Inferential

Statistics
 Descriptive
statistics
Statistics Estimation

Inferential Hypothesis
statistics Testing
Modeling,
Predicting

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed

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Dr. Mohammed Alahmed
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 Inferential Statistics

Statistical inference is the act of generalizing

from a sample to a population with calculated
degree of certainty.

We want to but we can

learn about only
population calculate
parameters… sample
statistics

Methods for drawing conclusions about a population

from sample data are called
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed
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 Parameters and Statistics

It is essential that we draw distinctions between

parameters and statistics

x , s , pˆ

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed

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 Population
(parameters, e.g.,  and )

Sample

collect data from

individuals in sample

Data

Analyse data (e.g.

estimate x , s ) to
make inferences
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 Estimation
That act of guessing the value of a
population parameter

Point Estimation Interval

Estimating a specific Estimation
value determining the range or
interval in which the value of
the parameter is thought to be

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed

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 Point Estimates

• One of our fundamental questions is:

“How well does our sample
statistic estimate the value of the
population parameter?”

• In other word: How close is Sample

Statistic to Population Parameter ?

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed

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 Choosing a good estimator

Good estimators have certain desirable

properties:
• Unbiasedness: The sampling distribution for the
estimator ‘centers’ around the parameter. (On average,
the estimator gives the correct value for the parameter.)
• Efficiency: If at the same sample size one unbiased
estimator has a smaller sampling error than another
unbiased estimator, the first one is more efficient.
• Consistency: The value of the estimator gets closer to
the parameter as sample size increases. Consistent
estimators may be biased, but the bias must become
smaller as the sample size increases if the consistency
property holds true.

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 Estimating the population mean

• A natural estimator to use for estimating the

population mean is the sample mean.
• We will use the mean of a sample 𝑥 (statistic) as an
estimate of the mean of the population μ
(parameter).
• What properties of 𝑥 make it a desirable estimator
of μ? How close is 𝑥 to  ?
– Cannot answer question for a particular sample!
– Can answer if we can find out about the distribution
that describes the variability in the random variable
𝑋.

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 Sampling Distribution

• Consider the set of all possible samples of size

n that could have been selected from the
population.
• The values of 𝑥 in each of these samples will,
in general, be different! These values will be
denoted by 𝑥 1, 𝑥 2 , and so forth.
• What is the sampling distribution of 𝑥 ?
• The sampling distribution of 𝑋 is the
distribution of values of 𝑥 over all possible
samples of size n that could have been
selected from the reference population.

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 Example
• The mean height of women age 20 to 30 is
normally distributed (bell-shaped) with a mean of
65 inches and a standard deviation of 3 inches.
• A random sample of 200 women was taken and
the sample mean 𝑥 recorded.
• Now IMAGINE taking MANY samples of size 200
from the population of women.
• For each sample we record the 𝑥 . What is the
sampling distribution of 𝑥 ?

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• We can show that the average of these sample means
(𝑥’s), when taken over a large number of random
samples of size n, approximates μ as the number of
samples selected becomes large.
• In other words, the expected value of 𝑋 over its
sampling distribution is equal to μ:
Ε(𝑋) = μ
• We refer to 𝑋 as an unbiased estimator of μ.

 x
 

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• Standard Error of the Mean
– We can estimate how much variability there
is among potential sample means by
calculating the standard error of the mean.
– Thus, it is measure of how good our point
estimate is likely to be!
– The standard error of the mean is the
standard deviation of the sampling
distribution.

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 
• It is given by:  x

n

• This equation implies that sampling error decreases

as sample size increases.
• Thus the larger the sample size, the more precise an
estimator 𝑋 is.
• In fact: as the sample gets bigger, the
sampling distribution…
– stays centered at the population mean.
– becomes less variable.
– becomes more normal.

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 Central Limit Theorem

For any population with mean  and

standard deviation , the distribution of
sample means for sample size n …
1. will have a mean of 
2. will have a standard deviation (standard

error) of
n
3. will approach a normal distribution as n
gets large ( n ≥ 30 ).

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 Example

Given the population of women has normally

distributed weights with a mean of 143 lbs and
a standard deviation of 29 lbs,

1. if one woman is randomly selected, find the probability

that her weight is greater than 150 lbs.

2. if 36 different women are randomly selected, find the

probability that their mean weight is greater than 150
lbs.

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1. The probability that her weight is greater than 150 lbs.
P ( X  150 )  . 41
z = 150-143 = 0.24
29
Population distribution

0.4052

 = 143 150
= 29

Z
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2. if 36 different women are randomly selected, find the
probability that their mean weight is greater than 150
lbs.
P ( X  150 )  . 07
Sampling distribution
29
 X

36

0.0735
z = 150-143 = 1.45
4.33

 = 143 150
= 4.33
Z

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Interval
Estimation

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• A point estimate is a single number,
– How much uncertainty is associated with a point estimate of a
population parameter?
• An interval estimate provides more information about
a population characteristic than does a point estimate.
It provides a confidence level for the estimate. Such
interval estimates are called confidence intervals.

Upper
Lower
Confidence Point Estimate
Confidence
Limit Limit
Width of confidence interval

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 Interval Estimation

• A confidence interval for a population

characteristic is an interval of plausible values for
the characteristic. It is constructed so that, with a
chosen degree of confidence (the confidence
level), the value of the characteristic will be
captured inside the interval
• Confidence in statistics is a measure of our surety
that a key value falls within a specified interval.
• A Confidence Interval is always accompanied by a
probability that defines the risk of being wrong.
• This probability of error is usually called α (alpha).

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• How confident do we want to be that the interval
estimate contains the population parameter?
• The level of confidence (1- α ) is the probability that
the interval estimate contains the population
parameter.
• The most common choices of level of confidence are
0.95, 0.99, and 0.90.
• For example: If the level of confidence is 90%, this
means that we are 90% confident that the interval
contains the population.
• The general formula for all confidence intervals is equal
to:
Point Estimate ± Margin of Error

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The general formula for all confidence intervals is:

The value of the statistic in my sample

(eg., mean, odds ratio, etc.)

point estimate  (measure of how

confident we want to be)  (standard
error)
From a Z table or a T table, depending
on the sampling distribution of the
statistic.

Standard error of the statistic.

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 Confidence Interval for the Mean μ
The (1- α) % confidence interval for μ is given by:

𝑥 ± margin of error (m)

• Higher confidence C implies a
larger margin of error m (thus
less precision in our estimates).

• A lower confidence level C C

produces a smaller margin of
error m (thus better precision m m

in our estimates).
−z* z*

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There are 3 different cases:

1. Interval Estimation of μ when X is normally

distributed.
2. Interval Estimation of μ when X is not
normally distributed but the population
Standard Deviation is known
3. Interval Estimation of μ when X is normally
distributed and the population Standard
Deviation unknown

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 Case 1: Interval Estimation of μ when
X is normally distributed
• This is the standard situation and you simply use
this equation to estimate the population mean at
the desired confidence interval:

 
x  z /2
   x  z /2
n n

• where Z is the standard normal distribution’s

critical value for a probability of α/2 in each tail.

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• Consider a 95% confidence interval:
1    .95   .05  / 2  .025

α .475 .475 α
 .025  .025
2 2

Z= -1.96 0 Z= 1.96 Z
Lower Upper
Confidence PointPoint
Estimate Confidence
Limit Estimate Limit

μl μu μ
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 Case 2: Interval Estimation of μ when X is
not normally distributed but σ is known

• If the distribution of X is not normally

distributed, then the central limit theorem
can only be applied loosely and we can only say
that the sampling distribution is approximately
normal.
• When n is greater than 30, this approximation is
generally good.
• Then we use the previous formula to calculate
confidence interval.

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 Case 3: Interval Estimation of μ when X is
normally distributed and σ is unknown

• Nearly always  is unknown and is estimated

using sample standard deviation s.
• If population standard deviation is unknown
then it can be shown that sample means from
samples of size n are t-distributed with n-1
degrees of freedom.
• As an estimate for standard error we can use
s

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 Student’s t Distribution

• Closely related to the standard normal

distribution Z
– Symmetric and bell-shaped
– Has mean = 0 but has a larger standard deviation
– As n increases, the t-dist. approached the Z-dist.

• Exact shape depends on a parameter called

degrees of freedom (df) which is related to
sample size
– In this context df = n-1

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• A 100% × (1 − α) CI for the mean μ of a
normal distribution with unknown variance is
given by:

s s
x  t / 2 ,n 1
   x  t / 2 ,n 1
n n

where t
 / 2 ,n 1

is the critical value of the t distribution with n-1 d.f. and an

area of α/2 in each tail

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 Example: Left ventricular ejection
fraction (LVEF)
• We have 27 patients with acute dilated
cardiomyopathy.
1 .19
2 .24
Compute a 95% 3 .17
4 .40
CI for the true
5 .40
mean LVEF. 6 .23
7 .20
8 .20
9 .30
10 .19
11 .24
12 .32
13 .32
14 .28
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 Use SPSS to do this!

Analyze Descriptive Statistics Explore

s 𝟎.𝟎𝟕𝟗𝟗𝟐
S = 0.07992 = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟑𝟖
n √𝟐𝟕
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Conclusion:
We are 95% confident that the true mean of LVEF will be
contained in the interval ( 0.1925, 0.2557)
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Estimation of the Variance of a
Distribution
Point Estimation
• Let X1, . . . , Xn be a random sample
from some population with mean μ and
variance σ2.
• The sample variance S 2 is an
unbiased estimator of σ2 over all
possible random samples of size n that
could have been drawn from this
population; that is, E(S 2) = σ2.

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Estimation of a population
proportion
• We are frequently interested in estimating
the proportion of a population with a
characteristic of interest, such as:

• the proportion of smokers

• the proportion of cancer patients who survive
at least 5 years
• the proportion of new HIV patients who are
female

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 The population of interest has a certain
characteristics that appears with a certain
proportion p. This proportion is a quantity that we
usually don’t know, but we would like to estimate
it. Since it is a characteristic of the population, we
call it a parameter.
 To estimate p we draw a representative sample of
size n from the population and count the number
of individuals (X) in the sample with the
characteristic we are looking for. This gives us the
estimate X/n.

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 Point estimation of P

 This estimate, p̂ = X/n, is called the

sampling proportion and it is denoted by

X total number of successes

pˆ  
n total number of observatio ns in the sample

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 Sampling Distribution of Proportion

• You learned that a binomial can be

approximated by the normal distribution if
np  5 and nq  5.
• Provided we have a large enough sample size,
all the possible sample proportions will be
approximately normally distributed with:

 ^  p  
pq
^
p
p n

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 Confidence Interval for the
Population Proportion
An approximate 100% × (1 − α) CI for the binomial
parameter p based on the normal approximation to the
binomial distribution is given by:

p̂ (1  p̂ ) p̂ (1  p̂ )
p̂  z  /2  p  p̂  z  /2
n n

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Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 42
 Example
• Suppose we are interested in estimating the
prevalence rate of breast cancer among 50- to 54-
year-old women whose mothers have had breast
cancer. Suppose that in a random sample of 10,000
such women, 400 are found to have had breast
cancer at some point in their lives.
1. Estimate the prevalence of breast cancer among
50- to 54-year-old women whose mothers have
had breast cancer.
2. Derive a 95% CI for the prevalence rate of
breast cancer among 50- to 54-year-old women.

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Solution:
1. The best point estimate of the prevalence
rate p is given by the sample proportion
400
𝑝= = .040 .
10000

2. 𝑝= .040 α = .05 Z1−α/2 = 1.96

n = 10,000
Therefore, an approximate 95% CI is given by
.04 (.96)
0.04 ± 1.96 = (0.036, 0.044)
10000

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Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 45
 Introduction
• Researchers often have preconceived ideas about
what the values of these parameters might be and
wish to test whether the data conform to these
ideas.
• Used to investigate the validity of a claim about the
value of a population characteristic.
• For example:
1. The hospital administrator may want to test the
hypothesis that the average length of stay of patients
admitted to the hospital is 5 days!
2. Suppose we want to test the hypothesis that mothers
with low socioeconomic status (SES) deliver babies
whose birth weights are lower than “normal.”

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• Hypothesis testing is widely used in medicine, dentistry,
health care, biology and other fields as a means to draw
conclusions about the nature of populations.
• Why is hypothesis testing so important? Hypothesis
testing provides an objective framework for making
decisions using probabilistic methods, rather than relying
on subjective impressions.

Hypothesis testing is to provide

information in helping to make
decisions.

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 General Concepts

• A hypothesis is a statement about one or

more populations. There are research
hypotheses and statistical hypotheses.
• A research hypothesis is the supposition
or conjecture that motivates the research.
• Statistical hypotheses are stated in such a
way that they may be evaluated by
appropriate statistical techniques

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 Elements of a hypothesis test

– Null hypothesis (H 0): Statement regarding the value(s)

of unknown parameter(s). It is the hypothesis to be
tested.
– Alternative hypothesis (H 1): Statement contradictory to
the null hypothesis. It is a statement of what we believe is
true if our sample data cause us to reject the null
hypothesis.
– Test statistic - Quantity based on sample data and null
hypothesis used to test between null and alternative
hypotheses
– Rejection region - Values of the test statistic for which
we reject the null in favor of the alternative hypothesis

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 Four possible outcomes in hypothesis
testing
Truth
H0 H1
Accept H0 H0 is true and H0 is H1 is true and H0 is
accepted accepted
Decision

Correct decision Type II error (β)

Reject H0 H0 is true and H0 is H1 is true and H0 is
rejected rejected
Type І error (α) Correct decision

• The probability of a type I error is the probability of rejecting the

null hypothesis when H0 is true, denoted by α and is commonly
referred to as the significance level of a test.
• The probability of a type II error is the probability of accepting the
null hypothesis when H1 is true, and usually denoted by β.

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• The general aim in hypothesis testing is to
use statistical tests that make α and β as
small as possible.
• This goal requires compromise because
making α small will increase β.
• Our general strategy is to fix α at some
specific level (for example, .10, .05, .01, . .
.) and to use the test that minimizes β or,
equivalently, maximizes the power.

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 One-Sample Test for the Mean of a
Normal Distribution: One-Sided
Alternatives

• Hypothesis:
– Null Hypothesis H0 : μ = μ0
– Alternative hypothesis H1: μ < μ0 or
H1: μ > μ0
• Identify level of significance
– α is a predetermined value (e.g.,  = .05)

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• Test statistic: X - o
– If  is known, or if Z 

sample size is large n

– If  is unknown, or if X - o
t 
sample size is small s
n

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Critical Value: the critical region

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Conclusion:
• Left-tailed Test:
– Reject H0 if Z < Z1-α (when use Z - test)
– Reject H0 if t < tn-1, α (when use T - test)

• Right-tailed Test
– Reject H0 if Z > Z1-α (when use Z - test)
– Reject H0 if t > t1-α,n-1 (when use T - test)

• An Alternative Decision Rule using the

p - value Definition

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P-Value

• The P-value (or p-value or probability

value) is the probability of getting a
value of the test statistic that is at least
as extreme as the one representing the
sample data, assuming that the null
hypothesis is true.
• The p-value is defined as the smallest
value of α for which the null hypothesis
can be rejected

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• If the p-value is less than or equal to α
,we reject the null hypothesis (p ≤ α)

• If the p-value is greater than α ,we do

not reject the null hypothesis (p > α)

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 One-Sample Test for the Mean of a
Normal Distribution: Two-Sided
Alternatives
• A two-tailed test is a test in which the values of the
parameter being studied (in this case μ) under the alternative
hypothesis are allowed to be either greater than or less than
the values of the parameter under the null hypothesis (μ0).
• To test the hypothesis
H0: μ = μ0 vs. H1: μ ≠ μ0
• Using the Test statistic:
X - o
– If  is known, or if Z 

sample size is large n

– If  is unknown, or if X - 
t 
o

sample size is small s

n

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• Decision Rule:
– Reject H0 if Z >Z1-α/2 or Z< - Z1-α/2 (when use Z - test)
– Reject H0 if T > t1-α/2,n-1 or t < - t1-α/2,n-1 (when use T- test)

Values that differ significantly from H0

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Dr. Mohammed Alahmed
Example 1

• Among 157 Saudi men ,the mean

systolic blood pressure was 146 mm Hg
with a standard deviation of 27. We
wish to know if on the basis of these
data, we may conclude that the mean
systolic blood pressure for a population
of Saudi is greater than 140. Use
α=0.01.

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• Data: Variable is systolic blood pressure,
n=157 , X‾=146, s=27, α=0.01.
• Assumption: population is not normal, σ2 is unknown
• Hypotheses: H0 :μ = 140
H1: μ > 140
• Test Statistic:

X - o 146  140 6
Z    = 2.78
s 27
2 . 1548
n 157

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• Decision Rule:
– we reject H0 if Z > Z1-α
– Z0.99= 2.33 from table Z

• Decision:
– Since 2.78 > 2.33.
then we reject H0

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 Example 2
• The following are the systolic blood pressures of
12 patients undergoing drug therapy for
hypertension:
183, 152, 178, 157, 194, 163, 144, 114,
178, 152, 118, 158
Can we conclude on the basis of these
data that the population mean of SBP is
less than 165? Use α=0.05.
Use SPSS to do this!
Here  is unknown and sample size is
small!

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 63

 Solution:

State your hypotheses:

H0 :μ = 165
H1: μ < 165

Analyze Compare
Means One-
Sample T Test

Select the variable

Set the test value μ0

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 64
 The results of this test
Sample mean

Sample standard
dev.

T test statistic P-value (two-tailed) Mean from null hyp.

Here, the two-tailed P-value is 0.315. Since we are conducting a one-

tailed test, the P-value is 0.315/2 = 0.1575.

Since p-value > 0.05. Then we fail to reject H0.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 65
One-Sample Inference for the
Binomial Distribution
• Recall that: The sampling distribution of a sample
proportion
p̂ is approximately normal (normal
approximation of a binomial distribution) when the
sample size is large enough.
• Thus, we can easily test the null hypothesis:
H0: p = p0 (a given value we are testing).
• Test Statistic pˆ  p
z 
0

p 0 (1  p 0 )
n
• Alternative Hypotheses:
H : p  po H 1 : p  po H :p  p
A 1 o
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 66
• Decision Rule:

If H1: P ≠ P0
Reject H 0 if Z > Z1-α/2 or Z < - Z1-α/2

If H1: P > P0
Reject H0 if Z > Z1-α

If H1: P < P0
Reject H0 H0 if Z < - Z1-α

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Example
• Historically, one in five kidney cancer
patients survive 5 years past diagnosis, i.e.
20%.
• An oncologist using an experimental
therapy treats n = 40 kidney cancer
patients and 16 of them survive at least 5
years.
• Is there evidence that patients receiving the
experimental therapy have a higher 5-year
survival rate?

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p = the proportion of kidney cancer patients
receiving the experimental therapy that
survive at least 5 years.
H : p  . 20 (5 - yr. survival rate is not better)
o
H : p  . 20 (5 - yr. survival rate is better)
A
Determine test criteria
Choose .05(may want to consider smaller?)
Use large sample test since:
np = (40)(.20) = 8 > 5 and n(1-p) = (40)(.80) = 32
>5

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 16
pˆ   . 40 or a 40% 5 - yr. survival rate
40
pˆ  p o . 40  . 20
z    3 . 16
p o (1  p o ) . 20 (1  . 20 )
n 40

Conclusion:
Z1-α = Z0.95 = 1.64

Since Z > Z1-α Reject H0 1.64

z
0

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 70

 Hypothesis Testing for Variance
and Standard Deviation
• Why test variance ?
– In real life, things vary. Even under strictest
conditions, results will be different between one
another. This causes variances.
– When we get a sample of data, apart from testing
on the mean to find if it is reasonable, we also test
the variance to see whether certain factor has
caused greater or smaller variation among the
data.
– In nature, variation exists. Even identical twins
have some differences. This makes life interesting

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• Sometimes we are interested in
making inference about the variability
of processes.
• Examples:
– The consistency of a production process for
quality control purposes.
– Investors use variance as a measure of risk.
• To draw inference about variability,
the parameter of interest is σ2.

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• We know that the sample variance s2 is an
unbiased, consistent and efficient point
estimator for σ2.
• The statistic χ2 has a distribution called Chi-
squared, if the population is normally
distributed.
• The test statistic for testing hypothesis about
a population variance is:
𝒏−𝟏 𝒔𝟐
χ2 =
𝝈𝟎𝟐
• follows a chi-square distribution with degrees
of freedom d.f. = n – 1.
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 73
• If we want to test the following hypothesis:
H o
:  o

H 1 :   o

• reject H0 if: χ2 < χ2n-1, α/2 or χ2 > χ2n-1,1- α/2

α/2 α/2

χ2
χ2n-1, α/2 χ2n-1,1- α/2

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 74

 Example

• A local balloon company claims that the variance

for the time one of its helium balloons will stay
afloat is 5 seconds.
• A disgruntled customer wants to test this claim.
• She randomly selects 23 customers and finds that
the variance of the sample is 4.5 seconds.
• At  = 0.05, does she have enough evidence to
reject the company’s claim?
• Hypothesis to be tested:
H0:  2 = 5 (Claim)
H1:  2  5

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 75

• Test statistic:
2
2 ( n  1 )s (2 3  1 ) (4 .5 )
χ    1 9 .8
σ
2 5

Fail to reject H0.

X2
10.982 36.781
At  = 0.05, there is not enough
evidence to reject the claim that
From Chi-square Table
the variance of the float time is 5
seconds.
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 76
Hypothesis Testing: Two-Sample
Inference
• A more frequently encountered
situation is the two-sample hypothesis-
testing problem.
• In a two-sample hypothesis-testing
problem, the underlying parameters of
two different populations, neither of
whose values is assumed known, are
compared.
• Distinguish between Independent and
Dependent Sampling.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 77

• Two samples are said to be independent
when the data points in one sample are
unrelated to the data points in the second
sample.
• Two samples are said to be Dependent
(paired) when each data point in the first
sample is matched and is related to a
unique data point in the second sample.
• Dependent samples are often referred to as
matched-pairs samples.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 78

The Paired t Test

• Statistical inference methods on matched-

pairs data use the same methods as
inference on a single population mean with
 unknown, except that the differences
are analyzed.

di = xi2 − xi1.
• The hypothesis testing problem can thus
be considered a one-sample t test based
on the differences (di ).

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 79

• To test hypotheses regarding the
mean difference of matched-pairs
data, the following must be satisfied:

1. the sample is obtained using simple

random sampling
2. the sample data are matched pairs,
3. the differences are normally distributed
with no outliers or the sample size, n,
is large (n ≥ 30).

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 80

Step 1:
• Determine the null and alternative
hypotheses. The hypotheses can be
structured in one of three ways, where μd is
the population mean difference of the
matched-pairs data.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 81

Step 2:
• Select a level of significance, , based on
the seriousness of making a Type I error.
Step 3:
• Compute the test statistic d
t0 
sd
which approximately follows
Student’ t-distribution with n
n-1 degrees of freedom
• The values of d and sd are the mean and
standard deviation of the differenced data.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 82

Step 4:
• Use Table t to determine the critical value
using n-1 degrees of freedom.
Step 5:
• Compare the critical value with the test
statistic:
• If P-value < , reject the null hypothesis.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 83

 Example: Hypertension
• Let’s say we are interested in the relationship between oral
contraceptive (OC) use and blood pressure in women.
• Identify a group of non-pregnant, premenopausal women of
childbearing age (16–49 years) who are not currently OC
users, and measure their blood pressure, which will be called
the baseline blood pressure.
• Rescreen these women 1 year later to ascertain a subgroup
who have remained non-pregnant throughout the year and
have become OC users. This subgroup is the study
population.
• Measure the blood pressure of the study population at the
follow-up visit.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 84

• Compare the baseline and follow-up blood pressure of the
women in the study population to determine the difference
between blood pressure levels of women when they were
using the pill at follow-up and when they were not using
the pill at baseline.
• Assume that the SBP of the ith woman is normally
distributed at baseline with mean μi and variance σ2 and at
follow-up with mean μi + Δ and variance σ2.
• If Δ = 0, then there is no difference between mean
baseline and follow-up SBP. If Δ > 0, then using OC pills is
associate with a raised mean SBP. If Δ < 0, then using OC
pills is associated with a lowered mean SBP.
• We want to test the hypothesis:
H0: Δ = 0 vs. H1: Δ ≠ 0.
• How should we do this?

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 85

 Solution:

• Using SPSS
– After Importing your dataset, and
providing names to variables, click
on:

– ANALYZE  COMPARE MEANS 

PAIRED SAMPLES T-TEST

– For PAIRED VARIABLES, Select the

two dependent (response) variables
(the analysis will be based on first
variable minus second variable)

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 86

 d sd
p-value

Since the exact two-sided p-value = .009 < 0.05, we reject the null
hypothesis.Therefore, we can conclude that starting OC use is associated
with a significant change in blood pressure.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed

87
• A two-sided 100% × (1 − α) CI for the true
mean difference (Δ) between two paired
samples is given by:

sd sd
d t 
 , d t 

n  1 ,1  n  1 ,1 
2 n 2 n

Compute a 95% CI for the true increase in mean SBP

after starting OCs.
(1.53, 8.07)
Note that the conclusion from the hypothesis test
and the confidence interval are the same!
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 88
Two-Sample t Test for Independent
Samples with Equal Variances
• The independent samples t-test is probably
the single most widely used test in
statistics.
• It is used to compare differences between
separate groups.
• We want to test the hypothesis:
H0: μ1 = μ2 vs. H1: μ1 ≠ μ2.
• Sometimes we will be willing to assume
that the variance in the two groups is
equal:
1   
2 2 2
2

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 89

• If we know this variance, we can use the z-
statistic
z 
(x 1

 x2  ( 1  2
1 1
 
n1 n2

• Often we have to estimate 2 with the

sample variance from each of the samples, 2 2
s1 , s 2

• Since we have two estimates of one

quantity, we pool the two estimates

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 90

 2 2
s1
• The average of and s 2 could simply be used as
the estimate of σ2 :
( n  1  s
2
 (n 2  1 s 2
2

sp 
2 1 1

n1  n 2  2

• The t-statistic based on the pooled variance is very

similar to the z-statistic as always:

t 
(x 1

 x2  ( 1  2
1 1
sp 
n1 n2

• The t-statistic has a t-distribution with n1  n 2  2 degrees

of freedom

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 91

 Constructing a (1-)100 % Confidence
Interval for the Difference of Two Means: equal
variances  12 
2
2

• If the two populations are normally

distributed or the sample sizes are
sufficiently large (n1≥30 and n2≥30),
and a (1-)100 % confidence interval
about 1 - 2 is given by:

1 1 1 1
[( x1  x 2   t
n 1  n 2  2 ,1 

2
Sp
n1

n2
, ( x1  x2   t
n 1  n 2  2 ,1 

2
Sp
n1

n2
]

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 92

 Unequal variance
• Often, we are unwilling to assume that the variances
are equal!
• The test statistic as: (x1  x 2   (  1   2 
t 
2 2
s1 s2

n1 n2
• The distribution of this statistic is difficult to derive and we
approximate the distribution using a t-distribution with n
degrees of freedom
( s  ( 
2
n1  s 2
2 2
n2
n  1

 (s  (s n  
2 2 2 2
n1

1
 2 2

 (n1  1 (n 2  1 

• This is called the Satterthwaite or Welch approximation

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 93

 Constructing a (1-)100 % Confidence
Interval for the Difference of Two Means

• If the two populations are normally distributed or

the sample sizes are sufficiently large (n1≥30 and
n2≥30), a (1-)100 % confidence interval about
1 - 2 is given by:

2 2 2 2

[( x1  x 2   t
v ,1 

2

s1
n1

s2
n2
, ( x1  x2   t
v ,1 

2

s1
n1

s2
n2 ]

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 94

Equality of variance

• Since we can never be sure if the variances

are equal, could we test if they are equal?
• Of course we can!!!
– But, remember there is error in every statistical
test
– Sometimes it is just preferred to use the
unequal variance unless there is a good reason.
• Test: H0: 1222vs. H1: 12≠ 22with
significance level α.
• To test this hypothesis, we use the sample 2 2
s1 , s 2
variances:

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 95

Testing for the Equality of Two
Variances
• One way to test if the two variances are
equal is to check if the ratio is equal to 1
(H0: ratio=1) s1
2

• Under the null, the ratio simplifies to 2

s2

• The ratio of 2 chi-square random variables

has an F-distribution.
• The F-distribution is defined by the
numerator and denominator degrees of
freedom.
• Here we have an F-distribution with n1-1
and n2-1 degrees of freedom

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 96

 Strategy for testing for the equality of
means in two independent, normally
distributed samples

Perform t-test
assuming
unequal
Perform F-test variances
for the equality
of two variances Perform t-test
assuming
equal
variances
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 97
 Example

• Use hypothesis testing for Hospital-stay data in

Table 2.11 (page 33 in the book) to answer (2.3).
• Use SPSS to do the analysis!

2.3: It is of clinical interest to know if the duration

of hospitalization is affected by whether a patient
has received antibiotics.

That is to compare the mean duration of

hospitalization between antibiotic users and non-
antibiotic users.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 98

 Solution:
Compar Independe
Analyze e nt Samples
Means T Test

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 99

 SPSS output:

H0: 1222vs. H1: 12≠ H0: Δ = 0 vs. H1: Δ ≠ 0.

 22
Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 100
 Conclusion
• First step in comparing the two means is to perform the
F-test for the equality of two variances in order to decide
whether to use the t-test with equal or unequal variances.
• The p-value = 0.075 > 0.05. Thus the variances DO NOT
differ significantly, and a two-sample t-test with equal
variances should be used.
• Therefore, refer to the Equal Variance row, where the t-
statistic is 1.68 with degrees of freedom d’(df). = 23.
• The corresponding two-tailed p-value = 0.106 > 0.05.
• Thus no significant difference exists between the mean
duration of hospitalization in these two groups.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 101

 The Treatment of Outliers
• Outliers can have an important impact on
the conclusions of a study.
• It is important to definitely identify
outliers and either:
– Exclude them! ( NOT recommended) or
– Perform alternative analyses with and without
the outliers present.
– Use a method of analysis that minimizes their
effect on the overall results.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 102

 Box-Plot

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 103

 Inference about Two Population
Proportions
• Testing hypothesis about two population
proportion (P1, P2 ) is carried out in much the
same way as for difference between two
means when condition is necessary for using
normal curve are met.
• We have the following steps:
Data: sample size (n1 ‫و‬n2), sample
proportions ( pˆ 1 , pˆ 2 ), p  x  x
1 2

n1  n 2

Characteristic in two samples (x1 , x2),

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 104

Assumption: Two populations are independent.
Hypotheses: Determine the null and alternative
hypotheses. The hypotheses can be
structured in one of three ways

Select a level of significance α, based on the seriousness of

making a Type I error.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 105

• Compute the test statistic:
ˆ1  p
( p ˆ 2 )  ( p1  p 2 )
Z 
p (1  p ) p (1  p )

n1 n2
• Decision Rule:
– Compare the critical value with the test statistic:

– Or, if P-value < α , reject the null hypothesis

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 106

 Example
• An economist believes that the percentage
of urban households with Internet access
is greater than the percentage of rural
households with Internet access.
• He obtains a random sample of 800 urban
households and finds that 338 of them
have Internet access. He obtains another
random sample of 750 rural households
and finds that 292 of them have Internet
access.
• Test the economist’s claim at the  =0.05
level of significance.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 107

 Solution:
• The samples are simple random samples that were
obtained independently.
x1=338, n1=800, x2=292 and n2=750, so

338 292
pˆ 1   0 .4225 and pˆ 2   0 .3893 . Thus,
800 750

• We want to determine whether the percentage of

urban households with Internet access is greater
 than the percentage of rural households with
Internet access.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 108

• So, we test the hypothesis:

H0: p1 = p2 versus H1: p1 > p2

or, equivalently,
H0: p1 - p2=0 versus H1: p1 - p2 > 0
The level of significance is  = 0.05

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 109

The pooled estimate:
x1  x 2 338  292
p    0 . 4065 .
n1  n 2 800  750

The test statistic is:

0 . 4225  0 . 3893
Z   1 . 33 .
1 1
0 . 4065 (1  0 . 4065  
800 750

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 110

• This is a right-tailed test with =0.05.
The critical value is Z0.05=1.645.

Since the test

statistic, z0=1.33 is
less than the
critical value
z.05=1.645,

We fail to reject
the null hypothesis.

Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 111

 Constructing a (1-)100% Confidence Interval
for the Difference between Two Population
Proportions

• To construct a (1-)100% confidence interval

for the difference between two population
proportions:

pˆ 1 (1  pˆ 1  pˆ 2 (1  pˆ 2  pˆ 1 (1  pˆ 1  pˆ 2 (1  pˆ 2 
( pˆ 1  pˆ 2   z    , ( pˆ 1  pˆ 2   z   
2
n1 n2 2
n1 n2



Dr. Mohammed Alahmed 112

 Is the
Population
Normal?
No Yes

Is n ≥ 30 ? Is σ known?
No Yes No Yes

Use non-
parametrics Use z-test Use t-test Use z-test
test