COMPLETION DESIGN

1. COMPLETION DESIGN
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In simple terms, the term ‘well completion’ refers to the methods by which a newly drilled
well can be finalised so that reservoir fluids can be produced to surface production facilities
efficiently and safely. In general, the process of completing a well includes the following:
• A method of providing satisfactory communication between the reservoir and the
borehole
• The design of the tubulars (casing and tubing) which will be installed in the well
• An appropriate method of raising reservoir fluids to the surface
• The design, and the installation in the well of the various components used to
allow efficient production, pressure integrity testing, emergency containment of
reservoir fluids, reservoir monitoring, barrier placement, well maintenance and
well kill
• The installation of safety devices and equipment which will automatically shut a
well in the event of a disaster.
In general, a well is the communication link between the surface and the reservoir and it
represents a large percentage of the expenditure in the development of an oil or gas field. It is
of utmost importance that the well be ‘completed’ correctly at the onset, in order that
maximum overall productivity of the field may be obtained. The ideal completion is the lowest
cost completion which will meet the demands placed on it during its producing lifetime.

1.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

Before a production well is drilled, a great deal of planning must be undertaken to ensure that
the design of the completion is the best possible. A number of factors must be taken into
consideration during this planning stage, which can broadly be split into reservoir
considerations and mechanical considerations.
RESERVOIR CONSIDERATIONS
• Producing rate
• Multiple reservoirs
• Reservoir drive mechanism
• Secondary recovery requirements
• Stimulation
• Sand control
• Artificial lift
• Workover requirements.

MECHANICAL CONSIDERATIONS
• Functional requirements
• Operating conditions
• Component design
• Component reliability
• Safety.

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Figure 1 shows an example of a north sea drilling and casing schedule the main features are as
follows:
1. The installation of a 30 ins conductor to approx 500 ft. Conductor pipe provides
structural strength, covers soft formations just below the sea bed and is the largest
diameter pipe installed in a well. The hole required to accommodate conductor pipe can
be drilled (onshore) of pile driven (offshore).
2. The installation of 20 ins surface casing which terminates at 1,000 ft total vertical depth.
Surface casing pipe provides protection against shallow gas, seals off shallow water
bearing sands, and provides a base for the BOP stack and the wellhead assembly.
Surface casing is always cemented back to surface.
3. The installation of 133/8 ins intermediate casing which terminates at 4,000 ft total
vertical depth. Intermediate casing pipe is used to protect weak formations; helps
prevent lost circulation of drilling fluids, and hole caving. (In a deep well, more than one
intermediate casing string may be set.) Intermediate casing is usually cemented to a few
hundred feet above the casing shoe of the surface casing string.
4. The installation of 95/8 ins production casing which terminates approx 7,500 ft total
vertical depth. Production casing pipe is used to provide control of the completed well
and is the main string that reaches down to the producing interval(s). Production casing
is usually cemented to a few hundred feet above the casing shoe of the intermediate
casing string.

NOTE: Drilling operations may be resumed to deepen the well and liner casing
installed and hung off from the lower end of the production casing.

A wellhead provides a means of:

• Support for each casing string
• Support for the BOP equipment for the next section of hole to be drilled
• Sealing off the various annuli from pressure control purposes
• Support for the completion string
• Support for the Xmas Tree
• Control of annulus pressure.
Surface wellheads are installed in sections after each casing string is run. Each casing hanger
also provides an annulus seal. Subsequent wellhead sections seal off on top of the previous
casing string. Figure 2 shows a simplified schematic of surface wellhead sections. The bullets
shown represent a common way of representing annuli.
• The 95/8 ins or production casing string when we insert tubing in the well this
would be termed the tubing/production casing annulus
• The 95/8 ins and 133/8 ins annulus
• 133/8 ins and 20 ins annulus.

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Figure 1 - North Sea Casing Profile Example

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Figure 2 - Typical Surface Wellhead System

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1.3 COMPLETION AT THE RESERVOIR

There are several methods of completing a well at the producing zone (or zones) in order to
admit reservoir fluids into the borehole at the depth of the reservoir (or reservoirs).

1.3.1 Open Hole (Barefoot) Completion

Production casing is set and cemented to a depth just above the producing zone. The
reservoir is then drilled into and the drilled hole left as it is (Refer to Figure 3a). This type of
completion is ideal where the reservoir rock is of the appropriate mechanical strength i.e. is
consolidated and will not slough or cave in.
Open hole completions have very little application in the North Sea where reservoirs are
heterogeneous or where the development is high risk and high cost. Open hole completions
offer no scope for isolating individual zones for production, stimulation or remedial work.
However, this bottom hole completion type is used extensively in land fields where cost
savings from not running and perforating casing significantly reduce total well costs. The
advantages and disadvantages of open hole completion types are indicated in Table 1.

1.3.2 Uncemented Liner Completions

In a non-consolidated formation where sand is likely to be produced, a non-cemented liner
may be used. The production casing is set above the producing zone and an open hole drilled.
The open hole is then lined with a short length of slotted or wire-wrapped casing (or tubing)
which is hung from the production casing and sealed into it (Refer to Figure 3b). The slots or
wire wrapped pipe prevents sand from entering the well bore.
In sandy wells where slotted or wire wrapped liner has proved inadequate, the refinement
technique of gravel packing has been developed. Gravel packing consists of filling the annular
space between the open hole and the liner with a sheath of gravel - the external gravel pack.
The gravel used is a coarse sand with a grain diameter appropriate for controlling unwanted
sand production. Sand screens are available where the coarse sand is already pre-packed in the
liner assembly.
This bottom hole completion type has all the disadvantages of the open hole completion with
the added cost of the liner and liner hanger thrown in. Uncemented liner applications are as
for the open hole type, but where unconsolidated sands require to be controlled. The
advantages and disadvantages of uncemented liner completion types are indicated in Table 1.

1.3.3 Cased and Cemented Completions

This is the most common type of bottom hole completion methods especially in the north
sea. In this type of completion the production casing or liner is set and cemented through and
beyond the producing zone or zones. Communication with the reservoir is then established by
shooting holes through the casing or liner (Refer to Figure 3c). The cement sheath around the
liner/casing isolates each zone or layer of a reservoir and permits zones to be selectively
perforated, produced, and stimulated. The initial cost of completing this way has higher cost
implications. The advantages and disadvantages of cased and cemented completion types are
indicated in Table 1.

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Bottom Hole
Completion Advantages Disadvantages
Technique
• No perforating, no production • Liable to ‘sand out’
casing, no cementing expense • No selectivity for production or
• Minimum rig time stimulation
Open Hole • Full diameter hole in the pay • Ability to isolate is limited to the
zone improves productivity lower part of the hole.
• No critical log interpretation is
required.
• No perforating or cementing •
No selectivity for production or
expense for the production stimulation
casing • Cost of slotted liner or pre-
• Assists in preventing sand packed screen
Slotted Liner
production • Difficult to isolate zones for
• No critical log interpretation is production control
required. • Slightly longer completion time
than for open hole completion.
• Introduces flexibility allowing • Requires critical log
isolation of zones and selection interpretation to specify actual
of zones for production or perforation zone
Cased and
Cemented
injection. • Cost of casing/liner and
cementation
• Cost of rig time for longer
completion period.
Table 1 - Bottom Hole Completion Techniques - Advantages And Disadvantages

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Figure 3 - Methods Of Completing At The Producing Zone

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1.4 PERFORATING
It will be necessary in most cases to perforate a hydrocarbon bearing zone in cased hole
completions in order to realise optimum production. Some wells can flow open-hole but,
where a formation is relatively unconsolidated, flow rates are expected to be high and for
reasons of safety, perforated cased hole completions are usually considered preferable.
Perforating is an operation whereby holes are made through the production casing (or liner)
and its cement sheath into the reservoir to permit oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
Nowadays, virtually all perforating is performed with shaped charge perforators. Bullet
perforators are occasionally used for particular applications.
As far a completion design is concerned, the following comment cannot be overstated.
‘The fate of a well hinges on years of exploration, months of planning, and weeks of
drilling. But ultimately it depends on perforating the optimal completion, which begins
with the first millisecond of perforating. Profitability is strongly influenced by the critical
link between the reservoir and the wellbore.’
Perforations must provide a clean flow channel between the producing formation and the
wellbore with minimum damage to the producing formation. The ultimate test of the
effectiveness of a perforating system, however, is the well productivity. The productivity of a
perforated completion depends significantly on the geometry of the perforations. The major
geometrical factors (Refer to Figure 4) that determine the efficiency of flow in a perforated
completion are:
• Perforation length
• Shot density
• Angular phasing
• Perforation diameter.
The relative importance of each of these factors on well productivity depends on the type of
completion, formation characteristics, and the extent of formation damage from drilling and
cementing operations. The method of perforating a well must be meticulously planned.

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Figure 4 - Perforation Geometry

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1.4.1 Gun Types and Perforation Methods

There are three basic perforating gun types:
• Retrievable hollow carrier gun
• Non-Retrievable or Expendable gun
• Semi-Expendable gun.
Each type is available for through tubing work or as a casing gun. (Refer to Figure 5a)
The retrievable hollow gun carrier consists of a steel tube into which a shaped charge is
secured - the gun tube is sealed against hydrostatic pressure. The charge is surrounded by air
at atmospheric pressure. When the charge fires, the explosive force slightly expand the carrier
wall but the gun and the debris within the gun are fully retrieved from the well.
The non-retrievable or expendable gun consists of individually sealed cases made of a
frangible material e.g. aluminium, ceramic or cast iron (Refer to Figure 5b). The shaped charge
is contained within the case and when detonated, blasts the case into small pieces. Debris
remains in the well.
With semi-expendable guns, the charges are secured on a retrievable wire carrier or metal
bar (Refer to Figure 5c). This reduces the debris left in the well and generally increases the
ruggedness of the gun.
There are currently three standard methods of perforating a well using shaped charges:
• Casing gun perforating (run on wireline)
• Through-tubing perforating (TTP) (run on wireline)
• Tubing-conveyed perforating. (TCP) (Run on tubing)
Figure 6 shows schematically the application of the three main perforating techniques.
TCP combines the best features of both casing guns and through-tubing guns and not
surprisingly is now the most widely used perforating technique used in the North Sea.
The guns are run as an integral part of a drill stem test (DST) or a completion string. The guns
are fired only after a packer has been set, a surface test tree has been installed, and the entire
completion string pressure integrity tested. Firing (detonation) can be achieved using annulus
or tubing pressure, mechanically or electrically in which case a wireline assembly has to be run
in the well. A time delay mechanism is incorporated to allow the surface tubing pressure to be
bled off to give the desired over balance/under balance when the guns fire. A typical device is
shown in Figure 7. The guns can be jettisoned after firing and allowed to fall to the bottom of
the well below the perforated interval.

NOTE: The completion requirement for a TCP system is to allow an appropriate

sump for the guns to fall into.

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The advantages of TCP systems are:

• Large intervals can be perforated at one time
• Easy to perforate in deviated wells
• Large gun sizes can be used with high shot densities
• Perforating may be carried out in under-balanced conditions
• Safest method to perforate.

The disadvantages are:

• Entire completion string must be pulled and re-run if the guns fail
• Additional hole must be drilled below the reservoir to accommodate the guns.
For a TCP system, a radioactive source is incorporated in a sub in the completion string for
correlating the guns. The sub can be logged with a gamma ray logging tool to determine the
exact position of the guns with respect to the formation.

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Figure 5 - Perforating Gun Types

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Figure 6 - Perforating Techniques

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Figure 7 - Hydraulic Time Delay System

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1.5 WELL INFLOW PERFORMANCE

The first tangible evidence of having found a hydrocarbon-bearing reservoir in an exploration
well, is provided by the drill cuttings. This evidence may be backed up by core sampling
and/or logging. However, the only way to find out if the hydrocarbons are recoverable is to
run a drill stem test (DST), which is a means of flowing the well safely to surface to monitor
the reservoir’s dynamic performance. Historically DSTs were performed using drill string, as
the name implies, but nowadays most offshore DSTs are run using a specially design string
with tubing as the production conduit. An example of a DST string is illustrated in Figure 8.
The purpose of a DST is to obtain reservoir data necessary to plan the development of a field
and to optimise recovery from a well. Such reservoir data includes:
• The static reservoir pressure
• The composition of the produced fluids
• The well productivity
• Indications of reservoir heterogeneities or boundaries.
Knowledge of the initial static reservoir pressure is vital and must be made before it is
disturbed by significant flow. It is from this reference point that comparisons and calculations
are made which help to define the development of the reservoir. Also of great importance is
the effect of flowing the well on its drive mechanism. Accurate well testing and analysis of
results from several exploratory wells will reveal the nature and source of this drive.
The Productivity Index (PI) is the starting point for examining a wells ability to deliver fluid.
In Figure 9 we can see that the productivity index is 16.6 bbl/day per psi drawdown.
Theoretically then, for every 1 psi the well is drawn down a further 16.6 barrels will be
produced. This relationship between flowing BHP and fluid production will form a straight
line on an IPR curve (Refer to Figure 10) until drawdown is sufficient to reduce the BHP
below the bubble point.
Knowing the PI can enable us to select a production rate at surface with a known drawdown.
The production choice will be selected to ensure the well produces above the bubble point
and a suitable tubing ID can be chosen to best serve the reservoir management policy.
Inflow performance relates to the movement or flow of fluid from a reservoir into the bottom
of the wellbore. Inflow performance response (IPR) or deliverability curves are used to
evaluate and predict well performance at the exploration stage. Periodic production tests and
also used to define the IPR curve after the completion string has been installed in the well. An
IPR curve is a plot of the drawdown induced by flowing the well versus the flow rate at the
bottom of the well. For a reservoir containing liquids, the drawdown is the difference between
the static reservoir pressure and the flowing pressure at the depth of the reservoir. An example
of an IPR curve for a liquid reservoir is shown in Figure 10. An IPR curve is specific to the
well at the time of testing. Pressure depletion from the reservoir will change the IPR curve.
An important application of IPR curves for wells drilled into a particular reservoir system is in
the maintenance of production. If one or more wells are shut in, petroleum engineers, using
IPR curves, can predict the appropriate choke sizes for flow from other wells in the same field
to compensate for lost production. The other important application of IPR curves is in
completion design.

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Figure 8 - Typical Drill Stem Test (DST) String

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Figure 9 - Productivity Index

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Figure 10 - Example Of An IPR Curve

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1.6 VERTICAL LIFT PERFORMANCE

Vertical lift performance (VLP) is concerned with the movement of reservoir fluids from the
wellbore at the depth of the reservoir to the production choke on surface. VLP curves are
dependent on tubing intake pressures, tubing head pressures, tubing IDs, tubing pressure
losses, fluid properties, fluid phase behaviour, and choke performance. The inflow and
outflow systems for a well are illustrated in Figure 11.

Figure 11 - Well Outflow And Inflow Systems

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NOTE: During production, critical flowing conditions are usually maintained at

the choke. Maintaining critical flow can be achieved by ensuring the
flowing pressure immediately downstream of the choke is restricted to
less than 50% of the flowing pressure observed immediately upstream of
the choke.

An example of VLP curves for various pipes IDs is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12 - Typical Vertical Lift Performance (VLP) For Various Tubing Sizes

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Matching the VLP curve to the IPR curve (nodal analysis) will identify which ID will be
appropriate for the production required from the well (Refer to Figure 13). Tubing selected on
this basis will optimise flow from the reservoir to production facilities. When depletion of a
reservoir occurs, VLP curves are utilised to determine the new conduit size to match its new
IPR curve.

Figure 13 - Matching VLP Curves With An IPR Curve

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1.7 FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS OF A COMPLETION STRING

The design of a completion string involves the selection of components that perform specific
functions and these functions are dependent on the philosophy of the operating company.
Operating company philosophies differ with respect to completion string design and in some
cases there are historic reasons for the inclusion of components that provide specific
functions.
In this section the functional requirements for a completion string will be discussed here by
example. Next, actual completion examples will be illustrated and differing philosophies
discussed.

Completion Design Example 1

Consider the casing schematic of Figure 14. The objective is to design a completion string for
this well with following basic functional requirements:
• To provide optimum flowing conditions
• To protect the casing from well fluids
• To contain reservoir pressure in an emergency
• To enable down hole chemical injection
• To enable the well to be put in a safe condition prior to removing the production
conduit (i.e. to be killed)
• To enable routine downhole operations.

NOTE: The above functional requirements are not exhaustive.

A completion string that fulfils these functional requirements is illustrated in Figure 14. It is
important to realise this example design is only a solution and not the solution. This design is
called a single zone single string completion.

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Figure 14 - Completion Design Example 1

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The completion design of Figure 14 also addresses the other functional requirements of:
• Suspension the tubing
• Compensation for expansion or contraction of the tubing
• Internal erosion of the tubing
• Protection of the reservoir during well kill operations
• Pumping operations for well kill
• Well intervention operations out of the lower end of the tubing
• Pressure integrity testing
• Reservoir monitoring
• Installation points for well barriers.
The component selection for this completion is shown in Table 2.

Functional Requirement Component

Optimise production Tubing ID
Casing protection Tubing hanger
Permanent packer
Emergency containment Safety valve landing nipple (SVLN)
Hydraulic control line
Wireline retrievable safety valve (WRSV)
Chemical injection Side pocket mandrel (SPM)
Well kill Sliding side door (SSD)
Routine downhole operations Xmas Tree
Tubing string movement Seal assembly
Extend tubing life Flow couplings
Support Tubing hanger
Barrier installation points Landing nipples
Tubing hanger
Pressure testing Landing nipples
Pumping operations Piping manifold c/w Choke
Table 2 - Component Selection For Completion Example 1

NOTE: Some components have dual functions.

NOTE: This completion design utilises a permanent packer and tailpipe that will
be installed by wireline techniques or hydraulically via a work string, prior
to running the completion string. (Packer systems will be discussed later.)

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Completion Design Example 2

Figure 15 shows another example of a single zone single string completion that illustrates
additional functional requirements.
The component selection for this completion is shown in Table 3.

Component Function
Tubing support
Tubing hanger Tubing to casing seal
Barrier installation point
Sub-surface safety valve (SSSV) Emergency containment
Flow couplings Tubing protection against internal erosion
Upper side pocket mandrels (SPMs) Unloading annulus liquids
Lowest side pocket mandrel (SPM) Point of gas injection
Tubing to annulus circulation
Sliding side door (SSD)
Barrier installation Point
Pressure testing of tubing string
Landing nipple
Barrier installation point
Protect the casing from well fluids
Retrievable packer
Ensure retrievability of all components
Pressure testing of tubing string
Landing nipple Barrier installation Point
Installation point for plug to set packer
Allows flow of fluid when monitoring reservoir
Perforated joint
performance
Installation point for pressure/temperature gauges
Landing nipple (No-Go)
Catches fallen well intervention tools
Allows unrestricted re-entry of well intervention
Re-entry guide
tools into the tubing
Table 3 - Component Selection For Completion Example 2

NOTE: This completion utilises a retrievable packer that will be run and set in
the casing by the application of pressure to the tubing. (Packer systems
will be discussed later.)

The additional functional requirements of this completion design are:

• Retrievability of all components from the well
• Reservoir monitoring
• Injection of gas in into tubing to assist production.

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Figure 15 - Completion Design Example 2

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1.8 COMPLETION COMPONENTS DESCRIPTIONS

The following completion component descriptions follow the completion design of Figure 14
and Figure 15. This completion incorporates components common to many well completions.
Workovers are often a result of the failure of a completion component, and thus a good
working knowledge of completion components and their purpose is an essential pre-requisite
to understanding workover and well control problems.

1.8.1 Re-entry Guide

A re-entry guide generally takes one of two forms:
• Bell guide
• Mule shoe.
The bell guide (Refer to Figure 16) has a 45° lead in taper to allow easy re-entry into the
tubing of well intervention tool strings (i.e., wireline or coiled tubing). This guide is commonly
used in completions where the end of the tubing string does not need to bypass the top of a
liner hanger.
The mule shoe guide (Refer to Figure 16) is essentially the same as the bell guide with the
exception of a large 45° shoulder. Should the tubing land on a liner lip while running the
completion in the well, the large 45° shoulder should orientate onto the liner lip and guide the
tubing into the liner.

Figure 16 - Re-entry Guides

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1.8.2 Landing Nipple

A landing nipple (Refer to Figure 17) is a short tubular device with an internally machined
profile which can accommodate and secure a locking device called a lock mandrel run usually
using wireline well intervention equipment. The landing nipple also provides a pressure seal
against the internal bore of the nipple and the outer surface of the locking mandrel.
Landing nipples are incorporated at various points in the completion string depending on their
functional requirement. Common uses for landing nipples are as follows:
• Installation points for setting plugs for pressure testing, setting hydraulic-set
packers or isolating zones
• Installation point for a sub-surface safety valve (SSSV)
• Installation point for a downhole regulator or choke
• Installation point for bottom hole pressure and temperature gauges.
A No-Go landing nipple (Refer to Figure 17) has a small shoulder located within the internal
bore of the nipple. The primary reason for a No-Go shoulder is to locate the correct lock
mandrel. A secondary function would be to prevent wireline tools from falling out of the end
the tubing, if dropped. Only one No-Go landing nipple of the same size can be used in a
completion string, the lowermost nipple being the No-Go nipple. More than one No-Go
landing nipple can be incorporated in a completion string provided that a step down in No-
Go shoulder size is observed.

NOTE: In highly deviated wells, it may not be possible to use landing nipples at
inclinations greater than 70°. Wireline operators commonly use landing
nipples for depth references.

Figure 17 - Landing Nipples

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The plugs that may be installed in Landing Nipples are:

• Plug with shear disc (pump-open)
• Plug with equalising valve
• Plug with non-return valve.
and the choice of plug depends on the pressure control required and the chances of retrieval.

1.8.3 Tubing Protection Joint

This is a joint of tubing included for the specific purpose of protecting bottom hole pressure
and temperature gauges from excessive vibration while installed in the landing nipple directly
above.

1.8.4 Perforated Joint

A perforated joint (Refer to Figure 18) may be incorporated in the completion string for the
purpose of providing bypass flow if bottom hole pressure and temperature gauges are used for
reservoir monitoring. The design criteria for a perforated joint is that the total cross-sectional
area of the holes should be at least equivalent to the cross sectional area corresponding to
internal diameter of the tubing.

Figure 18 - Perforated Joint

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1.8.5 Sliding Side Door

A sliding side door (SSD) or sliding sleeve (Refer to Figure 19) allows communication
between the tubing and the annulus. Sliding side doors consist of two concentric sleeves, each
with slots or holes. The inner sleeve can be moved with well intervention tools, usually
wireline, to align the openings to provide a communication path for the circulation of fluids.
Sliding side doors are used for the following purposes:
• To circulate a less dense fluid into the tubing prior to production
• To circulate appropriate kill fluid into the well prior to workover
• As a production device in a multi-zone completion
• As a contingency should tubing/tailpipe plugging occur
• As a contingency to equalise pressure across a deep set plug after pressure
integrity testing
• As an alternative flow path should a plug become stuck in a wireline nipple.

NOTE: As with all communication devices, the differential pressure across SSDs
should be known prior to opening.

NOTE: In some areas, the sealing systems between the concentric sleeves are
incompatible with the produced fluids and hence alternative methods of
producing tubing to annulus communication is used (e.g. side pocket
mandrel, tubing perforating).

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Figure 19 - Sliding Side Door (SSD)

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1.8.6 Flow Couplings

Flow couplings are used in many completions above and/or below a completion component
where turbulence may exist to prevent loss of tubing string integrity and mechanical strength
due to internal erosion directly above and/or below the component. Turbulence may be
caused by the profiles internal to a component.
Flow couplings are thick walled tubulars (of the same internal diameter as the tubing) made of
high grade alloy steel usually supplied in 10, 15, or 20 ft lengths and their use depends on
internal erosion criteria obtained from fluid velocity and particulate content analysis.

NOTE: In multi-zone completions, blast joints are commonly used to prevent loss
of tubing string integrity due to external erosion resulting from the jetting
actions directly opposite producing formations.

1.8.7 Side Pocket Mandrels

A side pocket mandrel (SPM) (Refer to Figure 20) along with its through bore, contains an
offset pocket which is ported to the annulus. Various valves can be installed/retrieved
into/from the side pocket by wireline methods to facilitate annulus-to-tubing communication.
Side pocket valves, which provide a seal above and below the communication ports, include:
Gas lift valves When installed in the SPM, the valve responds to the pressure
of gas injected into the annulus by opening and allowing gas
injection into the tubing. In a gas lift system, the lowest SPM is
that used for gas injection into the tubing and the upper SPMs
are those used to unload the annulus of completion fluid down
to the point of gas injection.
Chemical injection valves These allow injection of chemicals (e.g. corrosion inhibitors)
into the tubing. They are opened by pressure on the annulus
side.
Circulation valves These are used to circulate fluids from the annulus to the
tubing without damaging the pocket.
Equalisation valves Are isolation and pressure equalisation devices that prevent
communication between the tubing and the annulus, and can
provide an equalisation facility by initially removing a prong
from the valve.
Differential kill valves These are used to provide a means of communication between
the annulus and the tubing by the application of annulus
pressure. An SPM with a differential valve installed provides the
same function as a sliding side door.
Dummy valves These are solely isolation devices that prevent communication
between the tubing and the annulus.

NOTE: An SPM may be used as a circulation device in preference to an SSD as

side pocket valves may be retrieved for repair and/or seal replacement.

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Figure 20 - Side Pocket Mandrel (SPM)

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1.9 SAFETY VALVES

The purpose of a safety valve is to shut off flow from a well in the event of a potentially
catastrophic situation occurring. These situations include serious damage to the wellhead,
failure of surface equipment, and fire at surface. Many oil operating companies have differing
philosophies on the inclusion of safety valve in their completion. For example, in an offshore
well, at least one safety valve is placed in every well at a depth which varies from 200 ft to
2,000 ft below the seabed. The depth at which a safety is installed in a completion is
dependent on well environment (onshore, offshore), production characteristics (wax or
hydrate deposition depth), and the characteristics of the safety valve. (maximum and minimum
setting depths)

NOTE: It is generally recommended that a safety valve is installed in a well that is

capable of sustaining natural flow.

In most oil operating areas the installation of a safety valve is governed by law.
There are numerous types of safety valves in field operation, but in our case we are going to
concentrate on only four types. Two subsurface controlled, and two surface controlled valves.

1.9.1 Types Of Sub-surface Controlled Safety Valve

• Ambient pressure operated
• Differential pressure operated.

NOTE: Both examples are known as ‘Direct Acting’ valves and are classed as
pressure activated devices.

Ambient Pressure Activated (Storm Choke)

This type of valve is normally closed. The well pressure (hydrostatic or flowing) keeps the
valve open. If the well starts to produce at an increase flow rate, the tubing pressure drops and
the valve is closed by a spring and pre-charged nitrogen chamber. The valve must be set for
the given well conditions and its location in the well. Once closed, the valve can be re-opened
by applying tubing pressure above it, or by means of an equalising valve, run on wireline . The
valve is popular in many land operations due to its minimal price compared to a surface
controlled system. They are often used as back ups for tubing, or wireline retrievable safety
valves. They can be of the rotating ball, flapper or ball and seat type. The valve can be
installed and retrieved under pressure by wireline methods.
Pressure Differential Activated (Velocity Valve or Storm Choke)
This type of valve is normally open. The valve operates on a spring loaded flow bean pressure
differential principle. The spring holds the valve off-seat until the well flow reaches a
predetermined rate. When the pressure differential across the bean exceeds the spring tension
the valve is designed to close off the well flow. Once closed, the valve can be re-opened by
applying tubing pressure above it, or by means of an equalising valve run on wireline. The
valve can be installed and retrieved under pressure by wireline methods.

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Figure 21 - Otis ‘J’ Differential Pressure Safety Valve

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Figure 22 - Otis ‘H’ Ambient Pressure Safety Valve

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1.9.2 Surface Controlled Safety Valves

• Wireline retrievable valve (WRSV)
• Tubing retrievable. (TRSV)

Wireline Retrievable Valve

This valve is actuated open usually by application of hydraulic pressure from surface via a
control line run to the depth of the safety valve. Loss of hydraulic pressure will result in
closure of the valve. A number of monitoring pilots or sensing devices can be linked to the
surface/subsurface safety system. Each pilot can be set to monitor various flowing and shut-in
parameters, and will close the valve to close if a potentially dangerous situation occurs.
The valve is run on wireline (slickline) and is installed in a special safety valve landing nipple
(SVLN). This SVLN is made up as part of the completion string. A control line which is
attached to the completion string by special clamp, provides hydraulic pressure to actuate the
valve open.
The main advantage of utilising a WRSV is that it can be economically retrieved for
inspection. A primary disadvantage of a WRSV is related to its restricted bore, which causes a
restriction to flow. The pressure or temperature drop across the valve may cause hydrate or
paraffin plugging if an appropriate condition exists.

Tubing Retrievable Valve (TRSV)

A tubing retrievable safety valve (TRSV) run as part of the tubing string is classified as a
TRSV. To open the valve, hydraulic pressure is applied to the valve through a control line
attached to the completion string by means of a special clamp.
The main advantage of a TRSV is a full bore unrestricted flow through the flapper or ball
valve. The full-bore unrestricted flow may reduce or eliminate hydrate or paraffin
accumulation. The main disadvantage is that in the event of a critical failure of the valve, the
completion string must be pulled and this can be an extremely expensive operation. This
disadvantage has been partially overcome by the development of lock open tools and the
provision of a surface controlled wireline retrievable insert valve which can be installed in the
body of the TRSV. Most valves are installed with a flapper operating mechanism. Examples of
the two devices can be found in Figure 23 and Figure 24.

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Figure 23 - Typical Surface Controlled Wireline Retrievable Safety Valve (WRSV)

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Figure 24 - Typical Surface Controlled Tubing Retrievable Safety Valve (TRSV)

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Figure 25 - Annulus Safety Valve

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1.9.3 Annulus Safety Valves (ASVs)

In gas lift systems where large amounts of pressurised gas exists in the tubing-casing annulus,
Annulus Safety Valves may be incorporated to contain this gas inventory in the annulus in the
event that the wellhead becomes damaged. ASV’s are not discussed here but an example
completion design incorporating such a device is shown in Figure 43. An example of an ASV
is shown in Figure 25

1.9.4 Tubing Hanger

The tubing hanger is a completion component which is landed and locked inside the tubing
head spool and provides the following functions:
• Suspends the tubing
• Provides a seal between the tubing and the tubing head spool
• Installation point for barrier protection
• Is landed and locked.
The tubing head spool provides the following functions:
• Provides a facility to lock the tubing hanger in place
• Provides a facility for fluid access to the ‘A’ (Production) annulus
• Provides an appropriate base for the completion Xmas Tree
• Is landed and locked.
An example of a tubing hanger/tubing head spool system is shown in Figure 26. Such tubing
hanger systems allow completion tubing to be suspended in tension (i.e. all the tubing weight
minus fluid buoyancy) or the tubing suspended in compression.

NOTE: Completion strings may be set in compression to accommodate for

tubing movement as a result of pumping cold fluids into the tubing, i.e.
thermal contraction effects. For example, water injection wells may be set
in compression prior to landing the hanger by installing additional tubing
in the well. When the water injection system is operating, thermal effects
will contract the string appropriate to the additional tubing installed.
Setting a completion in compression requires that the tubing-to-packer
arrangement be appropriate. (Packer systems will be discussed later.)

NOTE: Completion strings may also be set in tension to compensate for thermal
expansion of the tubing due to production. Setting a completion in
tension requires pulling the tubing in tension prior to production and
closing rams around a hanger nipple. The hanger nipple is run an
appropriate distance below a ram type tubing hanger (Refer to Figure 27)
and the tension applied to the tubing string to remove tubing from the
well equivalent to that expected from thermal expansion. Setting a
completion in tension requires that the tubing-to-packer arrangement be
appropriate. (Packer systems will be discussed later.)

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Figure 26 - Tubing Head Spool/Tubing Hanger System

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Figure 27 - Ram Type Tubing Hanger System

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1.9.5 Xmas Tree

A Xmas Tree is an assembly of valves, all with specific functions, used to control flow from
the well and to provide well intervention access for well maintenance or reservoir monitoring.

NOTE: The Xmas Tree is normally connected directly to the tubing hanger spool
that sits on the uppermost casing head spool. The whole assemblage of
Xmas Tree, tubing hanger, and uppermost casing head spool is
sometimes referred to as the wellhead.

A Xmas Tree may be a composite collection of valves or, more commonly nowadays,
constructed from a single block (Refer to Figure 28). The solid block enables the unit to be
smaller and eliminates the danger of leakage from flanges.
Typically, from bottom to top, an Xmas Tree will contain the following valves:
Lower master gate valve Manually operated and used as a last resort to shut in a well.
Upper master gate valve Usually hydraulically operated and also used to shut in a well.
Flow wing valve Manually operated to permit the passage of hydrocarbons to
the production choke.
Kill wing valve Manually operated to permit entry of kill fluid to into the
tubing.
Swab valve Manually operated and used to allow vertical access into the
tubing for well intervention work.

NOTE: Modern Xmas Tree valves are of the gate-valve type that allows full bore
access.

A typical surface wellhead and Xmas Tree are shown in Figure 29.

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Figure 28 - Typical Xmas Tree

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Figure 29 - Typical Surface Wellhead And Xmas Tree

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1.9.6 Production Packers

A production packer may be defined as a sub-surface component used to provide a seal
between the casing and the tubing in a well to prevent the vertical movement of fluids past the
sealing point, allowing fluids from a reservoir to be produced to surface facilities through the
production tubing.

NOTE: By no means are all wells completed with production packers. However,
for the purposes of this course, only those packers used in well
completions will be discussed.

The prime purpose of using a packer or packers in a well completion is as follows:

• To protect the casing from reservoir fluids
• To protect the casing from the effects of flowing pressures
• To isolate various producing zones.
In general, packers are constructed of hardened slips, which are forced to bite into the casing
wall to prevent upward or downward movement while a system of rubberised elements
contact the casing wall to effect a seal.
Production packers may be grouped according to their ability to be removed from a well, that
is, retrievable or permanent.

Retrievable Production Packers

Are run on the tubing string and may be set mechanically or hydraulically. They are usually
removed from the well by the application of mechanical forces. An example of a retrievable
production packer is shown in Figure 30.

Permanent Production Packers

These may be run in a variety of ways and become an integral part of the casing once set. A
permanent packer may be run as follows:
• On electric wireline and set in the casing using pyrotechnics to generate the forces
required to set it in the casing
or
• On pipe and set hydraulically by the application of pipe pressure.

Figure 31 shows an example of this type of permanent packer.

NOTE: Both the above methods provide a disconnect mechanism from the
setting device. The setting device is removed from the well after the
packer has been set. The completion string is then run into the well and a
seal assembly stabbed into the polished bore of the packer.

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Figure 30 - Example Of A Retrievable Packer

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Figure 31 - Example Of A Permanent Packer

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Permanent packers may also be run:

• Latched onto the completion tubing and hydraulically set by the application of
tubing pressure.

NOTE: The tubing may be disconnected from the packer by rotation of the latch
system or by utilising an expansion joint located in the completion
directly above the latch assembly.

Figure 32 shows an example of this type of permanent (hydro-set) packer.

Permanent/Retrievable Production Packers

These packers have the same mechanical characteristics as permanent packers, but have the
facility to be released and recovered from the well. These packers will not be discussed in this
course.

NOTE: In general, permanent production packers can withstand greater

differential pressures than the equivalent retrievable packer, although
recent developments in packer technologies have narrowed the gap
between the two types.

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Figure 32 - Example Of Hydro-Set Permanent Packer

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1.9.7 Seal Assemblies

Seal assemblies; run on tubing, packs off in the bore of a permanent packer. The sealing
element frequently used is the chevron packing ring, fabricated from synthetic rubber, or from
plastic such as Teflon. Seal rings are assembled in sets, facing opposite directions, to give a
two-way seal. An alternative to chevron seals is the moulded rubber sleeve and in some
permanent packer systems a choice of either is provided.
Figure 33 illustrates the assemblies available for connecting the tubing to the packer and
maintaining a seal.

Locator Seal Assembly

Locator seal assemblies incorporates a top No-Go shoulder, which locates on the bevel of the
packer body, just above the le ft-hand thread. This type of assembly allows the tubing to set in
neutral or compression.

NOTE: Seal assemblies of this type can be used without the locating No-Go
shoulder.

Locator seal assemblies do not permit the tubing to be landed in tension. At most the full
tubing weight can be hung off at the tubing hanger. However, when the well is producing, the
temperature of the tubing will increase and the tubing will expand longitudinally. With the
locator seated on the packer, and top of the tubing string fixed in the tubing hanger,
expansion can take place only at the expense of buckling. By using a series of seal subs below
the locator, the tubing can be pulled back a calculated distance (space-out) and then landed,
leaving the locator the same distance above the packer, but with the seal assembly still within
the packer bore. This will allow for tubing expansion or contraction. A completion string may
also be spaced out appropriately if overall cooling of the tubing string will occur e.g. in a water
injection well.

Anchor Seal Assembly

This seal assembly has a latch sleeve, threaded to match the le ft-hand thread at the top of the
packer. The lower part of the sleeve, carrying the thread, has vertical slots cut in it, and the
lower flank of the thread is chamfered. On entry into the packer, the latch sleeve collapses
inwards, and then springs out to engage the thread of the packer. The anchor seal assembly
permits the tubing to be landed in compression, neutral, or tension. The anchor seal assembly
can be released from the permanent packer by pulling the tubing in slight tension and rotating
the tubing right-handed at surface. The latching sleeve will back out of the packer.

Polished Bore Receptacles (PBRs)

These are usually anchor latched to a hydro-set packer and run in the well in the closed
position (shear ringed, shear pinned, J-slotted). After the packer is set, the PBR may be spaced
out appropriately. A PBR affords maximum flow capability through the packer and allows a
method of disconnecting from the packer for workover operation.

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Tubing Seal Receptacles (TSRs)

These are usually anchor latched to a hydro-set packer and run in the well in the closed
position (shear ringed, shear pinned, J-slotted). After the packer is set, the TSR may be spaced
out appropriately. A TSR affords maximum flow capability through the packer and allows a
method of disconnecting from the packer for workover operation. A TSR affords protection
to the seals. Also, a TSR may be manufactured with circulation ports on the inner mandrel.
PBRs and TSRs are shown in Figure 34.

Figure 33 - Seal Assemblies

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Figure 34 - PBR And TSR Schematics

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1.9.8 Expansion Joints

These are telescoping devices (Refer to Figure 35) usually used in a completion string above a
retrievable packer to compensate for tubing movement and possibly to prevent premature
release of the packer from the well.

Figure 35 - Expansion Joint

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1.9.9 Tubing
Although tubing is the last string of tubulars to be run in the well, its requirements often
dictate the whole well design. Tubing is run mainly to serve as the flow conduit for the
produced fluids. It also serves to isolate these fluids from the ‘A’ (Production) annulus when it
is used in conjunction with a casing packer.
The basic tubing string design criteria are:
• Size, appropriate to producing operations
• Tensile strength
• Stress
• Corrosion resistance.
The American Petroleum Institute (API) identifies, assesses and develops standards for oil and
gas industry goods. Tubing is considered appropriate to API standard if the following
conform to certain specifications:
• Weight per foot
• Length ranges
• Outside diameter
• Wall thickness
• Steel grade
• Method of steel manufacture.
and API standards also specify:
• Physical dimensions of the thread connections
• Performance for burst, collapse and tensile strength of the pipe body and thread
connections.
An API type connection is shown in Figure 36.

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Figure 36 - API Type Connection

API tubing steel grades are identified by letters and numbers which dictate various
characteristics of the steel. For each grade, the number designates the minimum yield strength.
Thus J-55 grade steel has a minimum yield strength of 55,000 psi. In other words, it can
support a stress of 55,000 psi with an elongation of less than 0.5%. The letter in conjunction
with the number designates parameters such as the maximum yield strength and the minimum
ultimate strength which for J-55 pipe is 80,000 psi and 75,000 psi respectively. Table 4 shows
the yield values for various API tubing grades:

Minimum Ultimate
Grade Minimum Yield (psi) Maximum Yield (psi)
Yield (psi)
H-40 40,000 80,000 60,000
J-55 55,000 80,000 75,000
C-75 75,000 90,000 95,000
L-80 80,000 95,000 95,000
N-80 80,000 110,000 100,000
P105 105,000 135,000 120,000
Table 4 - Yield Values For Various API Tubing Grades

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Grade C-75 is for hydrogen sulphide service and where a higher strength than J-55 is required.
In addition to API grades, there are many proprietary steel grades which may conform to API
specifications, but which are used extensively for various applications requiring properties
such as:
• Very high tensile strength
• Disproportionately high collapse strength
• Resistance to sulphide stress cracking.
Many tubing strings are run which contain these non-API tubulars. This pipe is made to many
but not all API specifications, with variations in steel grade, wall thickness, outside diameter,
thread connections, and related upset. Due to these variations, the ratings of burst, collapse,
and tensile specifications are non-API.
The type of tubing connections selected for a completion will depend mainly on the well
characteristics. The connection must be able to contain the produced fluids safely and at the
maximum pressures anticipated. The basic requirements of a tubing string connection are:
• Strength compatible with the operational requirements of the string during, and
after running
• Sealing properties suitable for the fluid and pressures expected
• Ease of stabbing during make-up, and safe breakout when pulling the tubing
• Resistance to damage, corrosion, and erosion.
There are two types of thread connection, API and Premium.
Premium connections are proprietary connections that offer premium features not available
on API connections. Most offer a metal-to-metal seal for improved high pressure seal
integrity. Premium connections exist with features such as flush connections, recess free
bores, and special clearance. An example of a premium thread is shown in Figure 37.

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Figure 37 - An Example Of A Premium Connection

1.9.10 Sub-sea Wellheads

Sub-sea wellheads serve the same function as a surface wellhead in providing support and
pressure integrity but are assembled differently. After positioning a guide base on the sea bed
which is run with the initial conductor casing, a wellhead is then run on the next string of
casing and hung off in the conductor (Refer to Figure 38). This sub-sea wellhead is the basis
for further operations. Drilling BOPs are installed in some cases on a special oriented profile
on top of the wellhead. The sub-sea Xmas Tree is subsequently latched to the wellhead. (Refer
to Figure 39)

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Figure 38 - Sub-sea Wellhead

Figure 39 - Typical Sub-sea Wellhead And Xmas Tree

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1.9.11 Examples of Single String Completions

1. Single Zone Single String Gravel Pack Completion Refer to Figure 40
2. Single Zone Single String Water Injection Completion Refer to Figure 41
3. Multiple Zone Single String Completion Refer to Figure 42
4. Single Zone Single String Completion c/w ASV System Refer to Figure 43
5. Dual Zone Single String Completion Refer to Figure 44
6. Single Zone Single String Gravel Pack Horizontal Completion Refer to Figure 45

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Figure 40 - Single Zone Single String Gravel Pack Completion

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Figure 41 - Single Zone Single String Water Injection Completion

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Figure 42 - Multiple Zone Single String Completion

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Figure 43 - Single Zone Single String Completion c/w ASV System

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Figure 44 - Dual Zone Single String Completion

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Figure 45 - Single Zone Single String Gravel Pack Horizontal Completion

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1.10 DUAL COMPLETIONS

Dual completions allow two zones to be produced separately and simultaneously via separate
tubing strings. Dual completions maximise the hydrocarbon recovery from a well where the
producing zones differ in pressure and/or fluid type. The philosophy behind designing each
production conduit is the same as that for a single zone completion possibly with the added
contingency for converting the completion to one that allows alternate production from each
zone usually up the long string.
Apart from using dual hydraulic set production packers (Refer to Figure 46) dual tubing
hanger systems (Refer to Figure 47) and dual Xmas Trees (Refer to Figure 48) the completion
components used are as that for a single zone completion. To combat erosion of the long
string opposite perforations in the upper zone, the long string is fitted with blast joints.

1.10.1 Examples of Dual String Completions

1. Dual zone dual string completion Refer to Figure 49
2. Triple zone dual string completion Refer to Figure 50

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Figure 46 - Example Of A Retrievable Dual Production Packer

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Figure 47 - Segmented Dual Hanger System

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Figure 48 - Example Of A Dual Xmas Tree

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Figure 49 - Dual Zone Dual String Completion

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Figure 50 - Triple Zone Dual String Completion

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