INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL FOR RESEARCH METHODS (ENGG 416)

CHAPTER 3: THE RESEARCH PROCESS

Introduction
The research process articulates the step by step procedures of developing a complete
research project. It is vital to the students to consider these procedures to organize their activities
in developing the research project. Important component is the formulation of a research problem
and is augmented through literature review to enrich the chosen field for research. This chapter
introduces and discusses the different steps of research process to gain better understanding.

Topic Outcomes
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Develop a comprehensive review of the literature.
2. Differentiate theoretical from the conceptual framework.
3. Formulate research problems using various sources.
4. Distinguish conceptual from the operational definition. Create a definition of terms,
use conceptual and operational definitions.

STEP I: FORMULATING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulating a research problem is the first and most important step in the research process.
A research problem identifies the destination of the research project; it specifies what you intend
to research. The more specific and clear the research problem is, the better. The study design,
measurement procedures, sampling strategy, the frame of analysis, and style of writing of research
study or report are greatly influenced by how research problem is being formulated.
There are various resources to be considered while deciding the research problem to be
investigated. The research problem is extremely important to evaluate in the light of the financial
resources at your disposal, the time available, and you’re own and your research supervisors
expertise and Knowledge in the field of study, it is equally important to identify any gaps in your
knowledge of relevant disciplines, such as statistics, required for analysis. Also, ask yourself
whether you have sufficient knowledge about computers and software if you plan to use them.

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Reviewing the literature

A literature review discusses published and unpublished information in a particular subject
area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a certain period. A literature
review is an effective evaluation of selected documents on a research topic. A review may form
an essential part of the research process or may constitute a research project in itself. In the context
of a research paper or thesis, the literature review is a critical synthesis of previous research. The
evaluation of the literature leads logically to the research question.
Reasons for reviewing the literature
One of the essential preliminary tasks, when you undertake a research study, is to go
through the existing literature in order to acquaint yourself with the available body of knowledge
in your area of interest. Reviewing. the literature is time-consuming and, sometimes, daunting and
frustrating, but you should not become discouraged because you will also find it rewarding. A
literature review has three functions. It helps you to:

Bring clarity and focus to the research problem

The literature review involves a paradox. On the one hand, you cannot effectively
undertake a literature search without some idea of the problem you wish to investigate. On the
other, the literature review can play an extremely important role in shaping your research problem
because the process of reviewing the literature helps you to understand the subject area of your
research problem clearly and precisely. It also helps you to understand the relationship between
your research problem and the body of knowledge in the area.

Improve the methodology

Going through the literature acquaints you with the methodologies that have been used by
others to find answers to research questions similar to the one you are investigating. A literature
review tells you if others have used procedures and methods similar to the ones you are proposing,
which procedures and methods have worked well for them, and what problems they have faced
with them.

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Broaden the knowledge base in the research area

The most important function the literature review is to ensure you read widely around the
subject area in which you intend to conduct your research study It is important that you know what
other researchers have found regard to the same or similar questions, what theories have been put
forward and what gaps exist in the relevant body of knowledge
Procedure for reviewing the literature
If you do not have a specific research problem, you should review the literature in your
broad area of interest to gradually narrow down to what you want to find out about. Reviewing the
literature is a continuous process. Often it begins before a specific research problem has been
formulated and continues until the report is finished
There are four steps involved in conducting a literature review:
1. Search for existing literature in your area of study;
2. Review the literature selected;
3. Develop a theoretical framework; and
4. Develop a conceptual framework.
The skills required for these tasks are different. Developing theoretical and conceptual
frameworks are more difficult than other tasks.

Search for existing literature

To effectively search for literature, it is imperative that you have in mind at least some
ideas of the broad problem you wish to investigate, to set your parameters for your search. Then
compile a bibliography for this broad area.
There are two sources that you can use to prepare a bibliography:
1. Books
Books, though a central part of any bibliography, have their advantages as well as
disadvantages. The main advantages are that the material published in books is usually important
and of good quality, and findings are integrated with other research to form a coherent body
knowledge- (Martin 1985: 33). The main disadvantage is that the material is not completely up-
to-date, as it can take a few years between the completion of a work and its publication in the form
of a book.

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2. Journals
Journals provide you with the most up-to-date information, even though there is often a gap
between two and three years between the completion of a research project and its publication in a
journal. You should select as many journals as you possibly can, though the number of journals
depends upon the field of study - certain fields have more journals than others.
Review the literature selected
As you read further, go on slotting the information where it logically belongs under the
headings so far developed. You may need to add more headings as you go. In doing so, read
critically with particular reference to the following aspects:
• note whether the knowledge relevant to your theoretical framework has been confirmed
beyond doubt;
• note the theories put forward, the criticisms of these and their basis, the methodologies
adopted, and the criticisms of them.
• examine to what extent the findings can be generalized to other situations;
• notice where there are significant differences of opinion among researchers and give your
opinion about the validity of these differences;
• ascertain the areas in which little or nothing is known— the gaps that exist in the body of
knowledge.

Develop a theoretical framework

Examining the literature can be a never-ending task but you have limited time, it is
important to set parameters by reviewing the literature concerning some main themes pertinent to
your research topic. The information obtained from different books and journals now needs to be
sorted under the main themes and theories, highlighting agreements and disagreements among the
authors and identifying the unanswered questions or gaps.
Literature pertinent to your study may deal with two types of information, i.e. universal
and specific.

Develop a conceptual framework

The conceptual framework stems from the theoretical framework and concentrates,
usually, on one section of that theoretical framework. The latter consists of the theories or issues

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in which your study is embedded whereas the former describes the aspects you selected from the
theoretical framework to become the basis of your study. The conceptual framework is the basis
of your research problem.
Writing up the literature reviewed
The literature review should be written around themes that have emerged from reading the
literature. The headings displaying themes should be precise, descriptive of the contents, and
should follow a logical progression. Findings from the literature should be organized under these
themes, providing references substantiations, or contradictions.

The research problem

Broadly speaking, any question that you want to answer and any assumption or assertion
that you want to challenge or investigate can become a research problem or a research topic for
your study. However, it is important to remember that not all questions can be transformed into a
research problem and some may prove to be extremely difficult to study.
It is essential for the problem you formulate to be able to withstand scientific scrutiny in
terms of the procedures required to be undertaken.

The importance of formulating a research problem

The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research
process. The research problem serves as the foundation of a research study;
If it is welt formulated, you can expect a good follow up. You must have a clear idea concerning
what it is that you want to find out about and not what you think you must find.

Sources of research problems

This section is of particular relevance if you have not yet selected your topic and do not
know where to start. If you have already selected your topic, go to the next section.
Most research in the humanities revolves around four P’s.
• people;
• problems;
• programs; and
• phenomena

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The emphasis on a particular 'P* may vary from study to study but generally, in practice,
most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two 'P’s. You may select a group
of individuals, either to examine the existence of a certain issue or problems to ascertain the
attitudes towards different aspects of their lives, or to establish the prevalence of a phenomenon.
Your focus may be the study of an issue, an association, or a phenomenon.

Considerations in selecting a research problem

When selecting a research problem or topic there are several considerations to keep in mind.
These help to ensure that your study will be manageable and that you will remain motivated. These
considerations are:
• Interest- select a topic that really interests you: this is one of the most important
considerations. A research endeavor is usually time-consuming and involves hard work
and possibly unforeseen problems. If you select a topic that does not greatly interest you,
it could become extremely difficult to sustain the required motivation, and the completion
time could be affected.
• Magnitude- you should have sufficient knowledge about the research process to be able to
visualize the proposed study. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific,
and clear. It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time
and resources at your disposal.
• Measurement of concepts- if you are using a concept in your study, make sure that you are
clear in our indications and their measurement.
• Level of expertise- make sure you have an adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing. Allow for the fact that you will learn during the study and may receive help
from your research supervisors and others, but remember you need to do most of the work
yourself.
• Relevance- selects a topic that is of relevance to you as a professional. Ensure that tour
study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current gaps, or is useful in policy
formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
• Availability of data- if your topic entails the collection of information from secondary
sources, before finalizing your topic, make sure that these data are available and in the
format you want.

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• Ethical issues- another important consideration in formulating a research problem is the

ethical issues involved. In the course of conducting a research study, the study population
may be adversely affected by some of the questions; deprived of an intervention; expected
to share sensitive and private information. How ethical issues can affect the study
population and how ethical problems can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at
the problem formulation stage.

Steps in the formulation of a research problem

Though the formulation of a research problem is the most important aspect of a research
study, few manuals are detailing the specific guiding principles, the process of formulating a
research problem consists of several steps.
in choosing a research problem, the two crucial determinants to keep in mind are:
• Your interest in the subject area; and
• Manageability of the study within your own constraints.
The following steps, based upon the principle of narrowing the problem or zeroing in on the
problem’, can be of help to you in formulating a research problem If you have already identified
a sub-area, you do not have to go through steps 1 and 2. These steps are:
1. Identify a broad area of interest in your academic or professional field.
2. Dissect the broad area into sub-areas.
3. Select a sub-area or areas in which you would like to conduct your research. Start with a
process of elimination.
4. Raise research questions that you would like to answer through your study.
5. Assess these objectives to ascertain the feasibility of attaining them in light time, resources,
and technical expertise at your disposal.
6. Double-check that you are sufficiently interested in the study and have and have adequate
resources for undertaking it.

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The formulation of objectives

Objectives are the goals you set out to attain in your study. Since these objectives inform a
reader of what you want to achieve through the study, it is extremely important to word them
clearly and specifically.
Objectives should be listed under two headings
• The main objective is an overall statement of the thrust of your study. It is also a statement
of the main association and relationships that you seek to discover or establish.
• Sub-objectives are the specific aspects of the topic that you want to investigate within the
main framework of your study. They should be numerically numbered and should be
worded clearly and unambiguously.

Establishing operational definitions

As mentioned earlier, in every study there are two components, the subject area, and the
study population. The main aim of formulating a research problem is to clearly and precisely define
the research problem. In defining the problem, you may use certain
words or items that are difficult to measure and or the understanding of which may vary from a
respondent to respondent. In a research study, it is important to develop, define, or establish a set
of rules. Indicators or yardsticks in order to dearly establish the meaning of such words or items,
on the other hand, it is sometimes also important to define dearly the study population from which
you need to obtain the required information
In many cases, you need to develop operational definitions for the variable you are studying
and for toe population that becomes the sources of the information to your study
Operational definitions may differ from dictionary definitions as well as from day- to-day
meanings These meanings may not be helpful in either identifying your study population or the
concepts you are studying
Operational definitions give an operational meaning to the study population and the
concept used It only through making your procedures explicit that you can validly explain, verify
and test It is important to remember that there are no rules tor deciding if an operational definition
it valid Your arguments must convince others about the appropriateness of your definitions.

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Identifying variables
An image, perception, or concept that is capable of measurement— hence capable of taking
on different values— is called a variable. In other words, a concept that can be measured is called
a variable.
The difference between a concept and a variable
Concepts are the menial images or perceptions and therefore their meanings vary markedly
from individual to individual, whereas are measurable, of course, with varying degrees of accuracy
Measurability is the main difference between a concept and a variable

Types of variable
From the viewpoint of causation
In studies that attempt to investigate a causal relationship, four sets of variables may
operate:
• change variables, which are responsible for bringing about change in a phenomenon;
• outcome variables, which are the effects of a change variable,
• variables that affect the link between cause and effect variables; and
• connecting or linking variables, which in certain situations are necessary to complete the
relationship between cause and effect variables.
In research terminology, change variables are called independent variables, outcome or effect
variables are called dependent variables, the unmeasured variables affecting the cause and effect
relationship are called extraneous variables, and the variables that link a cause and effect
relationship are called intervening variables.
• Independent variable is the cause supposed to be responsible for bringing about change
in a phenomenon or situation.
• Dependent variable is the outcome of the change brought about by changes in an
independent variable.
• Extraneous variable is several other factors operating in real-life situations may affect
changes attributed to independent variables. These factors, not measured in the study, may
increase or decrease the magnitude or strength of the relationship between independent and
dependent variables.
• Intervening variable links the independent and dependent variables.

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From the viewpoint of the study

A study that examines association or causation may be a controlled or contrived
experiment, a quasi-experiment, or an ex post facto study. In controlled experiments, the
independent variable may be introduced or manipulated either by the researcher or by someone
else who is providing the service.
In these situations, there are two sets of variables:
• Active variables - those variables that can be manipulated, changed, or controlled
• Attribute variables - those that cannot be manipulated, changed, or controlled, and reflect
the characteristics of the study population.

From the viewpoint of the unit of measurement

There are two ways of categorizing variables:
• Whether the unit of measurement is categorical or continuous in nature, and
• Whether it is qualitative or quantitative in nature.
Categorical variables are measured on nominal or ordinal measurement scales whereas for
continuous variables the measurements are made either on an interval or a ratio scale. Categorical
variables can be of three types:
1. Constant;
2. Dichotomous; and
3. Polytomous
When a variable can have only one value or category, it is known as a constant. When a
variable can have only two categories, it is known as a dichotomous variable. When a variable can
be divided into more than two categories, it is called a polytomous variable.

Constructing a hypothesis
The second important consideration in the formulation of a research problem is the
construction of hypotheses. Hypotheses bring clarity, specificity, and focus on a research problem,
but are not essential for a study. Hypotheses primarily arise from a set of 'hunches’ that are tested
through a study and one can conduct a perfectly valid study without these hunches or speculations.

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The importance of hypotheses lies in their ability to bring direction, specificity, and focus
on the top of a research study. They tell a researcher what specific information to collect, and
thereby provide a greater focus.

The functions of a hypothesis

While some researchers believe that conducting a study requires a hypothesis, as already
mentioned, having a hypothesis is not essential. However, a hypothesis is important in terms of
bringing clarity to the research problem. Specifically, it serves the following functions.
• The formulation of a hypothesis provides a study with focus. It tells you what
specific aspects of a research problem to investigate.
• A hypothesis tells you what not to collect thereby providing focus to the study.
• As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a
study.
• A hypothesis may enable you to add to the formulation of the theory and help you
to bridge the gaps in the body of knowledge.

The characteristics of a hypothesis

There is a. number of considerations to keep in mind, as they are important for valid
verification when conducting hypotheses.
• A hypothesis should be simple, specific, and conceptually clear - there is no place for
ambiguity in the construction of a hypothesis, as ambiguity will make the verification of
your hypothesis almost impossible. It should be ‘uni-dimensional’, that is, it should test
only one relationship at a time. To be able to develop a good hypothesis you must be
familiar with the subject area. The more insight you have in the problem, the easier it is to
construct a hypothesis.
• A hypothesis should be capable of verification - methods and techniques must be available
for data collection and analysis. There is no point in formulating a hypothesis if it cannot
be subjected to verification because there are no techniques to verify it.
• A hypothesis should be related to the body of knowledge - it is important that your
hypothesis emerges from the existing body of knowledge, and that it adds to it, as this is

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an important function of research. This can only be achieved if the hypothesis has its roots
in the existing body of knowledge.
• A hypothesis should be operationalized - that is; it can be expressed in terms that can be
measured. If it cannot be measured, it cannot be tested and, hence, no, a conclusion can be
drawn.

SELF-ASSESSMENT No. 3
Task:
Given the following broad topics,
a. hazardous wastes
b. alternative fuels
c. solid waste management
select one, dissect to come up with a researchable topic, and formulate the following:
1. research objectives
2. scope, limitations and delimitations of the study
3. conceptual framework
4. null hypothesis
5. topic outline of literature review

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