Abe 41 – properties of ab materials

What is ab material? Physical properties

AB Material – agricultural based materials, residue or biological, Structural and Geometrical Properties
including plant, animal, and marine materials or residues used in the  Rapid and accurate determinations of physical properties
manufacture of commercial or industrial non-food products. are needed in processing agricultural materials.

We can consider it as AB materials if: Size – is an important physical attribute of foods used in screening
 The tax is excluded; solids to separate foreign materials, grading of fruits and vegetables,
 It is recycle from production of agri- commodities. and evaluating the quality of food materials. In fluid flow, and heat
and mass transfer calculations, it is necessary to know the size of the
PROPERTIES OF AB MATERIALS: sample.
1. Physical Properties
a) Size of AB materials  Size of the particular foods is also critical as it affects the
b) Shape of AB materials viscosity and dispersibility and stability of the product. In the
c) Surface area of AB materials context of postharvest operations, agro-produce size
d) Porosity of AB materials determination is important for several reasons (Moreda et al,
2019).
2. Electrical Properties  Particulate foods are very small particles that is not visible to
a) Dielectric Properties
human eye (e.g. powdered milk).
3. Mechanical Properties  It allows the sorting of fresh market various agro produces
a) Compressive and Tensile Resistance into size groups. This helps in assigning market and price
b) Impact Resistance differentials of large and small produce, to match consumer
c) Vibration preferences and to allow pattern packing. Pattern packing
provides better protection of the produce, utilizes the volume
4. Thermal Properties in the shipping container, owing to the higher packing density
a) Thermal Conductivity that can be achieved with commodities of homogeneous sizes
b) Specific Heat in comparison to that of jumble packing.
c) Enthalpy and Latent Heat
 Size determination is mandatory for modern or on-line
d) Mass Diffusivity
fruit/vegetable/grain/species destiny sorting, for which two
5. Optical Properties size-related parameters, volume and weight, are required.
a) Color Theory and Models  Size measurement is important for determining produce
Importance and Significance of AB Materials surface area. The latter is also of use for quantifying the
microbial population on the surface of the foodstuff for
assessing the rates of heat, water vapor and gas transfer, or
for estimating the through put of peeling operations.
 Fruit size can provide useful information for suitable working
of some internal quality (IQ) sensors.
 Grading of agro produce into size groups is often necessary in
Why do we need to study the Properties of AB Materials?
the food industry to meet the requirements of some primary
These properties of AB materials are the key factor for an and secondary processing machines, or to assign process
Agricultural Engineer in order to design sustainable machine. differentials of large and small produce.
 Produce can be sized according to different physical
Example of Applications: parameters such as diameter, length, weight, volume,
circumference, projected area or any combination of these. It
 When to harvest wheat and when to transform it into bread.
is easy to specify size for regular particles in terms of their
 The shape, size, density, and aerodynamic properties of the
major dimensions like length, width, and thickness or major
kernels and plants.
and minor diameter, but for irregular particles the term size
 Similar or greater velocities are attained when grain drops in must be arbitrarily specified.
a stream into a bin from a height of 80 m or more.
 Abe 41 – properties of ab materials
Size Determination/Measurement Methods:  Systems that rely on the obstruction of light barriers or
blockade of light.
A. Projected Area Method (b is always less than to c)  Two-dimensional (2-D) machine vision systems such as
1. Major Diameter – the longest maximum digital images received by web cameras, CCD cameras.
projected area, (length) 2a  Three-dimensional (3-D) machine vision systems such as
2. Minor Diameter – the shortest dimension multi spectral and hyperspectral imaging system.
of the minimum projected area, (thickness)  Other systems. This group includes systems based on internal
2c image, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic
3. Intermediate Diameter – the minimum resonance imaging (MRI), X-ray, ultrasound techniques as
diameter of the maximum projected area or well as some other approaches not included in the other
the maximum diameter of the minimum groups.
projected area (width), 2b

B. Dimensional Measurement
Vernier Caliper – used to measure the size of small products.

Micrometer Caliper – It is the same function as the Vernier but differ

in shape.

Vernier Caliper versus Micrometer Caliper

The main difference between Vernier caliper and micrometer Shape
is that the Vernier caliper uses two sliding scales with different  The shape a food materials is usually expressed in terms of its
spacings between markings on each scale while a micrometer makes sphericity and aspect ratio.
use of a screw to translate small distances moved by its jaws to larger  Sphericity is an important parameter used in fluid flow and
distances along the marked scale. heat and mass transfer calculations.
 Sphericity or shape factor can be defined in different ways.
C. Graphical Methods – a method used to measure irregular shapes.
Shape-Sphericity

 According, sphericity the ratio of volume of solid to the

volume of a sphere that has a diameter equal to the major
D. Electronic Inspection System (EIS) diameter of the object so that it can circumscribe the solid
sample.
 Various electronic systems are employed to sort agro
commodities through off-line or on-line inspection. This
Volume of ellipsiod with equivalent diameter 13 (
saves labor cost and eliminates human error. Some of the Sphericity=[ ] =
commercial and non-commercial systems used for agro
Volume of circumscribed sphere
produce sorting are as follows (Moreda et al., 2009) Where the major, intermediate, and minor diameters are, respectively,
 Systems based on measurement of the volume of the gap 2a, 2b, and 2c.
between the fruit and the outer casing of embracing gauge
Sphericity Problem 1
equipment.
 Systems that calculate fruit size by measuring the distance Using the data from the table (Table 2.1) calculate the sphericity of
between a radiation source and the fruit contour, where this the “average” kernel of corn.
distance is computed from the time of flight of the propagated
Given:
waves.
Major Diameter – 12.01
Intermediate Diameter – 8.15
Minor Diameter – 5.18

Particle Size Distribution

 Abe 41 – properties of ab materials
Formula: Shape Description Examples
Rice, wheat,
1
Elliptical Approaching ellipsoid pointed guard etc.
(a ×b × c) 3
θ= Truncate Having both hand squared or Capsicum
a flattened
Unequal One half larger than the other mango
Solution: Ribbed In cross section, sides are Plantain, ladies
1 more or less angular finger
(6.00 × 4.08× 2.59) 3 = 0.664 or 66.4 % Regular Horizontal section approaches Orange, apple,
θ= a circle guava, etc
6.00 Irregular Horizontal section depart Mango, ladies
materially from a circle finger, capsicum
Note: Every value was divided by 2.
etc.
Sphericity (in another form)
Sphericity Problem 2
Sphericity is also defined as the ratio of the surface area of a sphere
Calculate the sphericity of a cylindrical objector diameter 10 cm and
having the same volume as the object to the actual surface area of the
height 1.7 cm.
object (McCabe, Smith, & Harriot, 1993)
Given:
Diameter – 10 cm
Height – 1.7 cm
Cylinder
Where:
D = equivalent diameter or nominal diameter of the particle (m) Solution:
SS = Surface area of the sphere (m2)
SP = Surface area of one particle (m2) Sparticle ¿ 2 π r 2 +2 πrh
V = volume of one particle (m3)
Sparticle ¿ 2 π ( 0.5 )2 +2 π ( 0.5 )( 1.7 )=6.908 c m 2

Vparticle ¿ π r 2 h=π ( 0.5 )2 ( 1.7 ) =1.335 c m3

4 3
Vsphere ¿ πr Ssphere ¿ 4 π r 2
3
4 3
1.335 cm3 ¿ π r Ssphere ¿ 4 π (0.683)2
3
r ¿ 0.683 cm Ssphere ¿ 5.859 c m2
2
Ss 5.859 c m
Geometrical Forms Φ= = =0.848∨84.80 %
Sp 6.908 c m2
Shape Description Examples
Round Approaching speriod Sapota, cherry
tomato, pea Shape-Aspect Ratio
Oblate Flattened at the stem end and Orange, pumpkin Aspect Ratio (RA) – is another terms used to express the shape of a
apex material.
Oblong Vertical diameter greater than Some apple  It is calculated using the length (a) and the width (b) of the
horizontal diameter varities, capsicum, sample as (Maduako & Faborade, 1990)
brinjal, rice,
b
wheat Ra ¿ a
Conic Tapered towered the apex Ladies finger,
carrot, reddish  Certain parameters are important for the design of conveyors
Ovate Egg shaped & broad at stem Brinjal, apple and for particulate foods, such as radius of curvature, roundness
end guava and angle of repose.
Oblique Axis connecting stem and Some apple  Radius of curvature is important to determine how easily the
apex slated varieties, tomato object will roll.
Obovate Inverted ovate-broad at apex Mango, papaya
( )
2
D 2
+S
Radius of curvature 2
¿
2S
Where:
D = spacing between the pins (m)
S = sagittal height (m)
 Abe 41 – properties of ab materials
Roundness – is the measure of the sharpness of the corners of the Volume – the amount of three-dimensional space occupied by an
solid. Several methods are available for estimating roundness. The object.
most commonly used ones are given below.
 Usually expressed in units that are cubes of linear units, such
Ap as cubic inches (in3) and cubic centimeters (cm3) or in units of
Roundness ¿ liquid measure, such as gallons (gal) and liters (L).
Ac
 In the SI system, the unit of volume is cubic meter (m3).
Where:
AP = largest projected area of object in natural rest positions (m2) Volume is an important quality attribute in the food industry and is
AC = area of the smallest circumscribing circle inversely correlated with texture.

Shape Problem Apparent Volume/ Bulk Volume – the volume of substance includes
all pores within the material (internal pores) and also the void volume
The major diameter (L) and the average of the minor and major outside the boundary of individual particles when stacked in bulk
diameters (H) of barley are measured as 8.76 mm and 2.83 mm, (external pores).
respectively. Calculate the minimum and maximum radii of curvature  Bulk volume can be calculated by measuring the volume of
for the barley. the bulk sample by keeping the material in a container.
Solution: Solid Volume/ True Volume – the actual volume of the solid granular
material, which devoid of the volume of internal pore space as well as
H 2.83
Rmin ¿ = =1.415 mm intergranular spaces.
2 2
Expression and Measurement of Volume – solid volume of solid
2 2
2L 2 (8.76) material including water including any interior pores that are filled
H + (2.83) + with air. It can be determined by gas displacement method, in which
Rmin 4 4
¿ = =4.804 mm the gas is capable of penetrating all open pores up to the diamond gas
2H 2(2.83) molecule.
Particle Size Distribution Volume of solids can be determined by using the following
 The range of particle size in foods depends on the cell methods:
structure and degree of processing.
 The hardness of grain is a significant factor in the particle 1. Volume can be calculated from the characteristic dimensions in the
size distribution flour. case of objects with the regular shapes.

Methods of Particle Size Distribution 2. Volumes of solids can be determined experimentally by liquid, gas,
or displacement method.
1. Air Elutriation Method –the velocity of an air stream is adjusted
so that particles measuring less than a given diameter are suspended. 3. Volume can be measured by the image processing method.

2. Setting, Sedimentation, and Centrifugation Method – the Methods in determining the volume through experiments:
particles are separated from the fluid by gravitational forces acting on 1. Liquid Displacement Method
the particles. The particles can be solid or liquid drops.

3. Screening – this is a unit operation in which various sizes of solid

particles are separated into two or more fractions by passing over
screen(s).
 A dispersing agent may be added to improve sieving
characteristics.
RECAP:  If the solid sample does not
 Physical properties: Size and shape absorb liquid very fast. The
 Physical properties should be determined in a rapid and liquid displacement method can
accurate manner. be used to measure its volume.
 Size and shape are important attribute in machine design  In this method, volume of food
especially determining the average dimension of the produce. materials can be measured by
 Size determination: Projected area method, dimensional pycnometers specific gravity
measurements, graphical method, electronic inspection, bottles) or graduated cyclinder.
particle size distribution.
 Sphericity and aspect ratio are the representation of the shape
of the produce.
 Abe 41 – pr oper t ies of ab mat er ials

Where:
Vs = volume of the solid, cm3
Wp = mass of the empty pycnometer, g
Wpf = mass of the pycnometer filled with the fluid, g  The volume of the sample is calculated as follows:
Wps = mass of the pycnometer containing the solid (no fluid), g
Wpfs = mass of the pycnometer containing the solid and filled with
fluid, g
ρs = fluid density, g/cm3

2. Direct Measurement Method

Sample Problem (Volume Problem)
A soybean kernel (variety William) has a major diameter of 8.46 mm,
 The volume of sample can be and intermediate diameter of 7.54 mm and a minor diameter of 6.65
measured by direct measurement mm and weighs 0.2600 g. The kernel was taken from a sample which
of volume of the liquid displaced had a wet basis moisture content of 16.4%. The kernel density of
by using a graduated cylinder or Williams soybeans taken from the same plot averaged 1.232 g/cm 3 at
burette. 13% moisture and 1.214 g/m3 at 18% moisture. Assume it has the
same volume as a geometric solid of similar shape and calculate its
 The difference between the initial
volume. If the true volume can be determined from the kernel weight
volume
graduated of liquid
cylinder and in
thea volume
graduated
of liquid with immersed materials and density, what is the percentage error resulting from using the
cylinder and the
gives us the volume of the material. method of similarity to geometric shape?
Given:
 That is, the increase in volume after addition of solid sample
Major Diameter = 8.46 mm ≈ 0.846 cm
is equal to the solid volume.
Intermediate Diameter = 7.54 mm ≈ 0.754 cm
 A platform can be used to
1 the volume of Minor Diameter = 6.65 mm ≈ 0.665 cm
determine
Soybean – tri-axial Ellipsoid
larger objects such as fruits
Weight = 0.2600 g
and vegetables.
Moisture Content = 16.4%
Plot: ρ MC @ 13% = 1.232 g/m3
ρ MC @ 13% = 1.214 g/m3
Required:
Margin Error
Where:
Solution:
Vs = volume of solid
4
Wbws = weight of the beaker, water and object 1. V = π abc
Wbw = weight of beaker and water
3
4
3. Gas Displacement Method = π (0.423 * 0.377 * 0.333)
3
 Volumes of particulate solids and materials with irregular V = 0.222 cm3 Volume using the Geometric Method
shape can be determine by displacement of gas or air in 2. Find the ρ @ 16% MC
pycnometer (Karanthos and Sravacos, 1993). MC ρ (g/ cm3)
13% 1.232
4. Solid Displacement Method 16.4% x
18% 1.214
 The volume or irregular solids can also be measured by sand, By Interpolation:
glass bead, or seed displacement method. x = 1.21976 g/ cm3
 Rapeseeds are commonly used for determination of volume 3. Calculate the volume 16.4%
of baked products such as bread. weight
V16.4% =
ρ
0.2600 g 3
V16.4% = 3
=0.213 c m
1.21976
particle
g /cm
 Abe 41 – properties of ab materials
Margin of Error  There are two voids, voids between particles and void
3 3
within particles. The bulk density is an important in
0.213 c m −0.196 c m packaging requirement and is often 2-20% of true density.
M.E. = 3
0.213 c m  Bulk density of particulate solids is measured by allowing a
sample to pour into a container of known dimensions. Both
M.E. = 8.0 % the method of filing the container dimensions can affect the
measurement. Therefore the height from which the solid fall
Density and the diameter of the stream of flowing particles are
 Quality of food materials can be assessed by measuring their controlled. Standard techniques are used to level the top
densities. surface of the sample so that the top surface is even with the
 Density data of foods are required in separation process, such top.
as centrifugation and sedimentation and in pneumatic and  A special apparatus is used to measure the bulk density of
hydraulic transport of powders and particulates. grains in lb/bu.
 Measuring the density of liquids of liquid is required to Test Weight – is one of the grading factors evaluated
determine the powder required for pumping. whenever grain is sold. The bulk density is determined by
 Densities can be calculated after measuring the mass and dividing the weight of the particulates by the container
volume of the object because it is defined as the mass per unit volume. Bulk density is expressed:
volume. In the SI system, the unit of density is kg/m3. Metric units - g/cm3 or kg/ m3
English units – lb/ft3 or lb/bu
Densities of common components found in agricultural materials
and food products

2. Trapped Bulk Density – is measured for powdery samples. The

volume is measured after tapping the powdery material so that the
 In most of the engineering problems, solids and liquids are product is adjusted to intergranular spaces, but it cannot eliminate all
assumed to be incompressible, that is the density is hardly the intergranular spaces.
affected by moderate changes in temperature and pressure. 3. Particle/ True Density – of solid material constituting the true
 Gasses are compressible and their densities are affected by volume of the occupied by the material, excluding any interior pores
the changes in temperature and pressure. that are filled with air (blind and through pores). It can be calculated
by dividing the sample weight by solid volume determined by gas
Instruments for Density displacement method in which inert gas can penetrate all open pores
up to diameter of the gas molecule. Gas displacement method is
 The density of liquids can be determined using a pycnometer
employed to find out the particle density. In gas displacement method,
or hydrometers.
helium enters every nook and corner of material being lighter and inert
 Wide-mouthed bottles can be used for viscous materials such
gas.
as tomato paste, batter, or honey.
4. Solid/Substance density – is the density of a material has been
 Lactometers for milk and oleometer for oil. broken into pieces small enough to be sure that no closed pores
 Twaddell hydrometer is used for liquids denser than water. remain.
 Sacchometer for percentage of sucrose by weight in a 5. Apparent Density – the density of a substance including all pores
solution, alcoholmeters for percentage of alcohol by volume, within the material (internal pores).
and salometers for determination of the percent saturation of  Apparent density of regular geometries can be determined
salt solutions. from the volume calculated using the characteristic
Types of Densities dimensions and mass measured.
1. Bulk density – the density of material when stacked or packed in  Apparent density of regularly shaped samples may be
bulk. determined by solid or liquid displacement methods.
 Bulk density of the materials is determined by dividing the 1. Solid Displacement Method
material volume inclusive of voids to weight of the product. 2. Liquid Displacement Method
3. Gas Displacement Method
4. Image Vision System
Mercury Displacement – is used to find out as mercury cannot enter
the small inter-particles pores because of its high density and surface
tension and does not wet the surface.

Sample Problem
The avocado in example 2.2.1 was weighed on an electrical balance
and then suspended in a beaker of water using a thin string tied of a
ring stand Core was taken to ensure that the avocado was completely
submerged and that it did not touch the bottom or sides of the
container. The weight of the avocado was 2198 grams. The container
filled with water weighed 1137.1 g and when the avocado was
suspended in the container, the beaker, water, and avocado weighed
1355.3 grams. Water temperature was 20 degree Celsius. Determine
the density of the avocado.
Given:
Weight avocado = 2198 g
Weight of beaker + water = 1137.1 g
Weight of beaker + water + avocado = 1355.3 g
Water temperature was 20°C

Solution:

Porosity
 When particulate solids are placed in a container, there are
airspaces between the particles.
Porosity – the percentage of the total container volume occupied by
these air spaces.
 The porosity of particulate materials can also be calculated
from the particle density and the bulk density. If a chamber
one cubic meter in size is filled with the material, the bulk
density in kg/m3 will numerically be equal to the mass (kg) of
particles in the container.
 The volume of solid particles in the container is equal to the
weight of the particles divided by the particle density.
 The porosity can be calculated by subtracting the volume of
solids in the container from (1 m3), and converting to a
percentage. The following example illustrates this technique.
Sample Problem
Compare the porosity of shelled corn at 15.0% moisture with the
porosity of potatoes.
Solutions: From Table B.3 of TABLE OF DENSITIES, the particle
density of shelled corn at 15.0% moisture is 1.30 g/cm 3. The bulk
density can be estimated from the equation for shelled corn in table 2.3
(Type of Densities):