DATA ORGANIZATION AND DATA PRESENTATION

DATA PRESENTATION

TABULAR METHOD

GRAPHICAL METHOD

TEXTUAL METHOD

ORGANIZING DATA
When conducting a statistical study, the researcher must gather data for the particular variable under
study. For example, if a researcher wishes to study the number of people who were bitten by
poisonous snakes in a specific geographic area over the past several years, he or she has to gather
the data from various doctors, hospitals, or health departments. To describe situations, draw
conclusions, or make inferences about events, the researcher must organize the data in some
meaningful way. The most convenient method of organizing data is to construct a frequency
distribution. After organizing the data, the researcher must present them so they can be under stood
by those who will benefit from reading the study. The most useful method of presenting the data is by
constructing statistical charts and graphs. There are many different types of charts and graphs, and
each one has a specific purpose.

Suppose a researcher wished to do a study on the ages of the top 50 wealthiest people in the world.
The researcher first would have to get the data on the ages of the people. In this case, these ages
are listed in Forbes Magazine. When the data are in original form, they are called raw data and are
listed next.

Since little information can be obtained from looking at raw data, the researcher organizes the data
into what is called a frequency distribution. A frequency distribution consists of classes and their
corresponding frequencies. Each raw data value is placed into a quantitative or qualitative category
called a class. The frequency of a class then is the number of data values contained in a specific
class. A frequency distribution is shown for the preceding data set.
Now some general observations can be made from looking at the frequency distribution. For
example, it can be stated that the majority of the wealthy people in the study are over 55 years old.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

A frequency distribution is the organization of raw data in table form, using classes and frequencies.
The classes in this distribution are 35–41, 42–48, etc. These values are called class limits. The data
values 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41 can be tallied in the first class; 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48 in the
second class; and so on.
Two types of frequency distributions that are most often used are the categorical frequency
distribution and the grouped frequency distribution. The procedures for constructing these
distributions are shown now.
1. Categorical Frequency Distributions
The categorical frequency distribution is used for data that can be placed in specific categories, such
as nominal- or ordinal-level data. For example, data such as political affiliation, religious affiliation, or
major field of study would use categorical frequency distributions.
 2. Grouped Frequency Distributions
When the range of the data is large, the data must be grouped into classes that are more than one
unit in width, in what is called a grouped frequency distribution. For example, a distribution of the
number of hours that boat batteries lasted is the following

The procedure for constructing the preceding frequency distribution is given in Example 2–2;
however, several things should be noted. In this distribution, the values 24 and 30 of the first class
are called class limits. The lower-class limit is 24; it represents the smallest data value that can be
included in the class. The upper-class limit is 30; it represents the largest data value that can be
included in the class. The numbers in the second column are called class boundaries. These
numbers are used to separate the classes so that there are no gaps in the frequency distribution. The
gaps are due to the limits; for example, there is a gap between 30 and 31. Students sometimes have
difficulty finding class boundaries when given the class limits. The basic rule of thumb is that the class
limits should have the same decimal place value as the data, but the class boundaries should have
one additional place value and end in a 5. For example, if the values in the data set are whole
numbers, such as 24, 32, and 18, the limits for a class might be 31–37, and the boundaries are 30.5–
37.5. Find the boundaries by subtracting 0.5 from 31 (the lower-class limit) and adding 0.5 to 37 (the
upper-class limit).

If the data are in tenths, such as 6.2, 7.8, and 12.6, the limits for a class hypothetically might be 7.8–
8.8, and the boundaries for that class would be 7.75–8.85. Find these values by subtracting 0.05 from
7.8 and adding 0.05 to 8.8. Finally, the class width for a class in a frequency distribution is found by
subtracting the lower (or upper) class limit of one class from the lower (or upper) class limit of the next
class. For example, the class width in the preceding distribution on the duration of boat batteries is 7,
found from 31 - 24 = 7.
The steps for constructing a grouped frequency distribution are summarized in the following
Procedure Table.

When you are constructing a frequency distribution, the guidelines presented in this section should be
followed. However, you can construct several different but correct frequency distributions for the
same data by using a different class width, a different number of classes, or a different starting point.
Furthermore, the method shown here for constructing a frequency distribution is not unique, and there
are other ways of constructing one. Slight variations exist, especially in computer packages. But
regardless of what methods are used, classes should be mutually exclusive, continuous, exhaustive,
and of equal width. In summary, the different types of frequency distributions were shown in this
section. The first type, shown in Example 2–1, is used when the data are categorical (nominal), such
as blood type or political affiliation. This type is called a categorical frequency distribution. The second
type of distribution is used when the range is large and classes several units in width are needed.
This type is called a grouped frequency distribution and is shown in Example 2–2. Another type of
distribution is used for numerical data and when the range of data is small, as shown in Example 2–3.
Since each class is only one unit, this distribution is called an ungrouped frequency distribution. All
the different types of distributions are used in statistics and are helpful when one is organizing and
presenting data. The reasons for constructing a frequency distribution are as follows: 1. To organize
the data in a meaningful, intelligible way. 2. To enable the reader to determine the nature or shape of
the distribution. 3. To facilitate computational procedures for measures of average and spread (shown
in Sections 3–1 and 3–2). 4. To enable the researcher to draw charts and graphs for the presentation
of data (shown in Section 2–2). 5. To enable the reader to make comparisons among different data
sets. The factors used to analyze a frequency distribution are essentially the same as those used to
analyze histograms and frequency polygons
HISTOGRAMS, FREQUENCY POLYGONS, AND OGIVES
After you have organized the data into a frequency distribution, you can present them in graphical
form. The purpose of graphs in statistics is to convey the data to the viewers in pictorial form. It is
easier for most people to comprehend the meaning of data pre sented graphically than data
presented numerically in tables or frequency distributions. This is especially true if the users have
little or no statistical knowledge. Statistical graphs can be used to describe the data set or to analyze
it. Graphs are also useful in getting the audience’s attention in a publication or a speaking
presentation. They can be used to discuss an issue, reinforce a critical point, or summarize a data
set. They can also be used to discover a trend or pattern in a situation over a period of time. The
three most commonly used graphs in research are 1. The histogram. 2. The frequency polygon. 3.
The cumulative frequency graph, or ogive (pronounced o-jive)
1. THE HISTOGRAM
Karl Pearson introduced the histogram in 1891. He used it to show time concepts of various reigns of
Prime Ministers.
The histogram is a graph that displays the data by using contiguous vertical bars (unless the
frequency of a class is 0) of various heights to represent the frequencies of the classes.
Graphs originated when ancient astronomers drew the position of the stars in the heavens. Roman
surveyors also used coordinates to locate landmarks on their maps. The development of statistical
graphs can be traced to William Playfair (1748–1819), an engineer and drafter who used graphs to
present economic data pictorially.

2. THE FREQUENCY POLYGON

The frequency polygon is a graph that displays the data by using lines that connect points plotted for
the frequencies at the midpoints of the classes. The frequencies are represented by the heights of the
points.
 3. THE OGIVE
The third type of graph that can be used represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes. This
type of graph is called the cumulative frequency graph, or ogive. The cumulative frequency is the sum
of the frequencies accumulated up to the upper bound ary of a class in the distribution. The ogive is
a graph that represents the cumulative frequencies for the classes in a frequency distribution.
The steps for drawing these three types of graphs are shown in the following Procedure Table.

OTHER TYPES OF GRAPHS

Other Types of Graphs In addition to the histogram, the frequency polygon, and the ogive, several
other types of graphs are often used in statistics. They are the bar graph, Pareto chart, time series
graph, and pie graph.
 1. PARETO CHARTS
A Pareto chart is used to represent a frequency distribution for a categorical variable, and the
frequencies are displayed by the heights of vertical bars, which are arranged in order from highest to
lowest.
Vilfredo Pareto (1848–1923) was an Italian scholar who developed theories in economics, statistics,
and the social sciences. His contributions to statistics include the development of a mathematical
function used in economics. This function has many statistical applications and is called the Pareto
distribution. In addition, he researched income distribution, and his findings became known as
Pareto’s law.

2. TIME SERIES GRAPHS

When data are collected over a period of time, they can be represented by a time series graph. A
time series graph represents data that occur over a specific period of time.
Time series graphs are over 1000 years old. The first ones were used to chart the movements of the
planets and the sun.
3. PICTOGRAPH
4. PIE CHARTS
Pie graphs are used extensively in statistics. The purpose of the pie graph is to show the relationship
of the parts to the whole by visually comparing the sizes of the sections. Percentages or proportions
can be used. The variable is nominal or categorical. A pie graph is a circle that is divided into sections
or wedges according to the percentage of frequencies in each category of the distribution.
5. STEM-LEAF PLOT
The stem and leaf plot is a method of organizing data and is a combination of sorting and graphing. It
has the advantage over a grouped frequency distribution of retaining the actual data while showing
them in graphical form. A stem and leaf plot is a data plot that uses part of the data value as the stem
and part of the data value as the leaf to form groups or classes.
6. BOX PLOT
7. PAIRED DATA AND SCATTER PLOTS