different
points along the link.
• The transmitted signal is a two-level binary data stream consisting of either a ‘0’ or ‘1’ in a time slot of
duration ‘Tb’ (bit period).
• ASK or OOK signal format is used for sending digital message. In this format, a voltage level is switched
between two values which are usually ‘on’ or ‘off’.
• The resultant signal consists of a pulse of
Amplitude ‘v’- when binary ‘1’ occurs
Zero level – when binary ‘0’ occurs
i.e. when ‘1’ is sent, a voltage pulse of duration ‘Tb’ occurs and whereas for ‘0’ the voltage remains at its
zero level.
• The function of the optical transmitter is to convert the electric signal to an optical signal, one way of
doing this is by directly modulating the light source drive current with the information stream to produce
a varying optical output power P(t). Thus in the optical signal emerging from the LED or laser transmitter,
1 is represented by a pulse of optical power (light) of duration Tb, whereas 0 is the absence of any light.
• The optical signal that is coupled from the light source to the fiber becomes attenuated and distorted as it
propagates along the fiber waveguide. Upon arriving at the end of a fiber, a receiver converts the optical
signal back to an electrical format.
• Fig.(b) : the first element is either a pin or avalanche photodiode which produces electric current that is
proportional to received signal level.
• Since this electric current is very weak, a front end amplifier boosts it to a level that can be used by a
following electronics.
a)Signal path through an optical data link

b)The basic sections of an optical receiver

• After the electric signal is amplified it passes through LPF to reduce the noise, this defines the receiver
bandwidth. In addition to minimize the effects of ISI, it can also be used to reshape pulses that have
distorted as they travel through the fiber. This function is called “equalization”.
• A decision circuit samples the signal level at mid—point of each time slot and compares it with a reference
voltage known as “threshold level”.
• If the received signal level is greater than ‘1’ the signal is said to have been received.
• If it is less than threshold level, then ‘0’ is said to have been received.
• To achieve this a periodic clock waveform is being used, which has periodicity equal to the bit rate. This is
also called as “Clock recovery” or “Timing recovery”.
Q)What are the noise sources and disturbances that are in optical detection mechanism?
Explain.
Q: Briefly discuss the possible sources of noise in optical fiber receiver. (6)
• Errors in the detection mechanism can arise from various noises and disturbances associated with the
signal detection system.
• The noise sources can be external or internal to the system.
• Noise is caused by spontaneous fluctuations of current and voltage in electric circuit.
• Two common examples of spontaneous fluctuations are :
1.Shot noise 2.Thermal noise
 • The random arrival rate of signal photons produces shot noise
at the photodetector. Since this depends on the noise levels
hence it is of great importance in the pin and avalanche
photodiode receivers.
• When using an avalanche photodiode, an additional shot
noise arises from the statistical nature of the multiplication
process. This noise level increases with larger avalanche gain
M.

• Additional photodetector noises come from the dark current and leakage current. These are independent of the
photodiode illumination and can generally be made very small in relation to other noise currents by a judicious choice
of components.
• Since the thermal noises are of a gaussian nature, they can be readily treated by standard techniques. The analysis of
the noises and the resulting error probabilities associated with the primary photocurrent genera tion and the
avalanche multiplication are complicated as neither of these processes is gaussian.
• The primary photocurrent generated by the photodiode is a time-varying Poisson process resulting from the random
arrival of photons at the detector. If the detector is illuminated by an optical signal P(t), then the average number of
electron–hole pairs N generated in a time τ is
• The actual number of electron–hole pairs n that are generated fluctuates from the average according to
the Poisson distribution is

where Pr(n) is the probability that n electrons are excited in an interval τ.

• The random nature of the avalanche multiplication process gives rise to another type of shot noise, which
is approximated by the expression
𝐹 𝑀 ≅ 𝑀𝑥
• A further error source is attributed to inter symbol interference (ISI), which results from pulse spreading in
the optical fiber, when a pulse is transmitted in a given time slot, most of the pulse energy will arrive in
the corresponding time slot at the receiver
• However, because of pulse spreading induced by the fiber,
some of the transmitted energy will progressively spread into
neigh boring time slots as the pulse propagates along the fiber.
The presence of this energy in adjacent time slots results in an
interfering signal, hence the term inter symbol interference.
Front-end Amplifier :

• Q: Explain the different amplifiers used in optical receiver (8)

• Q: Explain the operation of front end amplifier showing pulse

spreading in an optical signal that leads to inter symbol interference
and generic structure of a high impedance amplifier. (6)
Front-end Amplifier :
• In the optical receiver, a low noise front-end amplifier design is required, since noise sources at the front
end of a receiver dominates the sensitivity & bandwidth.
• The design of front end amplifier has to maximize the receiver sensitivity while maintaining a suitable B.W.
• Front end amplifiers used in optical fiber communication systems can be classified into 2 categories:
1.The high impedance 2.Transimpedance
High impedance Front-end(PV) amplifier :
• The generic structure of a high impedance front end amplifier is shown in fig, selection of load resistor RL is
important in the front end amplifier detection.
• The thermal noise is inversely proportional to the load
resistance
4𝑘 𝑇
< 𝑖 𝑇2 >= 𝐵 × 𝐵𝑒
𝑅𝐿
• Thus RL should be as large as possible to minimize the
thermal noise.

• For high impedance amplifier design, a trade-off must be made between noise and receiver bandwidth.
Since the B.W. is inversely proportional to the resistance RP seen by the photodiode.
• Since RP = RL for a high-impedance front end, a high load resistance results in low noise but also gives a
low receiver bandwidth. Although equalizers sometimes can be implemented to increase the
bandwidth, if the bandwidth is much less than the bit rate, then such a front-end amplifier cannot be
used.
Transimpedance amplifier :
• The transimpedance amplifier designlargely overcomes the
drawbacks of the high impedance amplifier.
• In this case, RL is used as a negative feedback resistor around
an inverting amplifier. Now RL can be large since the negative
feedback reduces the effective resistance seen by the
photodiode by a factor of G, so that RP = RL/(G + 1), where G
is the gain of the amplifier.
• This means that compared to the high-impedance design the
transimpedance bandwidth increases by a factor of G + 1 for
the same load resistance.
• Amplifier noise figure Fn is defined as the ratio of the input
SNR to the output SNR of the amplifier. Typical values of the
amplifier noise figure range from 3 to 5 dB (a factor of 2 to 3).
 Q: Explain the receiver sensitivity with relevant expressions. (5)
Receiver sensitivity :
• Optical communication systems use a BER value to specify the performance requirements for a particular
transmission link application.
• Bit error rate : there are several forms of measuring the rate of error occurances in the digital data stream
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟𝑠 𝑜𝑐𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑎 𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 ′𝑡′
BER=
𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑠 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙
𝑁 𝑁
BER= 𝑒 = 𝑒
𝑁𝑏 𝐵.𝑡
Where B=1ൗ𝑇𝑏 is the bit rate
• This error rate depends on the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver (the ratio of signal power to noise
power). To achieve a desired BER at a given data rate, a specific minimum average optical power level must
arrive at the photodetector. The value of this minimum power level is called the receiver sensitivity.
• A common method of defining the receiver sensitivity is as an average optical power (Pave) in dBm incident
on the photodetector. Alternatively it may be defined as an optical modulation amplitude (OMA) given in
terms of a peak-to-peak current at the photodetector output.
• Receiver sensitivity gives a measure of the minimum power or OMA needed to maintain a maximum BER
at a specified data rate.
• The factor “Q” is widely used to specify receiver performance since it is related to the S/N ratio required to
achieve a specific bit error rate.
 ν𝑡ℎ −𝑏𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑛 −ν𝑡ℎ
The “Q” parameter = +
σ𝑜𝑓𝑓 σ𝑜𝑛
𝑏𝑜𝑛 −𝑏𝑜𝑓𝑓
Q=
σ𝑜𝑛 +σ𝑜𝑓𝑓

Expressing Q in terms of signal currents from 1&0 pulses(I1 & I0, respectively) and their corresponding noise
variations (σ1 & σ0) and assuming there is no optical power in a zero pulse.
• The receiver sensitivity Psensitivity is found from the average power contained in a bit period for the specified
data rate as
𝑃 𝐼 𝑄(σ1 +σ0 )
Psensitivity= 1 = 1 = …….(1), where R is the unity-gain responsivity and M is the gain of the
2 2𝑅𝑀 2𝑅𝑀
photodiode.

• If there is no optical amplifier in a fiber transmission link, then

thermal noise and shot noise are the dominant noise effects in
the receiver.
• The thermal noise is independent of the incoming optical
signal power, but the shot noise depends on the received
power.
• Assuming there is no optical power in a received zero pulse, the noise variances for 0 and 1 pulses,
respectively, are

…..(2)

• Using the condition from (1) the shot noise variance for a 1 pulse is
σ2𝑠ℎ𝑜𝑡 = 2𝑞𝑅𝑃1 𝑀2 𝐹 𝑀 𝐵𝑒 = 4𝑞𝑅𝑀2 𝐹 𝑀 𝐵/2
…..(3)
• where F(M) is the photodiode noise figure and the electrical bandwidth Be of the receiver is assumed to
be half the bit rate B (i.e., Be = B/2), the thermal noise current variance is

…..(4)

• Substituting and and solving for Psensitivity then gives

…..(5)
The Quantum Limit :
• In designing an optical system, it is useful to know what the fundamental physical bounds are on the
system performance. Let us see what this bound is for the photodetection process.
• Given this condition, it is possible to find the minimum received optical power required for a specific bit-
error rate performance in a digital system.
• This minimum received power level is known as the quantum limit, since all system parameters are
assumed ideal and the performance is limited only by the photodetection statistics.
• Assume that an optical pulse of energy E falls on the
photodetector in a time interval τ. This can only be
interpreted by the receiver as a 0 pulse if no electron–
hole pairs are generated with the pulse present.
• From Eq. (4) the probability that n = 0 electrons are
excited in a time interval t is

• In practice, the sensitivity of most receivers is around 20

dB higher than the quantum limit because of various
nonlinear distortions and noise effects in the
transmission link.