Source: Advexon, Phys.

org

M. BALATERO, H. CUBIO, M. EGOT, J.J. LADOR, C. MONTALBAN,

F. SANICO, K. SENADOS, R. SOLIDUM, V. SUAREZ, L.G. TABAR
 FLUID MECHANICS
7
We are surrounded by fluids in our
day by day activities such as the air we
breathe, the water we drink and the gases
that made up the atmosphere. A fluid is a
substance that flows with the influence of
external forces and gains shape through the
separation of its molecules cause by the
weak intermolecular forces around them.

A fluid can either be a liquid or a gas that

continuously change in shape when subjected to
shear stress. (source: diamond sky images)

7.1 Mass Density and Specific gravity

The behavior of a fluid can be observed by its mass density which is defined as the
mass per unit volume. And it is denoted by the Greek letter rho (𝜌) and in equation form,
𝑚
𝜌= (7-1)
𝑉
where m is the mass and V is the volume of the substance.

The SI unit for density is kilogram per cubic meter (1 kg/m3).

The variation in the density of the material depends on the temperature and pressure within its
surroundings. Also, the density of material varies at different points within the material. But
objects having the same materials have the same density even if they are not equal in mass and
volume because the ratio of mass to volume is the same for objects having the same material.

Note: Some of the densities of some common substances at an ordinary temperature is listed the Appendix.

A gaseous material has a smaller value of density compared with liquid and solid materials. This
is because the gas molecules are very much far apart while solid and liquid molecules are tightly
packed.

Specific Gravity of a material is the ratio of its density to the density of water at 4 0C, 1000 kg/m3.

𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (7-2)
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4℃
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = (7-3)
1.000 × 103 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

157
Sample Problems

1. Gil was tasked to bring a cylindrical iron rod of length 90.01 cm and diameter of 3.25 cm
from a storage room to a machinist. In transferring the rod will Gil be needing a cart?

Solution

To find the weight of the iron rod we will be using the equation 𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 but before that we
will solve first for the volume of the iron rod using the following equations,

𝑉 = (𝜋𝑅2 )𝐿
𝑉 = [𝜋(𝑑 ⁄2)2 ]𝐿
𝑉 = [𝜋(0.0325 𝑚⁄2)2 ]0.9001 𝑚
𝑉 = 7.47 × 10−4 𝑚3

and then solve for the mass (𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 7,870 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3)

𝑘𝑔
𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = (7,870 𝑚3) ( 7.47 × 10−4 𝑚3 ) = 5.88 𝑘𝑔

Now we solve for the weight of the cylinder

𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔
𝑤 = (5.88 𝑘𝑔) (9.8𝑚/𝑠 2 )
𝒘 = 𝟓𝟕. 𝟔𝟐 𝑵
Therefore, Gil does not need a cart to transfer the rod from the storage room to the
machinist because its weight is not that heavy (12.96 lbs).

2. A cube 6.5 cm on each side is made of a metal alloy. After you drill a cylindrical hole 2.5 cm
in diameter all the way through and perpendicular to one face, you find that the cube
weighs 9.0 N. What is the density of the metal.

Solution

To find the density of the material first we have to find its V (volume), m (mass) and convert
the values from cm to m,

𝑉 = 𝐿3 − 𝜋𝑟 2 𝐿 = (0.065 𝑚)3 − 𝜋(0.025 𝑚⁄2)2 (0.065 𝑚) = 2.43 × 10−4 𝑚3

Then we will solve for m,

𝑤 9.0 𝑁
𝑤 = 𝑚𝑔 𝑚= = = 0.92 𝑘𝑔
𝑔 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2
Having the values for volume and mass we can now solve for the density of the material
using equation 7-1,
𝑚 0.92 𝑘𝑔
𝜌= = = 𝟑. 𝟕𝟖𝟔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝒌𝒈/𝒎𝟑
𝑉 2.43×10−4 𝑚 3

7.2 Pressure in a fluid

A fluid at rest exerts a force perpendicular to any surface in contact with it. This force is
due to the motion of the molecules which collides with the surroundings.

158
We define then pressure p at that point as the normal force per unit area. In equation form it is
given as,

𝑑𝐹⊥
𝑝= (7-4)
𝑑𝐴
If the pressure is the same at all points of a finite plane surface with area A then from equation
7.4 we have now,

𝐹⊥
𝑝= (7-5)
𝐴
The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal, where

1 Pascal = 1 Pa = 1 N/m2

Atmospheric pressure (𝑝𝑎 ) is the pressure of the earth’s atmosphere. Normal atmospheric
pressure at sea level (an average value) is 1 atmosphere (atm). It varies with weather changes
and at different elevations.

(pa)av = 1 atm = 1.013 x 105 Pa = 1.013 bar = 1013 millibar = 14.70 lb/in2

We can derive a general equation between pressure at different

elevation assuming the fluid is in equilibrium. A fluid is in equilibrium
when the net force acting on the fluid is equal to zero. If there are no
external forces acting on the fluid in equilibrium the pressure must be
constant because a pressure difference may cause the fluid to move. Let
us say we have a fluid element of area A, thickness dh and mass dm
which is illustrated in figure 7.1. We then have the equation,

𝑑𝑝
= 𝜌𝑔 (7-6)
𝑑ℎ

Figure 7.1: A fluid in

Equation 7-6 shows us that the variations in pressure with the depth ℎ.
equilibrium

Pressure increases linearly with depth, so pressure at a point in a fluid is,

𝑝1 − 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) (7-7)

Alternatively equation 7-7 can also be written as,

𝑝 = 𝑝0 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ (7-8)

where 𝑝 - is the pressure at any point in the fluid.

𝑝𝑜 - is the pressure at the surface of the fluid.

Gauge Pressure is the excess pressure above the atmospheric pressure and absolute
pressure is the total pressure in an object.

Pascal’s Law: Pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted undiminished to every portion
of the fluid and the walls of the containing vessel.

The Pascal’s law can be re-written in equation form as,

𝐹1 𝐹2 𝐴2
𝑝= = , 𝐹2 = 𝐹 (7-9)
𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴1 1

159
Sample Problems

1. A hydraulic lift is supporting a van of mass 1,000 kg. If the cross – sectional area of the
smaller chamber is 2 m2 and that of the bigger chamber is 6 m2, what force can be applied on
top of the movable piston on the smaller chamber to support the van at the bigger chamber?

Solution

To find the F1 we will use equation 7-9,

𝐴2
𝐹2 = 𝐹
𝐴1 1

Thus we have,

𝐴1 (9800 𝑁 )(2𝑚2 )
𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = = 𝟑, 𝟐𝟔𝟔. 𝟔𝟕𝑵
𝐴2 (6𝑚2 )

7.3 Buoyancy

Archimedes’ Principle: When a body is completely submerged or partially immersed in a fluid,

the fluid exerts an upward force (“the buoyant force”) on the body equal
to the weight of the fluid displaced by the body.

Archimedes’ Principle can be re-written in equation form as,

𝐹𝐵 = 𝑤𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑉𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑔 (7-10)

Sample Problem

A slab of ice floats on a freshwater lake. What minimum volume must the slab have for a 45.0-
kg woman to be able to stand on it without getting her feet wet?

Solution

To find the Vice we will apply Newton’s Law of Motion

using the FBD diagram to find the components along
the y – axis,
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦
𝐵 − 𝑚𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑔 = 0
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑔 = (45.0 𝑘𝑔 + 𝑚𝑖𝑐𝑒 )𝑔

Thus we have,

45.0 𝑘𝑔 45.0 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝑖𝑐𝑒 = = = 𝟎. 𝟓𝟔𝟐 𝒎𝟑
𝜌𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝜌𝑖𝑐𝑒 1000 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 − 920 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

7.4 Fluid Flow

We are now considering fluids in motion by representing it as a simple idealized model.

An ideal fluid is a fluid that is incompressible and has no internal friction. Internal friction in a
fluid causes shear stresses as when fluid flows inside a tube or around an obstacle.

160
The path of an individual particle in a moving fluid is called a flow line. If the overall flow
pattern does not change with time, the flow is called steady flow. When the fluid undergoes a
steady flow it means that the element passing through a given point follow the same flow line.

A streamline line is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the fluid velocity
at that point.

Laminar flow occurs when adjacent layers of fluid slide smoothly past each other and the flow
is steady.

Turbulent flow occurs when the flow pattern is continuously changing.

The Continuity Equation

𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2 (7-11)
(continuity equation, incompressible liquid)

Sample Problem

A shower head has 20 circular openings, each with radius 1.0 mm. The shower head is
connected to a pipe with radius 0.80 cm. If the speed of water in the pipe is 3.0 m/s. what is its
speed as it exits the shower-head openings?

Solution

To find the speed we will use equation 7 -11,

𝐴1
𝑣2 = 𝑣1 ( )
𝐴2
𝑚 𝜋(0.80) 2
𝑣2 = (3.0 ) ( ) = 𝟗. 𝟔 𝒎/𝒔
𝑠 20𝜋(0.10)2

7.5 Bernoulli’s Equation

According to the continuity equation, the speed of fluid flow can vary along the paths of
the fluid. The pressure can also vary; it depends on height as in the static situation and it also
depends on the speed of flow.

We can derive an important relationship called Bernoulli’s equation that relates the pressure,
flow speed, and height for flow of an ideal incompressible fluid given by,
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 (7-12)
2 2

Sample Problems

An airplane is cruising at an altitude of 10 km. The pressure outside the craft is 0.287 at within
the passenger compartment the pressure is 1.00 atm and the temperature is 20°C. A small leak
occurs in one of the window seals in the passenger compartment. Model the air as an ideal fluid
to find the speed of the stream of air flowing through the leak.
Solution

To find the speed of the stream of air flowing through the leak we will use equation 7-12,
then we have,

161
 1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
2 2
1
1.00 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + 0 + 0 = 0.287 𝑎𝑡𝑚 + (1.2 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3 )𝑣22 + 0
2
2(1.00𝑎𝑡𝑚 − 0.287𝑎𝑡𝑚)(1.013 × 105 𝑁/𝑚2
𝑣2 = √ = 𝟑𝟒𝟕 𝒎/𝒔
1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

7.6 Viscosity and Turbulence

The discussion regarding fluid flow assumes that there is no internal friction and the
flow is laminar. But in a physical situation internal friction affect the movement of a fluid.

The opposing force (internal friction) relative to the motion of a fluid is called Viscosity. Fluids
such as water or gasoline have smaller viscosities than honey or motor oil.

When the speed of the flowing fluid exceeds a certain critical value, the flow is no longer
laminar. Which means that the flow pattern becomes irregular, complex and changes
continuously with time. This irregularity in the flow of the fluid is called Turbulence.

Bernoulli’s equation is not applicable to regions where there is turbulence because the flow is
not steady. Whether a flow is laminar or turbulent depends in part on the fluid’s viscosity. The
greater the viscosity, the greater the tendency for the fluid to flow in sheets or lamina and the
more likely the flow is to be laminar.

162