Grade 11

Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science
Quarter Hour Prayer
L. God, eternal truth,
A. We believe in you.
L. God, our strength and salvation,
A. We hope in you.
L. God, infinite goodness
A. We love you with all our heart.
L. You have sent the Word as Savior of the world,
A. Make us all one in him.
L. Fill us with the Spirit of your Son,
A. That we may glorify your name. Amen.
Grade 11
Physical Science

Formation of
the Elements
pp. 3-14
 INTRODUCTION
Welcome!
Elements are identified by the number of protons in the nuclei of their atoms. For example, an atom having six protons in
its nucleus is carbon, and one having 26 protons is iron. There are over 80 naturally occurring elements, with uranium
(92 protons) being the heaviest (heavier nuclei have been produced in reactors). Nuclei also contain certain neutrons,
usually in numbers greater than the number of protons. The number of neutrons in the atoms of a given element
varies.
Heavy elements can be formed from light ones by nuclear fusion reactions; these are nuclear reactions in which atomic
nuclei merge together. The simplest reactions involve hydrogen, whose nucleus consists only of a single proton, but
other fusion reactions, involving mergers of heavier nuclei, are also possible. When the universe formed in an initial
state of very high temperature and density, the big bang, the first elements to exist were the simplest, primarily
hydrogen and helium (two protons). But we, and Earth, and all other objects including elements other than hydrogen
and helium, are made of heavier elements, so a major question for scientists is how these heavier elements were
created.
Reference:
https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/elements-
formation#:~:text=Heavy%20elements%20can%20be%20formed,heavier%20nuclei%2C%20are%20also%20possible.
 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this lecture, you are expected to:
A. Give evidence for and explain the formation of the light elements in the Big Bang theory
B. Give evidence for and describe the formation of heavier elements during star formation and
evolution
C. Write the nuclear fusion reactions that take place in stars, which lead to the formation of
new elements
D. Describe how elements heavier than iron are formed
 LEARNING ENGAGEMENTS

In this lesson, you are required to complete the following learning

engagements:

❑JENo.01 Formation of the Elements

 RESOURCES

Textbook: An Introduction to Physical Science, 14th Edition by James T. Shipman, et al.

Other Reference: Physical Science, 10th Edition by Bill W. Tillery

Online Resources:

• https://www.jwst.nasa.gov/content/features/educational/buildItYourself/game/index.html
• https://www.ccusd93.org/cms/lib/AZ02204140/Centricity/Domain/926/Formation%20of%20the%20Elem
ents%20and%20Nuclear%20Reactions.pptx
• https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Chemistry_-
_The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/06._Electronic_Structure_of_Atoms
• https://che.utexas.edu/course/che359&384/lecture_notes/topic_7/nuclear_fusion1.ppt
 Grade 11
Physical Science

To get things started:

Let’s see if you still remember Chemical Symbols

Individual Whiteboard:

Please click the link sent in the chat box to go to your individual whiteboard (whiteboard.fi). You may use
a smartphone too. You will be writing your answers using your mouse (for laptop/PC) or fingers
(smartphone/tablet). Text is also enabled if you have difficulty in writing. Be sure to click outside the
textbox to submit your answer.
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Chlorine
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Cl
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Mercury
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Hg
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Tungsten
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

W
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Tin
Grade 11
Physical Science

Let’s see if you know some Chemical Symbols

Sn
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
Physical Science
Subatomic
Particles
Review: Writing a Nuclide Symbol • Protons (+)
• Electrons (-)
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
• Neutrons (0)
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z X Element Symbol
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Review: Writing a Nuclide Symbol

Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in nucleus
Mass number (A) = number of protons + number of neutrons
= atomic number (Z) + number of neutrons
Mass Number A
Atomic Number Z X Element Symbol
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science

Elements are Formed in Different Ways in our Universe

But how are

they
formed?
 Grade 11
Physical Science
Nucleosynthesis
• Nucleosynthesis is the process of element (nuclei) formation.
• Three types: Big Bang nucleosynthesis
Stellar (star) nucleosynthesis
Supernova nucleosynthesis
• Today, only stellar and supernova nucleosynthesis are occurring in
our universe.
• Element formation in our universe relies on nuclear fusion reactions.
(fusion = come together)
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
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Grade 11
Physical Science
ISOTOPES of HYDROGEN

same number of protons, but different

number of neutrons
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Physical Science
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Nuclear Fusion
• In nuclear fusion, smaller nuclei collide together to make larger
nuclei, and energy is released in the form of electromagnetic
radiation.
• Requires extremely high temperatures and pressures beyond those
found on or within Earth. However, these temperatures and
pressures are found inside stars and did occur during the initial
formation of our universe (during the Big Bang event).
• Fusion involves only the nuclei of atoms. At the temperatures at
which fusion can occur, matter exists as a plasma. This is the state of
matter where the electrons have been stripped off of the atoms.
Plasma is basically a super high energy, electrically charged gas.
• When nuclei collide, some of the mass of the nuclei is converted to
energy by Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc2. Nuclear fusion
releases a lot of energy per gram of material; much more energy
than is released by burning a comparable amount of wood, coal, oil,
or gasoline!
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Nuclear Fusion Principle

• Energy generated by joining two elements with low atomic numbers.
• Most efficient reaction known is fusion of Hydrogen isotopes, Deuterium and
Tritium, to form Helium.
• Fusion is source of energy for stars and the Sun.
• High temperatures > 100 million degrees Kelvin needed for fusion on earth
• At high temperature, the gas mixture forms a plasma (hot, electrically charged
gas)
Grade 11
Physical Science

• This reaction releases 17.6 MeV of energy. No limit on amount of fusion that
can occur (unlike fission).
 Grade 11
Physical Science
The Big Bang
• The Big Bang Theory is the most widely accepted scientific theory about
the origin of the universe. It is supported by multiple lines of evidence.
• The “Big Bang” was a phenomenally energetic explosion that initiated the
expansion of the universe.
• At the moment prior to the Big Bang explosion, all matter and energy were
compressed at a single point (a singularity – a point of infinite density).
• We do not know what was before…..?
• The universe has been expanding ever since, with galaxies moving farther
and farther apart.
• Using the rates of expansion measured in the universe and astronomical
distances, the age of the universe can be calculated back to the time of
the Big Bang. The age of the universe is calculated at about 13.7 billion
years old. By contrast, our Sun and its surrounding planets (i.e. our Solar
System) is 4.65 billion years old.
Grade 11
Physical Science

• Proposed by a Belgian
priest and physicist
named Georges
Lemaitre in 1927.
Grade 11
Physical Science

• The theory describes the universe as expanding (evolving), having

originated from an infinitely tiny dense point around 13.7 billion years
ago.

• The tiny dense point is known as the singularity. The singularity is

made up of pure energy. Thus, it means that during the period of the
existence of the singularity there are no matters yet.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

• Due to reasons still unknown, the singularity started to expand, and as it

expanded energies are converted into forces and matter.

• As matter becomes dominant gas clouds were formed, then the stars, the
planets, then galaxies and the universe as we know it today.
Grade 11
Physical Science

STAGES OF
THE BIG BANG
 Grade 11
Physical Science

RADIATION ERA

10,000 years

Most of the energy at this point existed as radiation (electromagnetic

waves). These included EM waves in different wave lengths. These
radiation has been recorded in 1965.
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science

RADIATION ERA

The cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is an evidence

that supports the big bang theory. The CMBR is a view of the remnants
of the occurrence of the stages stated by the big bang.

Discovered by Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson.

 EPOCH:
Grade 11 a : an extended period of time
Physical Science usually characterized by a
distinctive development or by a
memorable series of events
b : a division of geologic time
less than a period and greater
than an age.
INFLATIONARY EPOCH

10-35 s to 10-33 s

The universe expanded from the size of an atomic nucleus to 1035

meters in width.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

10-6 s

The universe continued to expand. It became distinct forces existed

and after 1 second (s) fundamental particles were formed such as
quarks, neutrinos, protons, electrons, and photons.
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
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FORMATION OF THE BASIC ELEMENTS

3s

Protons and neutrons combined to form hydrogen nuclei. Then

hydrogen nuclei began to combine in pairs to form helium nuclei. This
process is known as the nucleosynthesis.
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Big Bang
Nucleosynthesis
All Hydrogen and most Helium in the universe was produced
during the Big Bang Event, starting ~100 seconds after the
explosion. A small amount of Lithium was also produced.
Big Bang nucleosynthesis ceased within a few minutes after
the Big Bang because the universe had expanded and cooled
sufficiently by then such that the temperatures and pressures
were too low to support additional nuclear fusion reactions.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

MATTER DOMINATION/ERA

300,000 years

Matter began to dominate at the end of the radiation era.

Electrons joined the hydrogen and helium nuclei creating the first atoms.
Traces of lithium are present at this point.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

The existence of the atoms and cooling of the universe resulted to

absorptions of photons (light waves).

As the photons decreased in numbers no new energy produces light, the

universe is at the cosmic dark age.
Grade 11
Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

300,000,000 years

The slightly irregular areas of gas cloud gravitationally attracted nearby

matters and became denser. The dense gas clouds collapsed and
eventually gained enough mass and energy to produce light.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• A star is a very hot ball of gas (plasma). Stars create elements by combining lighter nuclei
into heavier nuclei via nuclear fusion reactions in their cores and releasing energy in the
process. They are natural nuclear reactors!
• Enormous temperatures (15,000,000 K), pressures, and densities of matter are needed to
initiate the fusion (thermonuclear) reactions which squeeze nuclei together and release
energy.
• The basic nuclear reaction in the Sun converts hydrogen to helium and releases energy in the
form of electromagnetic radiation (see the basic fusion reaction below). This is why our Sun
shines!
• Our Sun is only large enough to fuse hydrogen into helium within its core.
Grade 11
Physical Science

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

Gas clouds or more commonly known in astronomy as Stellar Nebula

(plural: nebulae) is scientifically considered as the origin of stars for
these nebulae contains all the elements and forces needed to give
rise to a star.
Grade 11
Physical Science

Stellar Nucleosynthesis
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Stellar Nucleosynthesis

During this period in the universe the formation of the stars resulted to a
new source of photon (light waves). Ending the cosmic dark age and
mark the beginning of the universe as we know today.

Likewise, along this period elements heavier than lithium are formed.
However, the most heaviest element at this point is iron.
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
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Stellar Nucleosynthesis
• Stars much larger than our Sun can fuse heavier
elements from lighter elements.
• These giant stars have an “onion layer” structure.
• As you proceed deeper into the star, temperatures
and pressures increase, and heavier and heavier
nuclei are fused together.
• The heaviest element that can be made in a star is
iron. Elements heavier than iron have fusion
reactions with temperature and pressure
requirements greater than those that can occur
within the core of a giant star.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Note: In the adjacent diagrams, the

term “burning” really means nuclear
fusion!
Grade 11
Physical Science
Nuclear Fusion Requirements
(in stars)
Minimum Core Minimum Core Minimum Stellar
Fusion Fusion By-product
Temperature Density Mass*
Hydrogen He 13 million K 100 gm/cc 0.08 solar masses
Helium C, O 100 million K 100,000 gm/cc 0.5 solar masses
Carbon O, Ne, Mg, Na 500 million K 200,000 gm/cc 4 solar masses

Neon O, Mg 1.2 billion K 4 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Oxygen Mg, Si, S, P 1.5 billion K 10 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses

Si, S, Ar, Ca, Ti, Cr, Fe,

Silicon around 3 billion K 30 million gm/cc about 8 solar masses
Ni
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Let us pause for a while to watch

the video of the origin of the
universe by the National
Geographic.

https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=HdPzOWlLrbE
Grade 11
Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

As the number of stars continues to form throughout the vast universe,

the gravitational forces between the stars grew large enough that they
attract each other forming clusters of stars known as galaxies.

One of these galaxies is the milky way.

Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

Among all these galaxies the milky (at least for us) is the most important
for these is where our star system belong. Our star system is known as
the solar system.

One of the planets in the solar system is the Earth.

Grade 11
Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

Star Systems contains the following celestial bodies:

1. Stars
2. Planets (regular and dwarf)
3. Asteroids
4. Comets
5. Natural Satellites (moons)
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

Like all the things in the universe everything has a life span. Billions of
years after the stars are born their energies dissipates, as a result of the
diminishing elements in its surfaces and core, that can serve as a fuel in
creating that energy.

Note: Stars creates their energy through Fusion and Fission Reaction
Grade 11
Physical Science
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Physical Science

BIRTH OF STARS AND GALAXIES

The end of stars produces so much energy in the form of heat and light
which allows the fusion of heavier elements together. Forming the rest of
natural elements.

Those are the elements with atomic number 27 to 94. The rest of the
elements are man-made and there are 24 synthetic elements.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Supernova Nucleosynthesis
• Elements heavier than Iron (Z = 26) are made primarily when
giant stars explode in supernovae.
• Even the largest stars do not have core temperatures and
pressures high enough to fuse iron into heavier elements.
An exploded star
Therefore, when a star runs out of nuclear fuel (lighter
(supernova)
nuclei) and can no longer undergo fusion reactions, gravity
causes the star to collapse. The gravitational collapse
triggers a phenomenally large explosion called a supernova.
The explosion of the star momentarily generates high
enough temperatures and pressures to cause nuclear fusion
reactions that make elements with atomic numbers 27-92
(Cobalt to Uranium).
• Since only the largest stars can explode in supernovae
events, elements with atomic numbers 27-92 are rarer than
elements with atomic numbers 1-26
 Grade 11
Physical Science
Nuclear Fission
• We have learned that elements form in the universe by nuclear fusion reactions which assemble larger nuclei by
forcing smaller nuclei together under tremendous temperatures and pressures.
• However, elements can also form when a large, unstable nucleus breaks apart in an attempt to achieve a more
stable, lower energy state.
• The splitting of a nucleus to form two or more smaller, more stable nuclei is called nuclear fission. (fission = split)
• Fission may occur spontaneously (without energy being added) or it may be prompted by firing a nuclear bullet (like
a proton or neutron) at an unstable nucleus, as seen in the example below.
• Like fusion, fission also releases energy stored in the nucleus of an atom. However, not as much energy is released
from fission as from fusion. Still, the energy released per gram of material by fission is considerably more than the
energy released by burning a comparable amount of wood, oil, gasoline, etc. Fission of uranium-235 atoms is used in
nuclear power plants to produce energy.
• Fission also occurs naturally within the layers of the earth as radioactive elements in rocks spontaneously decay to
more stable elements, creating a natural source of heat within the earth. You also contain a small proportion of
radioactive isotopes within your body. These isotopes decay naturally, releasing radiation. Therefore, you are
slightly radioactive too! So is the banana you ate for breakfast!
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
Physical Science
Radioactivity
• Radioactivity is the release of energy, in the form of energetic particles and waves,
from the nuclei of unstable (radioactive) isotopes. Radioactive atoms undergo
fission-type reactions in order to try to become more stable nuclei with lower
energies. Radioactive atoms are called radioisotopes.
• The nuclei of unstable, radioactive isotopes have the wrong ratio of neutrons to
protons (n/p). Generally, it is too high. When n/p of an isotope falls between 1 to
1.5, the nucleus is stable (within the “Band of Stability” on a n0 vs. p+ plot). Outside
of that range, nuclei tend to be unstable and break apart over time. This “breaking
apart” of unstable nuclei over time and the accompanying release of nuclear
particles and energy is called radioactive decay.
Grade 11
Physical Science
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Types of Radioactive Decay – Alpha Decay

In alpha decay, an unstable nucleus releases two
neutrons and two protons. This is called an alpha
() particle. It is equivalent to a 42He nuclei. Energy
is also released in the process.

As a result, the mass number of the remaining

nucleus decreases by 4 and the atomic number
decreases by 2. A new element is formed in the Credit: Khan Academy
process!
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Types of Radioactive Decay – Beta Decay

In beta decay of an unstable nucleus, a neutron
suddenly changes to a proton, releasing an
electron, a ghostly, low mass particle called a
neutrino (not pictured), and energy!

As a result, the atomic number of the remaining

nucleus increases by 1 but the mass number does
not change. A new element is formed!

Note: The released electron did not come from Credit: Khan Academy
outside the nucleus. It came from inside the
nucleus. It is called a beta () particle.
 Grade 11
Physical Science

Types of Radioactive Decay – Gamma Decay

In gamma decay, an unstable nucleus releases a high energy
form of electromagnetic radiation (light) called a gamma ()
particle or a gamma ray. This particle of light is also known
as a photon.

The energy is released as the protons and neutrons in the

unstable nucleus reposition themselves in an attempt to find
a lower energy arrangement.

Since no protons or neutrons are released, the mass number Credit: Khan Academy
and atomic number of the nucleus remain unchanged, and no
new element is formed. Gamma decay usually accompanies
alpha and beta decay.
Grade 11
Physical Science

Nuclear Reactions can be Represented by Nuclear Equations

• Fusion
Making a larger nucleus from
two or more smaller nuclei

• Fission
Making two or more smaller
nuclei from a larger nucleus
Grade 11
Physical Science

Important Symbols Used in Nuclear Equations

Particle How written in a nuclear reaction
Proton 1 1
p or H
1 1
Neutron 1
n
0
Electron 0 0
(Beta particle) e or β
-1 -1
Alpha Particle 4 4
(Helium nuclei)  or He
2 2
Gamma Particle 
or Ray (a massless packet of pure
electromagnetic radiation, a form
of energy)
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Physical Science
Grade 11
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Check the math on these

examples of nuclear equations
to see if the sums of the mass
numbers and the atomic
numbers are the same on each
side of the equations.

Can you figure out which

equations are fission and which
are fusion?
Grade 11
Physical Science

Check the math on these

examples of nuclear equations
238 U
to see if the sums of the mass
92 numbers and the atomic
numbers are the same on each
side of the equations.
32 P
15

Can you figure out which

equations are fission and which
10 B
5
are fusion?
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science
Grade 11
Physical Science

JENo.01 Formation of the Elements

If you were given a chance to create an element, how would you create it and what
properties will you give it?
 MODULE CHECKLIST

Before you finish the lesson, please check that you have:

❑JENo.01 Formation of the Elements

 CONCLUSION
a. The universe may have begun as an infinitely hot and dense initial singularity, a
point with all of space, time, matter and energy. This means that there was no
where, when or what. There is no space around the singularity – just nothingness.

b. All of it then began to rapidly expand in a process known as inflation. Space itself
expanded faster than the speed of light. In this still hot and dense mass of the
universe, pairs of matter and antimatter (quarks and antiquarks) were formed from
energy, but these pairs cancelled each other back into energy (annihilation).

c. The universe cooled down as it expanded. An excess of matter (electrons,

protons, neutrons and other particles) somehow came to be in a highly energetic
“plasma soup.” Photons (light particles) were being scattered everywhere in this
“soup”. Protons and neutrons came together to form different types of nuclei by
nucleosynthesis or nuclear fusion.
 CONCLUSION

d. Much later on, electrons started to bind to ionized protons and nuclei forming
neutral atoms in a process called recombination. The bound particles no longer
scattered photons so light and energy moved freely across space. The period
was hence known as the “dark ages”.

e. Gravity caused these atoms to collapse onto one another to form stars and
galaxies and eventually, other matter. This still happens until today. Space also
continues to expand at an accelerating rate, thus increasing the distance
between the matters inside it.
 CONCLUSION

This lecture focused on….

• Chapter 1 Formation of the Elements

1.1 During Big Bang and Stellar Evolution (S)