“Tt’s Your Misfortune and None of My Own” A History of the American West by Richard White Biblisteen Danie! Cosis Villegas EL COLEGIO DE MEXICO. A. C. [UNIVERSITY OF OKTAHOMA PRESS NORMAN AND LONDON_ The Federal Government i : and the Indians se long : Nivereayri century esenion elev tha he Une Sates wasn eng! bry pet exeatng Sel groan tame wire and poring the copy and wi sees Eel er de arp Bening: Butte nccporton of inane io the dS oso presides oe ski dn weet nyo connent. andthe anette lands othe etter oly de decane ehented 2 einy of even cen of previo Indiavvhite ind Won Wits senely fv exept, they met propio ten be shure aod oppeed, bu Indans mattered "ar preckly thir conion work tat Areicans were co eect s they cel into the West Tey cid no oso immediatly, for when Meniether rand Willa Clark ed the fe American mponsredexpditn acts the iiseat eo dhe Pole In 1803, dhe mulecal pay ed inenatly with ane Thisniacy wth he Ars, Hida, and Mandanon Ge Mir the Chinools on the Clumbia gave the expeditions meres a working kg of lin cules en polis. This same lcinacy ao gave any of ha "dee” of venereal dae tat vas as uc i the wadion of contac 35 fe exchanges of gf and feed aod the aqustion of ales apn common, “tore On the Moat nd nthe Pace Northwest hs dal arson oF us and socal dicate completed a cele o sors, forthe Enowedge that “idan hd obtained of Bropean cultures ough fur tders had alo come ony bathe price cpl Levis sd Clk waved though a word whee fndans sine thet polities, mits, and econolesgalicance, They came, ss “Bopesns had unl ome seking Indian allies guest FvalEaopeon powers fod tecmpting fo open ude relations Tndan Soest and Wards: Eastern Precedents aliccally, Ameccans ate Indian bes at inate mations exiting within the boundatie of te Unite Sazen Tho ie were fen themself acia peat coat fr mos Inn parle ddnochave pla loys that86 {THE FEDERAL OOVERROMENT AND THE I extended much beyond their immediate village or band. Jst at mich a whit ‘eticana Indians were inthe proces of exeating new politeal tractus. The ‘need Sener negodated Geaties with flan rations ahd acknowledged tr tide to land. The United Sats thus accepted the notion of Indian svereie srarhip ent ihd embodied icin the most basi documents of che republic. Indian ei 4 See dae yee, she Seal goverment lai bal tectledit ‘exclisive contol over Indian fis and hus sole authority to purchase Indian” ‘emu {ande, Foelgn relations were clearly the domain ofthe national goveroment In lane in tere ‘he But, tis fede contolover nd fats encountered asignibcant challenge In dhe 1850s and 1640s that di much eo shape subsequent American Indian pce poley in the West, President Andrew Jason refused to honor feral cat ale new nuhern Inds and Healy satendre! consol over nda 4 or ase ar eged flea ablation ts respon wo the ren eect se hat wigsted fe abiatin oft eponuly was the ie fetes ving ent the Mini ne lands west the et Vial ane Si Stennett cenry mee pees fad advocated such 0 fy gut ‘Ehoal policy, bur the vest major of enstem Indians had refused to migrate, ‘nde ca the reticanceof the Cherokees and ater southern mbes, Jackson 8 Sllowed Georgia snd nelghboring states unilaterally to extend cele ls over “they could Indian nations living on unceded lands within tele boundaries. 3 “This unatcl extension of tate author Lspired a sere of cts among he sole] Five Civilized Tribes of the Sooth—she Choctaw, Chicka, Cesk ‘SCminoles, and Cherokee. Cherokee sestance to Georgla’s aul on thet overelgnty le to what was pecbaly the mos signcant sees of Supreme Cour ‘Secmionreguding Indians in American history. In Checker Nato v. Georgi SDI) Chet fate Joba Macally wing forte cour, ued har dian ek Sere domestic dependent nations” and in Worcester v. Geom (1832) he bel {hey were exempt om sate lw. Marsal led hat nin tribes were domestic ‘Sependsne nations who hed alienated thelr extemal powers (chelrebiiy 18 | SeEbnh independent dealings with foreign nation) when they me under the ‘otection” of the United Seats. They retained their internal powers, howeves, end Georgia laws bad no efect among them. 4 Se Nl er aan mri oe ot leg cae se a a ee et ee (sepa he oe, eC ay (ety habe ec cst tar rir al = See rer i ih en veep ) Se Maes Gta ag wh he ea | aie eran eben yao i {ess noticed, wes Marshall's emphasis on the weakness of Indian nations and their Hee went Sle Tuer oe oven arth en | See rc peg dy curs heey ‘Thus, while ecknowledging Indian sovereignty, Marshall ago sessed a second tn eppite doctrine Indian nations exited es ward ofthe federal goverment. ‘Fauch the United States actedin elation to them and thelr propery a guardian Aid toward minore der det cae Steal soveregney and wardsip are contradictory conditions. Sovereigns“YE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE INDANS 8 ouily denotes independence and «fresdm of people co manage their own [fis Wardchip makes a stronger party responsible forthe actions ofa weaker dent Poltcally, however, the contradiction between soverlgnry and “grtihip sno eo absolute. Av articulted by Marshal, warship and sovereignty ced in some ways Indian conceptions ofa paiarchal alliance in which @ father” oredhis"children' protection. Wardchip acknowledged American tis to peoect Indian rations. Matballceaily eroded soverelgny wale serting dh ie mur be emphasted thar Marshall il hough of federal power over © Inlans in terms of relations between song and weak nations. He rejected orgs contention that they had authority over individual Indians. The federal jement, according to Masball had granted the Indians "measured separat- fetch pried es feeds ely Se fo nee by 20 Soins oF future state governmes The tenuousess of this combination of wardship and sovereignty became immediately apparent in the aftermath of Worester v. Georgia. When the United tes undet Presidents Jackon and Van Baren proved unilingto uphold the fuarantess co the Cherokees and other tes, southern Indians faced & lt choice: they could emain in the Sout, retaining, a lest ermporanly, iol vnc id a senting oli en, Uhr could remove across the Missippi, protesting thelr policalidenciey bt ing Git homeland, Sovereignty proved impossible to maintain once (Gist "guardian refred to protect them. Under duress, most Indians left the Remon he removal contoveny, by a once reaffirming and narrowing Indian sover- pad he fondo nan pci che Wes. Even nde Malls Peratvely generous formulation, Indian nations were domestic dependent ny that had sutendered pect of thee soverlgny Is order (© gin the rotction” ofthe United Stites, The United States embedded this reduced Jenty in the removal teaies themselves, The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit th the Choctaw, for example, not ony removed mos ofthe Coes ple fom thelr homeland in Misti! and placed them in Indian Teicory at of Okishorsa), bur aleo forbade the Choctaw government to pass hot constent with the U.S. Congition an American lays. Beyond that, Inputs aged in the new Ameen policy. Removal held ot the eal of [nue Indon independence end sovereignty aco the Missi, Du is ic amulet the Ti of Tear” on which one ou of ght emigrant Feckes ict on the way, ot son afer tbl aval Indian Teron Fico contended cht through rer the Terman of tat ated ace” had Freya lengh placed beyond the acho ry ooryesion.” He eed to iter the bial cow of hs policy or the fogty of is guarantee Hvala i lat Gat chete was ho room fr a-commion wold tat independent dan ving wth whites The wo hat ened inthe50 Mies Location of nda in he Indian Tetiory, 186-1889. Based on «sap in Marta Blane, Powe Past, i Z | ! g1o20%0Pcblos orn Texas, the world chac had exited among the Five Civiled Tribes, ot tbe tolerated. Thomas Jfeson's promi that "we call ll be Amer” Ineligence, the industry, the moral habls, nor the desire of improvement” | Ive among whites The message that removal contain foe western bess well the Cherokees was that Americans believed that even when a common word Indians and whites developed, it could not and should not be allowed to tinue | Jackson's refusal to acknowledge a common world only deepened the irony of dan vices of American expansiontan ino caries of American poles! ere. The Cherokees bought west many spect of tel old common wel meatative goverment, dhe Chistian eli ofa nian sete ave- ST aqcoloe of the seo ete. The Five Guard Tres xa Uremments and les inthe West medled on these ofthe United Staten rons Americans proly Meni ax ther own came Ws inthe hands the very people whom chose inition had becayed and vitimied Inspraing removals the slave to daspearnce for» wid sn agile epson impli rgd tat Indians could exerci sovereignty onion ‘orders of American sctery. In the 1880s American oficials wes bri) Dilling to belive that land given the removed fom the South and the Old \ vet ould be guaranted then, noe orever, then forthe idefnie fue, rest shout buling up a new bueaverai and legl order based on the Bas ofa permanent Indian oscupacon of var sections of the Wes Hla 183, Congres authorised the eration ofthe ofc of commisioner of Pe conmisionc. In 1834, Congren posed new leguation to regi the bln Department, whch would become, in tie, the Bureau of indian AM “Trade and Ineroue Act of 184, a suecenor & lgaltion fs pane in vt etry and prove feel paron fr de within dhe Tands ofthe West—the Indian country. The government would, for ple, provide ade licenses and rere whiskey trae. Belore the West even “exited as an American region twas being diferetiated fom the Eatin ofthe American obligations t, the satus of and the federal relationship olds Native Americans ‘The Calpe of Permanent Indian Tesoey ugh not sillbim, the idea of permanent Indian county died eal in cs country where the federal goverament mediated and kept the peace between Indian ions, each of which hd town clearly bounded teitoy. Tit nian comer, [al icin to American expansion. The assmpeion of federal policy mskers tht mot of the land wet of the Masur River, nor js Indian Terizry proper B what is now Odahoma, would remain Indian country began ro collapse when bericans acquired Texas California, and Oregon. Congress had no intention Heaving thes new tetris to the dane. Their occupation, kn ta, called0 toto question the sta ofthe nds sequed cate under the Lovina Pach "Ta ‘wens of the pley of permanent Indien country was evesbere aggre nthe 640 and 182 Migrants enrache ned nds log the | ‘Mfsourt and crscrosed them on thet may o Oregon an Calfomis, The Trade Ue Tncscsase Act proved lcapabl of uneaung the Pounds betwen ‘Baca hit of contollg whe sxe no Talay coum, Wakes ages he ps inevishy cowed reencmeneamoag the lala, "Tvees {tel de ney game pela along the Oregon and Moron tai “Fic anigun lveeoel sopetine ned the cops of hotcalaal peopl, smchentaPromecs wh ven he i. Whe cman too, xraoaly Handel nt conice wit aan war pats hat were nfo in ne ver Tear he bal pane. ‘The Indian for te par, ralded the toe for iSegosk snd demanded pen or ptge sco tet hunt and "The Une Stes step to edocs thes testo and create anew ont cn the Oren Pasig pf tester nepttl nthe ei 1850. fn 1651 the Unted States signed she Treaty of Fort Laramie with the Sioux, Cheyenne ‘Ripulens Choe, Asinblnc, Gos Ves, Mandan and Aras. The ety reel to oglce the lncin conty by giving the United Sextet igh 0 Sa pee ane enn el pis, Soe wn Seotchlihedteundaes rte tin ofenh bn, he Sil crey tbe pestle foray arcs on whe that ook place within ‘Cte fa rec the Ina woul ceive snes (rl payments) ft {SRSEaE in competsnon forthe as of gue and other Guages tat rested fom wate eve The second ety, egoeied in 1653 between the United Stieaanl de southern plains tbs ore Aen, secured ale pasage on SESLED re Tel. Tet sates nteuce he de fnoter and outa [Medi clone divide fom ech oer by an American corr seo he hin “They compromised the ee of indian connry while ecising neh, Tren peace or the confnenent ofthe nomads to bounded teres “The United Sete proved no more succesful in cootoling ts own cise ‘Of Misr border whe under evaded the pcbitonson the al of quae Crikdinn an whiskey wales demorlied sod poverhed border cies ke ‘he Ones Miser ord Onabos, Wie seen, meal, exerted preute iiedis land The genes presue cae in Teas, where che eae ead Ease tide al ed wists boon. Teas aoc policy of ‘enna removing Indians within the wa Deapte teat of fede ‘Ripe che Tous ees thatthe United States sgned at Caunall Spring in TBs the lea goverment coud contol nether te Texans nox the Coma hesand other Testes In 848 continuing neuf Texans ono dian ibe acctercomiel yt Ts ingested een Tents proved no more binding father noth. In. 1853, Congres ough 9 ened aeons nmin the indian pues f Kass and Neb in Fame Alas American sees were ley encoaching on thee Miu EETSTuni, rth govemment hada econd moive i seeking new eae: Soghrd tee brs enncontgenal load: When many tnd proved ec eae and the ony a ew yn blr che Americans had promised mee {Teiu freer the United Geter lowed cits to pesunde the Indians 0 United Sates would |EDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE INDIANS om sesh minds. on f pect, setle, and nb lve ack Sethe Inde’ lows with le dn terrence, When Inns ted ether pope funslve nstding whiter sree chen. Mos ont ead Neb tlc Sect tht they had no ce but Bczapin ete he ann the 1650 te bgp snc ound of ene Snes sly ven tone om he Ea te cen continued io ie cyan emty 167 Only Inn Terton~—the ads toed to the ‘ied Toby —emaned an and of elie sry “Fhe hac eu of he Rocky Mount slo ere cele in che Wet Ellin Areas win footed tote repon wth the old Rosh grad Shaun len, Ant togh the Oregon Donation Act of 1850 the United nila ft cw ey alowed tne claim ns in Oren “ating tors before the goverment ad sequel ile 0 them Sp the Ind ownan In Unto the Monon etd redence om Trl fans without ony fel seston of te By 1880 sheen of SPrmeneInan county withthe ston of nda nd whi lg 2 Pei yarn sal. “The Brolin of te Reet Stem Sy» wtb dee, the plc tht flowed ie dene of « permanent) Galan county tara igrovkaton American fly in acemptng tbat | Enecbcceés odin td whiten, prevent xpos vom ard open ede [ fe tetlenen, ene srstina he way avo orc ht | that fom te ders of the aon yen Reatons eave onan.) Seto ar sway to povee colt and ence nnprton of te ce, Ini xr appese inser paces ang te te 16408 ad iy 650 In 18D ech spent Rober Neighbor sn uml Tera i chat Ftc anked Inds pops placings Te Indians on erections dete api, a Cao eral ovement atemeted 51d 451 to menial eseron for Cslomia Min: Cadena, Rowers complained that he popned wens roel drach gol land forte danke Tear, ot eh mach ese srosty, Callas chesed wo any recon of Idan ig land. To ‘oredr fom pd wee fe fae ofthe ers, Soper. idence Edward Fitzgerald Beale suggested in September 1852 that the government Leeper of mln potohich he Acnncoulorenore Telnans. The yrs woud eft be mal concen caps peri cope wher Fons woud bens totem odie snd inane Dn Fhe nearer equa wor the Spe minions | ue an Neighbor eine thereon eaves exe Spin atutns in whch nes eed 0 acknowledge ay Ind its to nd ut he sas ravations son rend beyond ingle protectin in 1050, lke Ln he comminoner of on a, Rocne te We otcaevaon ar al or asin [There dou be agnd wo each ste, permanent home, a country sped to cau, of ited cent snd meleined boundareg win which all with ‘ctepios ould be complied eonstnely eo remain uni ach tine2 “TE FEDERAL GOVERMENT AND THE INDIANS ‘hate general tmproveent snd god conduct may supercede the neces of sch restctions [a de men ine the govemoet cult ease them tobe spied with ‘ck, aga implesens, ad well mater clothing encourage andes. them inthe erection of eomfable Sein and sceme to them the meant snd belies of edunson, inte, moral ad elgios. their ootee, Reservations were sovereign emnant of Indian lands on whic the fcdeel wreng ened Ils w inal fever wal, Reeve 9 ‘wore paradoalal places where Indiana were to Be cessed in onde to prepare them for ulinate integration into the ce. "Rled wich Hntadletions, reservations were to become the hallmark of American Indign policy inthe West . Inn Reena Chanig Arn Foy ‘ “he seston sem ge ke Fanti mnie, bled egies fom ‘Recolor hope fora peaanent inn erty weal Miso ‘Tae nem poly ineivedoctingeber on roe oan eal ered eer gn nds ce tothe peor dams oro lan cede by oc es Froponens ofthe serrations ed tha reservations wuld sped acl 2 tustan By aelaton they meee making Indien Chen farmer they ‘mete oraling hen nner orth openers, Ato Ameen, der te. Bat Gis war only a begining. Hany Cherosse wee ter all, ity Chan amet rain cer lier they sl bloga 8 tovceg nity mh oe conta over own ety: The season at wpe to be just a place where Jndlansadopoed element of whi belief remem gs cheslp tc sro tote loppoved tobe n plot here ‘nana were india and deal Pin, dans wall ek {he cheney grew cher el eng, and hensive ino whe soy In fe ord of Commins extn 3, the goal fe ‘ects neste Ind "akomaeneaponston in the gra ayo ear {item populates” “Aenean ply maken intended revation to beth mean wo desoy the suber pe to but tone mons oor nd comin ‘eet, hee ply ake ha to ake teeta exp econ 2 thlegal runing ofthe ibrar sao nye notes doef adn poly shouted ea er te nea by whieh fe Uned Save fred untater inn poly ons Indian pole. “The Rew seraton poy west nto fc rally and ncreently a8 Conran he Ofee of dan Aa eg to Ed 4 way to conn te foot nlened by the clipe the tee of peananene eden terry. Al theca temps tdelin lire. The fae of racratns in Tena no the West Cont war pa, Despite tenes of fenip withthe Tem ibs at | the United Sats need at Coane Spring in 845, note 1854 he ths feel goverment peal Tett © povided for two reservations One eran oe be Coches dt ar wut forthe musts Sisal bref neem Ter “The Trane hemaie aged revoir the Idan in he hope that ( ‘Reservations that would segregate in oner to integrate were contaditory fomecard nin rans Tea nelnen Bath eran Fe ese tops et. Few Coaches came ono the rxration; mow coy {is atackthowe Texas seen who eneroche! on ther Inds. Ott Indians tio the resevation, but the Tena king to dtipcton berween snd pezcefl Indians, retaliated for lowes othe Comanches by sean {aaioria the eral goverment conned sila problems Supentn:”) lear Fisgeald Bele’ tm of multary pos to which the Ameer Tadins was aot, stily speaking, « eeraton sytem. ‘The poss \ rm eseratons prope. Festofallthegovermentddnotecknowledge 7 Indian wep of and. The pom wee lad om sal cts of Federal tod the goverment could ent the Indians aay tine. Second, the ment df nor cree thew poss by wea. The goversent snp ivited) ian 0 suerble there, the 1650 Beale sytem of Calor Indian reservations evenly othe 16000 of Cale remaining $0,000 dans The sytem sons, and agent defrauded and cheated thet charges Ofseven Calera servations and fares, only thie survived In 1869. inablity of the goverment to contol its own ctzens and the inablcy las to make living onthe ieservatons aio doomed ery tesesvation Paciie Norwest. The Indians of Oregon had agreed in a series of teas, Fog the early 1850s to cede cele to much of western Oregon, land which the ent had already opened to white setdement in return for reservations a Tomelands The Senate, however, voted the teats down beense Orsgo- Tis thouehe the reservations were too near white communities snlWabeoeso ree encase ew nero breyani anes Te sfutee are eatin bls roe al SE peered Sec cin ety Idle een Ser aay See eh eae ee ae Poi dnhagel erences acc riotous Ge, dee eee Uae Sm wea Aap Spublon bean Sumtelanty cule eras Byocbntcchiaterepcing ahaa oases petincieh eget ene enti ou nl fects Sotntunce’ ila ert Deceit neerns aoe cog emg lt seletyanstalas mame Srsaaes aes ‘roniel ya Ci We remen ereiy ta”) 1 evlncaning tart Hone areata | ceo ae fn Sl cages | etoile cal pay poe to see ccleaner ne 4Ey "THe FEDERAL OOVERIOLENT AND TID INDIANS Reformers Fer Power q Aslate at 1855, doptethe beginning fthe set spendin elation in be Wes eel aun men othe epee oe power Wide ‘trend eomton on he ern unained tel ofthe govermest ‘oer coeutine ease Indian oro control own agen Feel toler cleat sou olin nian every ond ses he goverment Seether, bike war maton tecnontnton of lel imgonsee "Widegren lees mated rnton beters Ins whe dry 9 (1850s and 1860s, and chis violence, 10, was a matk of federal weakness, Wars pat nny of te mare pore ibe were bo priv so inconchave |) Wianapine se sal bral ars fem the pol govemen ta cA octane fronts wm cies War yildl wt 4 ‘Rorenbenaned the goverment snd aed an urr ine Eas: Andthe ey | eatin oles demonstrated the contin pct independence \ Fee nie ee ‘Whar made ee war poriclly drhing ws tha yd 1850 wich he cexcapton ef the Senin rd eek wn aad he Sua ad ox Wat iil and Waoosn, te Uned Sos bd ejoved nese 0 ym once ‘ihlncan popes Asef west wei woul la ene 30 en | fated anak in nian ont eed oth eneceny and pi Plley ding the te 186 aden 1870 The plcy proved pesos i Feats during tory yea, bt id incre the power othe del pveromest Se dimishing Indian soverigny. . “The wa thar began nthe 1880s and 1860s al int hres oveaprina cate sire fi and et Ht ou, ite she expanding Amer et feemiate Indian groupe engl in capanon of tc own. The condi ‘aged mot frcaly en the Great Plans. On the nonhern plan the Amercnd CSnitonted the Ten Stour or aka and thera On the oud pla they heed th Comanches andthe alles “Thesecond group of wns cencrel lon American atemgesto cool ada sein) han on nen to sppres Inalan ding These wan ocaed mag Srrmriyin heSouthwe, where as for vec had become bas SF ipdansuattence pater: Amercan arene fo fale Nevalo and Apache {heft hones ate td shep eto the Navao was ofthe 180s and of 66 ed wus gut te Apaches tat woud tech note 188 "Ta inal pou ofa ao avoled dan eer tala thc Indepe dete fom Antica neterence, but there wa the American ed Sale and les power lndian pup who were engaged in deenave stu tourycomltuan herbal, econ, and wae of pie Ame tegeson, The Angin ween Waingon fn th 1850s can serve at Sample of ts Kind of ual ‘Wars om the Great Pai (nthe Great Plast the nineteenth century American expansions confront ‘rouge of mounted nomads who were themselves expanding. The nomads Ai the height of their own power and prepersy Various groups of Laks95 eter with thelr Arapaho and Cheyenne alli, had gained control of much of “he norhern plains, wile the Comanches had establihed their own hegemony the southern plas. Initial American diplomatic relations with the Sioux were largely coil. The ted Sentes and the Sioux, cach frit own reasons, had even cooperated in stack on one group of horsculturits—the Arikaras—in 1803. By 1850, rer, Arica Sioux relations bad soured considerably. The Lakotas hai (en the Skisk Paomess fom the forks of the Plate River and were hunting ds on both sides of that river. They watched with lnseusingsesenement a Aaeccan migrants along the Place gradually drove ofthe bufalo herds, chus “ning lands the Sioux hed fought fr in 1849-50 the Americans had struck an en mere deadly blow by unintentionally carving cholera ameng the Lakots. _Amercansttempar to reduce tensions Instead exacerbated them. Inthe For [erie ceary conference of 151 the Americans etempred to confine the Sioux Glands north ofthe Pate, thus halting thet inoads ino the bufalo rounds cut ofthe river. But Black Hawk, an Oglala Sioux spokesman, had protested frthey eld lands south ofthe Plate by the same ght by which the Americans lined the lands they tok fom Mexico: the right of conquest. "These lands Goce belonged to the Kiowa andthe Crow,” Black Haw sid, “but we whipped hone cut of them snd in hia we did what dhe white men do when they the lands of Indians” The Americans backed down and conceded the crsunigighasoutl he er an at hich fate Laker conde ike other nomads of te plain, the Siowe were nota group united under a “They were 2 loose confederation of bands connected by. [rtesnariage, common cus, and common interest, They didnot eek conflict fate Americans, but they expected fee cein in thelr wars with their wm Filan exemies, They regarded these wars asthe necessary mean to expend their fo the bial plains and s source of horses to zeplenih the her that minted with each harh noréhem wit. n tum, che Pewoees andthe Crows ho had euered saxental loss wo the loux, eagerly welcomed American ad crea, but the eonffontation tha eserked had ong been balding berween ‘go expanding peoples. In 1854 2 young American ofce, Leutenan John L- Gracan, set out to punith the Bul Sioux for butchering a stay cow. Despite oes ofresivton, Grats soldiers choc and lled the Bru Sioux chet Geking to mediate the quarel. The Sioux, io tun, wiped out the lieutenant and Tus command, This bought on war with the Lakoea i 1855, followed by wat isthe allies ofthe Sioux, the Cheyennes, in 1857. These wars demonstrated Pi the Lakots and their ales thatthe United States was now a powerful and ined sve cn the westem pais, bu the fighting sted nothing. Conflict Erasnucd to simmer with small-scale rid nd occasional murders om ech side. | Fallscale war eruped again in 1864, Tn 1862 the eastem Sioux had risen isla the American in Minnesota, and many of tse defested warriors and helt CTs ta fed west othe Yankton and Yanktonai Stowe, The U.S, Army had cr ineflecrualy porwed ther, prompting hotties wih yt another Eranch i ihewestem Sioux. While this dant war fared, the govemor ofthe eitory96 ‘WR FEDERAL GovERNOAE AND THB ‘of Colorado, Jobn vans was seeking 9 eliminate Indian cle to easter Cale ‘ado, By don 2, he hoped to inerese his popularity and gin election as aS. Senator when Colorado entered the Union: He and the commander of ‘Colorado alia, Colonel ohn M. Chivingto, who hd abandoned the M ist misty for ality career and now was tuning asa delegate for Conte ‘cloned the psabiliy ofa wider war. Wat would, they believed, remove bod themselves andthe Indian fom Colorado. Evan end Chivingron would 30 ‘Washington. The Tndians, afr sche were concerned, could po to bel, When the aping of 1868 prodced only a few seattred rads instead of genera [Evans and Chivington appear t have been disppotned. Chivingcen set outta sccue the war he and Evans wants, % ("The orden given by one of Chivingzon’s offers, "Burn villages and kill Ch cnnes whenever and wherever fund,” sited Chivlngon's cat. In May whe Cheyenne chic, Lean Bes, rode toward Chvingtoa's soars to demonstrate fis peeefl intent by showing them the paper given him by President Lines tring a vist to Werhigton, they shot him for his hows and opened fe on his people with howitaes Lean Bears murder, and he American dese to punish the Cheyennes for thls raids on ranches and sagecoaches, secured the Wit (Chivingto and Evans had desired. "The Cheyenne chief Black Ketle, who hed been present when the Ameria ‘murdered Lean Ber, il sought to avoid the war, however. Together with Major Edwaed Wyakoop, a felerl offcer in command of Fort Lyon, he traveled to ‘Denver co make peace. Evans didnot want peace, but he could hardly eect Black Ke vera, Black Kare cined fa he Dever mest a ‘he could have peace by bringing his people in Fert Lyen. ‘When Black Keele brought his bind to the fort, Wynkoop ordered him ca ‘camp st Sand Creek to hat. The Cheyenne chie beleved ne was ese. Butt | dayineak on Novernber 29, 1864, withthe American fag fying above then ‘Chivingon's command of 700 men, many of them drunk, fade down on the Sa Grek village, Most ofthe Cheyeane men were abvent hunting In the slaughte that ollowed, 105 Cheyenne women snd children and 28 men did, Chivingtots ‘elders scalp and mulated the Indian ope, gathering trophies o take back fo Denver, Soldessezched the genitals of dead women over ther sddcbous tnd wore them a decoration on their hate Cheyenne runners eared wat tothe alot, Arpaho, and Cheyenne camps. The entee conta plans exploded Ineo wae By eazy 1865, Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho bands had retaliated for Civ ingten’s attack by burning vitally all the rancher and sage sacions along the ‘South Plate. They, to, led men, women, and chilren. The Indians tres ted to sever communication acras the pains, but in the face of an American i ‘lfensive, they pulled nowt ofthe Pate. In puruing chem, che American oop eany | ‘once more delayed ther litatons tn plains warfare, Many ofthese sole tite sree Civil War vecerns who had expected co be sent home atthe end of the ck ‘war Instead, they were Files chasing Indians across asa of gst, The oops Se sullen and nurinois. Whole units deserted. The lon, slow federal colamts Under the command of Generel Patrick Connor, dagpiag thei lengthy supply ‘ins, could nether rd nor ght Indians. Supplies fled, horses and mules ded, tnd the soldiers nearly starved. Only the help of Pawnee warts, who haderesunouermy q lkced to fight cher enemies, the Sioux, saved them. The plains campaign of ‘vst a fica Coming on the bels of the stole of Send Creek, it ited the whole idea ofa itary soon co the confit. Theale soluson los further exes Congres the next year. Despite peace tll, the United Suse began building «wring of forts noth ofthe Pate 4 Te protect goldseekes on thie way to Montana slong the Bozeman Trail. Now he aerial Lakoe “shirt wearer,” orheadwarior, Red Cloud, begin organising ling the foes and attacked thore paris they could lure avay fiom the ft In December of 1866 the Sipux and thelr allies under High-Back “Tone wiped outs detachment fm Fort Philp Keay led by Captain Wllam _Fesernan ina fight thatthe Lakots called the Battle of One Hundred Sli. ~The Basle of One Hundred Slain bumlisted the Americar military, and the "gees prone prepared to expand the war. They not only planned to retaliate Gesint the Sioux, bu they also prepared tm attack Cheyenne warirs who had rose to accept thet chel cession of bt lands slong the Smoky Fl iver. “Arerican troop proved a Incapable of imposing a tiltary soltion on these rine wartion south ofthe Plate s they had been of subduing the Sioux, nes, and Arspahos now ofthe eve “TB 1867 che expense ofthese wry, thellackofrsuls, anther well-publicized ‘ssociies had tumed Congress agin them. In 1868 a peace commission con- “Sule the Medicine Lodge Treaty with the Souther Cheyennes and began " igetatons with the Sioux at For Laramie, When the peace commisionte a _romised tht the Americans would abandon the Bozeman Tal, he Brulé Sioux : “Tinder Spotted Tal, whe live south ofthe Bozeman Tra, aead to peace. Those “Teton Sloux nore ofthe ltte—the Oplans who followed Red Cloud as wel “as the Hunkpepas and Blacieet Siaur—refred, however, to participate is sitions until the American actualy surendered the Boseman Tall nd its for, The Americana gave in and abandoned the for, which the akon then ‘yume to che round, The next year Red Cloud signed the treaty ‘With peace ectangly secured on the cental plains, however, wr Gared agin. D After the Cheyennes hed raided the Kaw, or Kanss, Indians, the Amerieans ‘efued to ise the Cheyennes arms promised ear, Although Indian agents _syentally relented and sued guns and ammunition, it was to lte to prevent _ trouble. A Cheyenne raiding party on Us way to atack the Pewnees eared aide fod avepg croup setement in Kansas instead. They klled fifteen men, raped five women, and reigited the war. The Cheyennes scourged the Kanes fonter | Shar summer as American solder npanized fora winter campaign. The Ameri ‘ats in rm, mide the southern plan te fe one where they would shoot = st any bond they encoxntered. Onlering all endly Indian to gather at the | Waits River, American troops under General Philp Shetidan prepared t attack any lndlans who refused to come tn | Black Rete, the survivor of Sand Creek, journeyed ro the Washta, seeking to nchide his band among che fiends. Bu since many of hs young men were 4 ‘Biding, the Americans rebuffed him. He made cam at the Washita array, and there en November 27, 1868, he once mote woke to he clam of soldiers ‘haging ot down. Thistle they were federal woope under George ArmstrongTE FEDERAL GOVERN AND THE INDLANY In scene nlc onanerou other enacted over the coune of the inetenth cea, an B68 Lakou (Stuy) delegation poses ith goverment nape (Case, whe had followed the eral of «pany of raiders to Black Keti's carp. 4 ‘Once more American oldies attacked, and oace moee they slaughtered carp 3 that conned largsy of women and chuldren. This tne Black Ketl, to, died “After he slaughter on the Washi, hing largely censed berween the Am cansend the Lakots and thera. Both Red Cloud and Spotted Tal advocated peace withthe Americans, bie both continued Yo pursue thei wis aginst {Indi enemies. The Peseessufered very. The climax came t 1873 when the Sioux defaced a Patmee huning party at Mateaere Canon ling over on Fhundsed sen, women, and children. The defeat prompted che Pees, who = were looking fora rege, to abandon thee homeland in Nebraska ently an ‘eaeatt» Oklahoma. Sioux anacla on the Pawnees were pat of Red Clouds policy of delay. He yielded vo the Americans when necesary while continsing Sa piace eapenscf ndan eect ls Aer wey ea of fighting, the Americana bad noe yt broken the Sis 4 7. As the Sioux were to the norhem and central plains, eo the Comanches {wert the uther psi, Amecan edvancig Up the Afanss found ] Comanches a confident. enpanding people, the tenor ofthe Mexicans whom A they raided and soon the ter of Texas at wel. Less numerous than the So ) ue probably richer in bores, che Comanches were bulflo nomads who co ( callon allied tribes such as the Kiowas and Kiona-Apachs for support.hes eons Toran a Areca Idina 1850 yar wth all tieane~Toteesnd nr Tesne lie as theComanchevana ors ie the Sata Fe Tel. The, flowing tem ceo, the Comances rd thn thy hd acaentybwn rial sng Fennec nt Asse s. During the Civil War, the Comanches reverted to their older pattern of wining god laos wth the whites ung the Aan wale lng te Tea and enc. to ofthe Cl War made the Teas into Amescas ain, and ts") och once nore fed foe instore ta the nda man Pee fs dept the conning eens of Ton setenent ont La | ht i fd cred nh space in the Teeaty of ine ole in 87, In che ten, he Comanche a ther wer pan fs sce reton poly Thay aceped poe a acelin ‘hey sence Sc im vo immeave toe of hal, ba thy seme eon se lan song te bla remained The scree | Toted th new rserytonsin nda Terry on ands athe Five Coie) hod en rel tomnender ars pas frag wth te once sheng Se Cn Wa “Treaty of Medicine Lage bows gat changes, but they were raul The Comanches nf aled Kowa so fd gurantee coc yr ered se earth eke he dee a te >, Disiog General Shears compen ano che Chyenncin 190) he arches en thet alc reall on tetera to eagerly is who reared ay Indian an oaing te ls shee Bos of pion, bores the Capmche sl anid fo pose med of thelr mma ele on te pan They hate oe bua they Tess Aton chi inored the agent I the Amecans dd nor want foane Comanche ren toad in Ton, cn the eld aves Se Ha} where By cold dt. The Conch et Slo ena ad lg weboed sown 870, bt iter kes who eae he ipecara wet fauna, 4 Spring Rating: The Warn the Sours the Souter the American alo-confonted nian peoples of mia ny lic, bs the pinay iu inthe war we indo Hin Sir and Comanches che Narr an Ages ought scone Sem of native wire the hey reuied a ecesty thie caty and ¢ There ro, anon the Gat Fs, Ameren evened in sy lical cone ich lng preceded ht val. 1846 when Gener Steer Key al conquered New Mexia, he ha oth the Mensa andthe Pull nan ashe wou end Neva and Apocherigng This the United Se ved uable odo. 1835 Aeris sed ets with some Nevaon, Ue, td Apaches that woud else reervatoo, bt te Neon, Ute, nd Agee inred the andthe US. Seat rej them seo eesne Te Une Ses sb ers omy posto cra Se rd fur the scanned Ss they awa lad The oly ne develpnee war te Nova, Ut Apeches aed Anglo Ameren livestock tote st of tape.100 "THE FEDERAL COVERROENT AND THE INDIANS, ‘Unable nd unwilling to distinguish between various bands, Anglo Americans fn puma of ade often retaliated aginst the fst indians chey could find, thereated addooal dftultes, When the Minbeetio Apache leader Mi CColoradas made a fend viet a mining camp in 1850, Americans bound a whipped hn. Later in 1861, the American mlcary soled the Chsteah ‘Apeches. Cochise exaped; hs relates remained as hostages. Cochise then sl fotages of is on to secure their return. When the soldiers rfsed to excl prisoners, Cocite killed his hoses, and the ermy hanged Cochise’ relat {i uallation. Boh ineidens prompted wars with previously flendly groups fies, miner, rancher, and travelers ll vit to Mimbrefio nd Chireshus rides, “Ta the port, American military presure proved more immediately success 4 1863 the New Mexican Voluneen commanded by Gener Janes Carleton bat led in the field by Kit Canon, dhe former mountain man, defened the Mescalro Apaches forcing them tp accep a reservation at Bosque Redondo the Pecos River valey The mila then tuned agnnst dhe Navajos, whose raids had inereaced with che withdrawal of Armecean troops atthe beginning the Civil War, Substantial numberof Navaje wanted peace, but the price Canon denned was exile fom thelsomeland sd if ith tel enemicn Mesclere, at Boague Redondo. When they reheed ther terns, Canon tad ‘heir strongholds. Caron’s solders idle hing in the campaign agra he "Navajo. They conned tnerselves to buming cops, eat dow orcas waiting. They waited while waror from the Rio Grande Pueblos and Ue Hopi, and Zatis—all lonptanding enemies of the Nivajoe—ranged throw [Navajo country, diving of tock and stacking the Navejos where the fo them. Hungry td demoralized, the Navajo areamed in to suendr. ‘Carson fed them, gathered them in camps, and then marched them south Bosque Redondo. Three-quarter of the Navalor made the jou: the tet ‘remained hidden in their bomeland, The “Long Wal” became an event sexed into che Navajo memory, sting reminder ofthe power and ules ofthe federal goverment Ie wold be four years before Se Din, asthe Nave cal ‘themselves, ecumed to thelr own country—fout yet in which the government teed to mae chem sted villagers farming rgatod acs. These were four years of hurls, suring, deat, and neat starvation. On thelr ern to tek fom county, che Navas received eeration a faction these of thet ene fomeland, tue depte numerous provocations they would never agaln rk vat with dhe US. government. The defeat of the Navajos and the Mescalero le nly the more southerly bands of Apaches at war withthe Americans in tie | Soutines Subing the Small Tribes In both the Southwest and the Great Plains the Americans confented confident peoples who were ether expanding therselves or who had a Tong histary ofor eal ‘aryeas to thee reatler tie wae ve let Fin the mfdent | “fe moenat covanNan AND THE BUNS 101 “cea resistance to Buropens. In ghting there war the Americans had litle "table in sling ale from Song thore people vicrisedby plans nomads “G wauhveste racers. Despite abndent American provoeation, the Crows, sid Arikare all viewed the American a alls agit the Stout, who the time fr more immediate danger. The Posbos foughe alongside ercan against the Navajos just x chey ad earlier ough longide Mexicans “any aes congue. Tor other smal soups, however it was the Americans who repesened the seater ange tthe rive and independence The American provoked sand then nly reorened there who rested hem. The wars of the Pale Nasties can serve ar an cxple of och al bbl cones. | Ways of rertance i the Pace Northwest began with the Cayuse atack on the Whitman minion in 1847 wasarentiety minor inlet, bu eetablshed “he pte of atacand har reriaion.The wets ht flowed inthe Wake _S Governor lease Stevens heavy handed ond deciles negsiatng he sess of 854-35 vere both more extensive an more day The erie “chet an anger thc ew even pester os hess wes ofthe Ciscades ed Sines eax f the mounting test and robbed lca indians, in 1899 miner, gely pe the daughter fone ofthe lading men of the Yakima a ib of Ue Comba Plateaus te Yaka pursed and billed the pats When thee yA.) Bolom, caret nvengate sod cheatned therm wih punishment, “he Yin led him, too. Theres was wa, “Wer ofthe Carades white fered that dhe Paget Sound Indiana who lived sr the mount and who had interna’ wih he Yakima would fot hee Kinspeople in aracking te Americans In seskng fo preven eh aun, the bes extend he war hey ase consin. Acting Govemer Chis Mason “3 Watkington Tertory ordre the ares of Ler, a leang man on the "Sogeally River Forevarned Lerch fo lesving hi pow sanding im hi ely "orante the very einen Moston hed nee prevent. Surveying te whole ‘story ofthe events ening up tothe wos, Genel jn. Wool, who “emmanded the federal oop who fg the fins, aid the blame forthe | Sgting onthe ctl ad govemmen fica. Bt woul be the Indians who East of the mountains the Oregon Volunteer set che rone for che war when they matched aginst the neural Welle Wallasin Noverber of 1855. When Pe jesmoxmon, the digifed and mich respected leader ofthe Walla Walls, ame (them under a fag of tre, ehey sled im They ater murdered itm, and in the words of a witness, "They seinned him fom head ¢o foot, and ade xr tap of ein The fies, repre, drank os om aes © crvaining his ex. “The wat that ensued fellowed what became the unal patter in such conf | All Indians not onthe reservations wete presumed howl and open to attack “Taghting conde largely of sall-cae raids Both sides bumed cabins and “lags and destoyed ivesocle nd fod. In many ways the Indians who sought to remain neutral fared wore than those who were at war. Confined to sal‘Whipple's call for Christianization and “evilzaton,” in his stack on Eourtion and lnefciency, in his belie that war could be avoided through the sdminstration ofa decentpolcy, and in his demand that Congres provide at administration lay the bare outlines of the teformen’ program. Hs ‘oo, contained the seeds for a sable expansion of federal power and 8 dininishment of lndian sovereignty. | profesional urea Al of ran Sheree who eame in Whipple's wake anointed themeefnes che Tticnds Indian” They considered Indians human beings equal to themlves. They aha che pervasive racism ofthe period that thought Indians inherently 10 white. Instead, they suppored another sain of tndian policy visible bs 1822 in Revered Jedediah Moss's well-known por on Indian policy Eats, Mose auerced, were ‘an incelgent and noble pat of our rae, anc ble ofhigh moral and iellecual improvement.” Politicians, cents and ityof the American public often doubted such sentiment, but the reform sd majority opinion at tay. Racism did noe dominate Indian policy until eth centry. Until then reformers effectively agued that Indians were ‘fo mhlces no because thelr nnate capacities were diferent, but becase like children, were sll advancing up "the ladder of civilisation,” Telit it lads epaey perversely made che reform all the great) eof Indian cultures, for they believed chat for Indian to survive they had fiedall chat made tham obviously Indian. Iffadans would not doo willingly, the reformers would have free them todo so forthe nas! own goo. Ps determination to desuoy Indian cultures in ode ove Indian peoples gave este poliy ofthe reformers a ferocious edge peace policy rook its isprtion and ls name in reaction tothe predomi iy ilar policy of the 1830s and 1860s. In ewence, the peace policy argued Picxoew emphasis on kindness, honesty, and juice n dealing with the oda "policy would, reformers though, end fndlan wats and tur Indians int fmercanciens In che sincere pursuit of this poliy of kindnest, honesty, end ce reformers would over che nex 30 years become involved inthe wholeale son of Indian cultures and the conseiou violation of numerous tet conviction that Indians must be coered into changing opened up a whole real forthe exercise of federal power, forthe government would Become fhe agent of coercion. This increase in federal powers dd not, however, come Fisediately. In the fase and most famous phase ofthe psc alley under President Dies S. Grant, the government actually diminished is power by curing ovet 1 churches the management of most Indian reservations and Indian agencies. ining 189 nd 170 Preset Gant invited che hacemos wees the adminisraton of Indian afnirs and prevent camiption. thy Protstan¢ philanthropists controlled he boerd fom ta outset Churches Bist welcomed the chance for captive audiences fr convenion found, howeves, fat they could not find che necessary people to sf the Indian agencies. The lionary boards lost interest in Indians when more exotic converts salted em overseas. ‘The new regime secured neither peace nor consensus over how to administersoaph of Red Clots becom capes the eal complies of whe Sen comet in the ninetnnth cnt Wer Ageis often dence Red loo se conatrcted taal. re; mest Stour looked oa tas murder. Siting Bull wuld de yeas ater, down by Indian police sent out to axe him during the Ghost Dance “The murder of Crazy Hoe initiated along Sioux ordeal that culminated in th the laghter of akoes Ghost Dancer at Wounded Knes In 187 the had no way of knowing what lay ahead, Buta they surrendered thet arms thle horses, they knew tha ltr esitance and the fee roaming Ife were yer In the Sioux winter counts, the anna chronicles painted on bufalo ices, *y Lakoras recorded 1876-71 a the year the Americans tok thie homes, | Ore southern plains, che Comanches, too, revised and lst, The incident reseed thes downfall war arid into Tes fn May 1871 led by the Kiowa ie Satan a close ally of the Comanches. Setanta’ wariorsdesaoyed and atin offeight wagons, slaughtered mos ofthe tastes, and mutilated rcorpes General Wiliam Tecmsch Sherman, who commanded the Amer armies, happened to be ona tour of inepetion nearby. Seman, althoush el sfcran Indian, bad limited sympathy for Indians. They constituted » Hebei obs solved, end he was wing to slve iby peach means ihe could iby harsh means if be must. He had suppored General Sheridan when edn hal ordered Custer’ auack on Black Kee atthe Washita. Sharman Kido, as Sheridan did ehik “he only good Indians [ever saw were dead,” but ras not key eo tolerate ive Indian who rested and stacked whites. He Thal Steanta snd other Kiowa leader, who fcely confessed thelr partcpation, Ieed upon del rem to the reservation. They were sent Teas 9 be iedthe older Wounded Kae formurder. Convicted and entenced tbe hanged all bu one had thei site ‘commuted. They were eventually pardoned in 1874 except fr one Kiowa hod died eying to cape, Ralding declined only briely afer Satan's capture. In 1874, Comanche Kiowa, and Southem Cheyenne wasror, angry over stacks on the camps ‘Comatche bands wo refed to come ino the reervtion and the slugs ufo by hide huner, ezalated det alds once mee. They ambushed Teas Rangers and atacked hide huners onthe bull range. The goverment, ove Indian Offce protests, retaliated by iving oops permision to pusue falda ‘onto the reservations in 1874, Cheyenne, Comanches, and Kiowas moved the ‘amps from the reservations and oxying seat into the bral euroundinig th [Redand Washita river in the Texas Paniandle, sn action which gave the ensuing ‘war itr name: the Red River War. Ar with the war aginst the Sioue, the “Americans won by thes persistence and by their bility to prevent the India fiom scaring food fr themselves and thet fale not by battlefield vito ‘When Setanta surtendered along with the other Kiowas and Comanches, th Amerieans sent im back to pion, whet, thee years later, according co: ‘whies, he commited suicide ‘The Indians sald he was puted out a hospi ‘window. The military shipped other prominent Cheyenne, Kowa, and Comanche[ree pena dovanneer AND Tn NOLAN ew Fa nd pone he a od Span fr. The Used PSares government no longer teated Indian wares and leaders as defeat dient weated them as common criminals. ‘he Siou, the Comanches, and the Apaches had been the great obstacles to ire American contol of the West, nd by 1876 only the Apacher mained ued Inthe late 1860s and early 1870s, moet Apache bands, ted nd ned by constant cone, had made thei peace and etled on reservations. ons on the reservations, however, wee harsh, and many groupe and dividuals eft wo resame ther old Me. They were tacked down and pursued not tay by American solders but alo by Apache scouts eculed fram stong the ration Indians Defeat here, too, sally came noe though plched bales instead trough the Americans ably ta deny the Indian food and shelter Ble key w victory, an American ofcer concluel, was “permitting te Indians 2 Thelas Apache atemprsatressancecononted preiely this knd of estegy felentles pul. Victor of the Mimbres and Geronimo of the Chicahae ested steapts to reset them and tet followers onthe hot and malaria Cale reservation Instead they rene riding In 1879 and 1880, Victor ‘on both ids of che international border before bring comered snd Killed moet of hs followers by Mexican solders In 1881, Oeronimo, digused by dona at'San Carlos, went to war. Americon solder and Apache sets ic allowing ime neither est or sanceuy, and rough him back Bat [esonimo agun eacaped the reservation in 1885, to tepet te old pattem of uty and ultimate surender in September of 1888. The United States, Hit had so often before with other Indians, exled chee Apaches from thet eld in the hopes of breaking thee retance defeating the Comanches, Sioux, and Apaches the Americans subjugated es who had long contested ther advance ino the West, but the Americans les who hod wied to accommodate themtlver 0 s ‘West. The mot famous ofthese peoples were the Peet. Some Net Pereé bans had signed Inne Seven eat of 1855 end shad not, bucall che Nee Pesce bans had remained sloot fom the Indisn {of 1855, The teaty bands had aocpted reservation, end in 1863 they second treaty that narowed the reervation after miners discovered Son i. The nontsaty banded refed to sgn ether treaty, {Be nore andra no hy fred otis wth he United Sas, they manage to live relatively quietly into the 1870s, The rose impostant bands lived in Oregon's Wellown Valley. Ta the 1870s thet leader wae ah too-yah lac Lee called by the whites oxng Joseph to diinguish him [othe previous leader ofthe bund, his father Tuekkat, of OM Jose. Tae TY S.government had accepted NesPeré til to this lan, but in the mid-18705, ressure fom Oregon stele, enegel on ts previous agreement and riled the band’s removal to the Nez Pere reservation. With resitanee 7, however, our young Nex Percé men got drink and, in anger and rerentment hei eviction, killed four white etl, Feting rtibation, Jneps band and when pursuing tala and federal cavalry ignored fag of truce end aed, the Nex Peres defeated them at White Bied Canyon,108 ‘Tun FEDERAL GOVEROUENE AND THE INDIA From White Bird Canyon the Net Pects set out on a tapi ad astonishing igh, Pusued by converging columns of thousands of federal oops and militia: ‘he Nes Peres ded, fought, and ded again. Accompanied by thet fale 9 Funded wariors led by Lacking Glas and Ollokoe (or Josephs was a cil ot peace chief nd did noe lsd warriors) croved the Bitroot Mountains and fp the Sout Bu the Clon, he Ne Pete dicoveed, wee sving a ‘American scouts, and so the pure ured north, hoping e9 cross over In CCansda and find refuge among ther old enemies, Peres defeated, The generals looked like fol, and perlyt9 hide their om incompetence they pated Joseph who in fce was no eve. the Nes Perce wat leader, sea "red Napoleon.” or ltd of dete Geel Neon Met aly comer he cxhausted Nez Pres. A few hundred managed to ip through ls ines and ineo Canada, bu Joseph met with Miles." am ted offing," he sd. "Out chiefs ere llled. Looking Glas is dead. Tochoothoolote ie dend: The old magn fae all dead. [eis he young men who say yes or no. He-who led the young men [Oilokot is dead. Ie scald and we have no blankets. The lie children sit fiesing to death... . Hear me, my chief am tired, My heat isc und ba ‘om where che sin, tow sands Twill ght no mare frever”™ ‘Totephsuzendered on Miles’ promise tha he ad his people would be retard to the Nez Pereéreevation in Idaho, General Shermen overuled Miles. Sher ‘man, who hai ealier summarized his ow views on Indians by saying that be wae convinced that “they a have tobe killed or malntlntd asa species of pauper Sere the prsoner aniported to Fore Leavenworth, Kanes Sifted fom pace to place over the next several yeas, the Wallowa Nes Pact ickened and ded Jn 1885 the government allowed remants of Joseph's tand to teum home During the inerwening seven years the 418 people who had somendered with Joseph had dwindled to 268. Ae was pica of many bes, more Nex Perot had ied ster sunenderng to the Americans than had ded fghting them. rom Sovereignty to Wardslp ‘ ‘Whether they were allies ofthe Americans, whether they remained neutral, whether chy opposed the Ameccan avnee, ll Indian peoples inthe year at the Civil War saw thelr soverelgnty erode. "The national wadship implied i Chie Justice Mahal’ formulation of "domestic dependent nations" boca ‘insted an individual warship, The United States would administer the ef of es Indian wands aif they were incompetent chile. 6 /,Reloees eared nian nto gl fictions which the federal gove: ‘ment should no longer ecognse. As btely a advocates of lian cotta 44 althdecnens Sin dake non ao reas ap eared Indian spore aged {Ba the weacer ss fry indians fd ie mene of compeling te Uae | Saaestohonor hem. Aseaty 1868, che Indian Peace Commision had ase (thatthe ine ad come > cose repulng the Indians a deme dependsFEDERAL OOVERSMENT AND THE INDIANS 109 i Indians instead should be “individually subject co the avs of he United ." Ie would be beter, reformer sald, ro treat the Indians as wards, to sop acing eet, and to finda "jst” way to abrogate thse that exe. fv 1871 the United States did abandon the treaty eatem, bat fe did so for chathadlile odo withthe reformer objeeives, The Fou ofRepresen- hod long wanted a voice in agreements with Indian, since the terms of jan teaties often fected their conatcvent aces fo land. The contin, se, ge any the presdent and the Senate a role in treaty making. Denied sl voi, te House moved aol te teay oem agit. The ete agreed as long a exting treaties, which govemed potentially crate es of landotndivdaals and eorpratons, remained in fee “The end of teary making, however, neither ended negotiations with Indian ions nor abrogate dian sovereign. Congres continued to negciate "agree to chain land ceasions fom Indians. There difered fom treaties largely “ of Cone a not fur he Serato aly chen, With ‘old eas in force and with sovereignty ignored instead of being legally inated, the United States proceeded to reform Indian polly by deepening iscontradctons. Reformers pushed the federal goverment toward direct pet Uison ofthe lives of indvidal Indians whom the lw ow defined ar wade of Destate. A partial and reduced soverelgnty anda new doctin of wade 0d greasy aie hy ae. ~ Progen of Assimilation the 1870, the churches lot contol of administering the agencies, but Mrorestant reformers sonethelscontinved to seer American Indian policy, The ds of che Indians exerted tremendous influence on Indian pliy through the Tian Rights Aweciacon, the Womens National Indian Asciation, and the al conferences that brought government ofcils an reformer togecher st ke Mohoris; New York. fective publicists with rong connectione inthe Protest churches, Indian reformers cpitaliaed on the otrage best les such as Helen Hunt Jackson's Century of Dshonor provoked among the fublic at large when these books exposed pas and present American duplicity Sood corrpton in dealings with the Indians. | Well tothe twenvieth century, relormets continued to se themselves st Troi and dedicated minoeity working forthe good ofthe Indian. Given the entext in which they worked, cle wes not an untewonable view, Reformers alleged prevaling race asmptions by proclaiming Indian capabilities and thes equality with whites. Reformer demande effcien and honest adminis ata ime when Indian land ane property was the fecus of considerable white ‘Reformers strgaled o preserve Indian peoples ina sciery in which many mericans were convinced that Indians mus dsappear and were not sory to soe That dn hae etd the omen is se “domes only mor evidence ofthe lnorant and benighted state fom which the UTadans hod wo be ressued ‘The reform policy ha thee basic components. The fist was the suppression “oflndian norms of family fe, community organisation, and religion. Reformer: [eight fo sccomplish this suppresion by persuasion wen possible and by fore n necesery. Simullaneol, reformer tried to edvente Indian chilren inq Hug rill if if apFFE: - i EF 2 , ee $ i z fF a pase a i i ny : Indian reseton inthe West exe of Idan Teitry, 180, Frm the Annual Repo ofthe Commisioer offi Af, 1860.“The mack of dependency: reservation Utes, once selfing at the apncy to reste ations | oer co instill mainstream American Protestant values in place of etal vaes Fall eformers ugha policy oflandllotment that wood break up communal holding pitema and create private ownership In the end, Indians would be (Christan farmers living i nuclear fais on thet own land, The enaining | Tits could then be opened wo white farmers In the end, all sipposedly would be reconcile, on the Indian, the reformers operated at “ie advantage. Noc only had dhe mulary made effective resistance by Indians “inpomibe, but conquest itself also had proceeded to destroy exiting Indian dsiscence stems. With che exception of some tes in the Sothern the Pace Northwest and the Five CvilzedTebes of Oklahoma, mor Indian peoples chuld no longer fed o leche themselves without federal ab. Mert escration Tadians depended for rrvivalon payments due them fom the government for it land and on ations ised bythe goverament. Thiscondition of dependency “ave government oficial sigifcant contol over the socal and cultural lie of ian peoples. Agena could ue annuities to reward fends and punish enemies ‘hey could wse the dsibuion of supplies to alter the ustal pllcl arangements D ofa community ‘The suength of Indian communives during thie ptiod declined while the “power of he federal bureaucracy that sopervied them incressed. The Buea of Tndian Affairs had made ts fest mover toward centralization before the Cll ‘War, wien the goverment began emeving the uperviion of Indian ats fr12 ‘TE PHDERAL COVERNOME AND THE IRDLANE ‘he duties ofthe terial governors and transfering them special ofcer, he fuperintendens. The fre of the churches #9 supervie Indian aff Bde ‘quately—and eubyequent scandals under Coluntus Delano, President Grants dy comp cen of the on neared pe fr ae The at anne ayo pet oe ar ed ‘panel the powth ofthe Buea of indian Af fom cos thro a noes earept pop of profesional brescras Becween 160 snd 1097 the bureau nearly doubled in soe, and alchough its 4,000 employees would be sell aff by twentieth century standards, iwas a significant one by those f the sineteentheanty eee ch Boe A hex cried ii with tandardaed proceduces was long one. Pethap the secretary afte ncriog ‘most responsible for evental Bureaucratic centralization scces was Cal Schuz fn exiled German revolutionary who helped ofgense the Replica party ih ‘Wisconsin. General, ambastodor, senatr, netspapeman and editor, historian, snd ater renegade fom Grane Republican pry, hls tenute a secrecary ofthe {tteior under President RuchesordB Hayes fom 1877 to 1681 was but one op fea tumcleous carer. A ferent ippotr of evi service reforms, Sere tok the ofice of Indian inspector and made ite tool fr eentalising the bureau, He appointed former superintendents and agents tothe post, used the inspectors fo inestigaeiegulaiies inthe agencies, and had those men report diel t9 him. They were offcals whose loyales were to Washington and not to the agents cor locally connolled Indian riegs—that i, coalitions of government ofciale fad businesimen designed to diver lodian fers inno white hands Ae efor proceeded, the bureau increasingly contlled i employees by an elaborate et of ‘les nd pce Compe burcascinon oar in the ex ceri entry when all mportantfeld employees an Bateau came under the Gal even Now tio itn he Buea of Inde ‘Afi, were failar with It procedures, and had more loyalty tothe ompiisa: tien, Political ppointes finally lost out to profesional mesucrat. ‘Weakened tnbes, an Increasingly avertive and profesional bueascracy, and ‘conviction among reforms chat change must come quickly allowed the Boxes ‘flndian Aas wo launch what amounted to wholealestsulton Indian cule» fd community ganization In dhe 1850s. In 1885 the Indian Bureau fanned “medicine making," polpgamy, and bide payments and setup a eystem of courts of Ladin afenses—raffel by Yndian—eo enforce thet diectivs, When afew. ‘whites procested such actions, claiming tht these were the natural conditions of an Indi’ if, the commissioner of Indian fas replied hat "So are sperstiion and sn but that is no reason agaist ying to lnprove his contin.” ‘By withholding rations, imprsoning recalctran, forcibly eating odult ment bai, sling chien for schools, physically besking up religious ceremonies, and ising religious objects the Indian Bureau mounted dee asl on Ind Cultural and religious practices that would continue wel into the twentieth erty. The government succesfully anned the Sun Dance among the Lakota for the fist ime In 1884. That ene thor lost not only i cena religious ceomony but alo asociated cal and religious ils, The Sun Dancelad bees ‘tine of courdng and un, and other sta hd Hourshed in the shadow ofthe ‘cred tee of the Sun Dance In the encampmensVslonares had ated cut their“TH abenaL GOVERRENT AND THE INANE 13 ‘experiences, healers had demonstrated ther power, and babies’ ears had been pleted in ceremony as central to idenication a Lakoes as ceeurcision was fo the Meiy ofa Jewish man. In B85 the govenmene enced a athe ohio by Benning bunds. When a enon did song the aka, he aly bad cus ok of io et Iaieand ped en asa and fore yee, thn Cig cha peso pt 0 ‘ain wh the peopl: Ath endef the ys he pws eer and goss aed oper the cps the yr wer gen sy In hoot othe Scere ‘he pvenmen, een wuld no even ete dea wap is poe A skeen, aw The white pole mode tron the = Lots tone hem fom pacing te eclgen.- Tae whe perl wb Ei ‘mae sete se spt of or ded be ned” ae Mastek eres in oisting earl nd elo racic * conga, hey ha eal pest pting fin chiln to change thet x » ‘rays volunttily once dhey were propery edvate, Indian schools would both ‘efuce those who believed tha the Intent were racially inferior, ane thus induc le, and would alo break che resitance of thor Indiane wi red to preserve ald rr Wih prope etuaton, reemen coed, Indian repos snd practices would disappear within a genestion. _ 1 The most faroous of the Indian educators was Richard Heney Pratt, an amy fos who wa in charge of hove Klows sus! Corimhejroners ew Foil, | aher the Red Rives War Prats success wonking with thoveposoness convinced | him chat education wa the key othe “lan problem," and in 1879 he convinced the government 9 help fand the Carlisle Indian School in Pennsylvmnia. At Cariste,Prateadopeed «policy of wolacing hen rom tela, forcing hema ‘tw rpeak Englch, and compeling them to follow Anglo American cuoma, Wich is mista of academie taining and manual labor, Carle rexembed Booker T. ‘Washington's Tuskegee Inticate for blacks. [ese the pattem for the Indian Ioarding schools that followed | Reformers like Prat were quite determined to destroy existing Indian cultures) Reformers believed that unt they eliminated exiting Indian belie and social | fons, chey could not wsimilte Indians into American life. And indian were | not atsimiated into American life, the they would disappear. As Pat pu, ‘he goal was to “il the Indian and sve che man,” The decultistion Pratt demanded wis virally total: the sooner all tbl relations ae boken up, the f coor inden ne al han ay, even ange bee wl) befor him ad for che government andthe greater willbe the economy for both ‘The reformers were unwilling to brook ny opposton fo their goals fom Indian _ parents, Commiaioner of Indian Affairs Thomas Monga tod parent that they kd not “have any right wo forily keep chai children out of sehool to Bow up like themselves arce of barbarians ard sm-savages” Yet many Indian paren did ress. Nor only was the avowed goal ofthese schools to make the children fcangers 1 thelr own people, bu they were ale often ensl, dangers, and Sky places where dscae claimed the lives of many seulene. Indian reform, policies placed Indian parents in a difcult postion. Their childen obviously noted new sil, but the pice exacted for thove skile was cultural dexrction And los of vende. And for many children the culmination of schooling war not tgaduation but death on a sickbed hundreds of mile fom their home raseaeerse oowae eae es‘Tie lems of» South Dako shoo named ser Sting Bll), showing the hen ‘he Indian policeman, sn the mite school teaches, eapacs te meemp fo fre ‘wal tanwomaton of idan popes. In he en, however, the esitance of ln peoples was probly le impr tant in alg the expansion of baring schol than te cow ofthe sceels theuelves and distal to achieve the remit they had pombe, Some seat reamed tthe eservatons without cil Others ame with il at ind appliatin inthe sted vation economy, Of, oo thee ered seadents found themselves cu of place tn comments who vals they no lenge fly undenond or share. The atenpr toca tba vac nd ppacices dough education would cone fo he teenth century, but Eceaitly de nin cata tol mold be al only ot feng libs prion fad cll practi sd oan mee mo pe ofthe form progam land llotmen med the thi. The mle las term Je wo consoled Indan policy belevel hae private popey ad indo ‘Sonam formed the het of evlsaton, As lng a fies ed tht land common, cht hear could not tat, and teenie cig” proces cold not take pac, Reformers were determined to dive bal ands among ial meme bers Because wih dvindling opultone many tbs held what the efonnes rege too uch land forthe membre oe effec, eorerproponed | telling the excess to white setdere Popol allo lad in sever, thi \ division was elle, were no new. They had alieady been writen nt some of‘he fine eae exablihing reservations inthe years before she Civil Wa and ‘Congres ad posed several paral mesures following the we ‘The main severaley measute, however, came in 1887 when Senator Henry ‘Dawes of Masachuseea sponsored the Dawes Act The law provided varying “Bhounis of land for allel members with the maximum amount, 160 sees, ‘being alloted to a head ofa family. This land waco be held in rst by dhe ‘overment-it could neither be sold nor eaxed—for twenty-five year. The econ to allt a reservation was not up £0 the lndlans, Ie rested with the president. If he decided that a reservation should be alloted, chee wat sathing Fedlane could do to stop him. “The law pleased both eater reformers, who saw ie as vital to the civilisation progam, and westem settlers and developer, who were es iaeresed i aint Ing ndins than in gaining acest Indian lands. With the parsage ofthe Daves ‘Aer, reformer believed thatthe end to the “indian problem” was in sight, Reservation, the commissioner of indian afas wrote i 1889, belonged to the vashing order of thing. He declared tha "tba elation shouldbe broken uy socialism destroyed and the family and auonomy ofthe individual sbstieted. ‘The alloument of land in severly, the establishment of local cours and police, the development of personal sense of independence and the iver adoption ‘the English language are means to this end.” “Aavwith eduction, the reform fled to achieve this gel bur they coe more exacted a heavy price from those they wished to help. In the late nineteenth and eatlyeweatith centres, che Bureau of Indian Alfie applied the Dawes ‘ewe peadand ck degncs hc appalled evento aS, Indians held 155,652,312 acres of land. By 1890 this gure had dwindled to 104,314,349, and by 1900 hod declined to 77,865,373 acre. Moe Indians did not beesme independent farmer, and the federal goverment di not fll te ‘mus responsi, Particularly during the ery twentieth cencury, fad and selazation of trust provision allowed alloted landeto pas eo whic, Between, 1887 and 1934, Indians lose 60 percent oftheir temaning land end 66 percent oftheir allowed land. As the sovereiggy of native westem tribes buckled before the reformer zeal, the Five Cilied Tribes of Oklahoma intl eld out ora bastion ofthe older ter of domastc dependent nations. They managed to obtain exemption fom the Daves Act, but the sovereignty they had been promised in the West was bout to be undermined once more. The sme combination of reformist el and whe deste for Indian lan that had contributed tothe Dawes Act strengthened {he dase of corporations for acest Indian resoures ard erated presse fr the disoluion of the governmens ofthe old Indian Tertoy. With reormers ‘decloically commited wo severly, even the success of Indian govemments became an agument for dubuading them. As one reformer explained afer iter- viewing 2 chief of one of che Five Cvilzed Ties, here was nota family inthe ‘ation without a home of soins Not was theres pauper in the nation. Nor did the nation owe a dollar. [chad bulls own expt, schools, and howpitale: Yet fe egued chat ctr sysem was defecive: “They have got afr as they can 0, because they own chet land in commen... There ino enters o make our fom any better than that of your neighbors, There ino selshness, which sato 6 ‘Tm FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE DUAN sre ren thebortom of civilization... .Tllthispeople will consent to give up theirlnds, | Indiana ‘divide them smnong hol ctisens o that each can own the lan he culate, shemwelve they wil not make much more progres.” pened /, indlians bad no route ag this kin of tubo ideology chat wed even toes the Indian? saccow apist ther. ‘The reormesstaely uae thelr case for povenne individuatzation revealing a bottom, they believed, ciiiation was based enone 4 onselfshness. Progres came only through the uninhibited pursuit of ef-interest. Federal Indians were not innately inferior. They spl ved ina soeey whose comma Indien }_salies nhted che ret and cliches nestary for progres The lone Tada ¢ PRE Sop poeta Lace! by eld pve and bythe sel od ory, powerfally but eal power selbinerest protect at cof ralroad eormpentes hae would by law ae large grants ofland if Indian Territory Frail « ‘etdiaolve creed an unopable moment for saving the poveraments okey ot ‘ithe Five Civized Tes Wat the federal goverment had aed to get ‘owes ‘once, however, it worked st obtaining piecemeal. rom the 1870s onward there MM Cure oh Saetews ene fo hcg tes wort Ian Tero a power © {ederaly governed western terry, to allot and the fadlan, and wo open up | Sxining th ead whe ete. Wh reat of Fe Sed carer ‘Tribes foughe off propos to make the Indian Terekoy felerlly gover |S enld western terior, they le other bes As corporation faethe fonds and degenden pened coal mine, the federal goverment limited the abiliy of the Indian the ae ‘ations f regulate these corpomtions or their workers. In 1889 goverment inted tatended he federal ulcial sytem into the region, establishing court at ‘own pow ‘Maskogee foe whites Iiving in nian Teor. thous “The asaule on the soveelanty of he Five Civilized Tribes culinatd in the oflnlan flores ofthe Daves Commision of 1853. Asiened the ak of nesting with hemmeon {he Five Civled Tabs fran en fo nso orb i to tet lds, the Ferenc wes Commision fnally bought allorment of lands in severty tothe Indian | tons anc “Tertory. With allorment secured, Contes then demanded the end tothe tal rie goveraments Ghamsclves. When sme ofthe Five Cvs Tile ested, the E would be (Gate Act of 198 uncer temnated the goverment of done ber that Joined had no aeady aged to disband “oluay™ ish “ojo of Power Indians ee plenary | ‘By the ealyevensats century all avalable choices seemed bad for American tread ¢ Wha olen They had exces poplin nay ein ay ep Ear ther ctrl end oil nai av tell The formes ed den ply makes, a hos orn opts hal sled isdn bap fo oe him ack : Srm oro. Thersonmey dot win irene need thy Hamed Paik Ind apc, dur, hey sd mig nt ke the ei of wir er a ‘The merc dd not skate pl fan, bat rein on he Targets of teeny trees cotay, ay gel el ere Accepting Indian abilities at limited, they no longer thought assimilation would p e.8 ‘berapid. This did not, however, stop the alienation of Indian land and resources a! aa Tate eve faster than chat ofthe late nineteenth century me “Together the decline ofthe tees and theese ofthe Buren of Indian Afi et raced the trajectories of power in the nineteenth-century West. American bad Sash fought and conquered Indians, but this was only pare ofthe change, for pc lve “ee 104 tMaKay youwomny WwoLRMY MNET “AIMS S.soHAIK Woy sURpING AUD Puoqmugsuy poo usm samme “vende jeoPets. CeOUe) PAPAL | -u¢2108 Ho) oaIndians who never fought the United States a well those who had lid thamaceer with the Avan dined in powe, American ofl dally pervened the promis of one woveregn nation to pret the fr wesc Eesllovclgn, mations into mandate fr bureaucrats appointed by one foveament ws orewee he perl lives of indval member Of thos Weak Felco uccecded in imposing chi here defntion of waxlp ox Indians fever reason Fst, Indian power bod declined to a pol ¢ which thane enslves could no event he goverment fom acting uate. ‘Stsond,povenmestoficis billowing che Cv War ecogated areal eed to spotter om af the renmaningLadan propery agate apacious Whites. Filly es the cours aceped smmfatin asthe imate gal of Indian poly and surhip. they ganted the goverment extnoiinay coercive reer In tert free aetnlion onthe nda, Tn 1903 the Supreme erred in Loe Wol vs Hickok tut Congress ad a plenary oe absolute) | ‘Goer to tegatana even when congreinal cis voted | B Tatnag wen provisions "eto be presmed he Cou ad "that his | seater the Unted Sears would be govern by such eoideaons of joice | woul eonwol » Chikten people tn the wexment of an porns nd) Eman ce Suc espe nose dan vei al os / in velcing te inde o warp, the fica government had ehanced i on power Contes cou cording tthe our, diate he fetes funded ‘Fiigumnisclpeolein the American Wer and contol tens ef lion of ares, Findon land Ie glnng sch powe, the federal government had als bull up the means oer te, THe mary tad aed the las, anda modern Fereaurcy, toe Bureau of Indian Af, had arn oar the reer ons and ter the ovement ware tard lena Trip a coupes belived both the reservations and the bueaurcy voll! be eenpray, hn hey would Giappear a the Indians sled ane JBned mh the ler popu nda andar woul supposedly © Tanah together, Butt would not tur ut be that way. The significance of Todians in che Wes didnot end when they were herded onto resersaions. The © plenary power thatthe cous granted Congress would in protee only Limit Tnsteod of destroy Indian soveregney. The history of nineteenth-century fain poli clealy atk the decline of sovereignty ai the rise of wardip, bu che Frcs was never complet. Indian sovesigty would have it own reaugence Boch Buresuctats and Indians would tam ut to have a much ler zle to play in che Wer than ninetenth-centryrlormess imagined. Readings Magn, Wile, Une! Sater Comancht Relais: The Reston Yea. New Haven: “Yale Univeney Pes, 1976. Ua Aer akan ea oe Clio New Hae: Yl Urey rt 938 | son, Pel Phi Sherdon and His Amy. Lies: Univer of Neb Pest, 198. Jorphs via. Th Nev Pot and he Oper ofthe Nortes. New Havens Yale Creag Pres, 1965118 “Ti FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND THE INDIANS Mies, Che Wik God etn: usr Work Amon te Pawns, Ors, and Ona rhe [6/0 incl Univer of Nebr Pres, 198 Miner H; Cris an Will Unset. Te Bede Tndin Kaas. Lawrence: Univesity ‘re of Kana 1978 Pllpe, Geng, Chi end Chale. Bekley: Unive of Califo Pres, 1975. Pruchor Frances Pal The Grt Far The Uae Ses Goverment nd th Arion Tn, nena: alert of Nebraska Pre 1984 "Thelin enon Soest Reuter Worth Pret. Bele: ‘aiverty of Calin Pres, 1985 aaa f Clo The Carona Noman: sive of Ohne rss 1584, Read James P. Lai and Clink Among he Indi. Lina: Univesity of Neb Pe, 18h ‘Sith, Shey The Vie fom Of Rous Amy Pcs of Wate Irion, Toso ‘Univer of Asuna Pres, 1990 at Pal The don Offs: Groh an Dnlpmen of on Ame ston, 1865- 1900 Ana Abr UME Reva Pes, 1979. “henner Robert A. Alert Esanctn: Feel Indon Poly dhe Bg of "je Resets Syn 146-31. Phdlpis Temple Ualverty Pres, 1975. Lilley Reber The dn Foner of he Aenean Ws Alsuuegue Unversity of Ne si Pes, 1984, ‘White, Riche. “The Winning ofthe West The Expansion ofthe Western Sioux in the ihteenth and Nintenth Centres” Journal of Aner Far €5 (Sepreber 1918) 319-0, Wikinon, Chae F Aeron Inds, Ting and he Law Nae Secs a Mode "Constiind Dens. New Haver: Yale Univesity Pres, 1387CHAPTER 6 Distributing the Land "Tie govennens eeiont that x loc the Wet wer, nf, opi ting prAna FREER arcana s np behind th ws ln re dee ey tata Sc upthelnd ino te gan conker aa ee cele and qunter cs ata pprent ov Fa era clay This sont duno med one fhe eee eet goverment inthe ninceehcentey Wate tandoring Dl nds ino potas Batre ty dtihung Inde mean hat Anca) cams is Gch omen the feel eonempent fare desi | erTucitt ewe urease wet puedobeemprayeee aera icia wes boupit roll ingmetcconeercccprtepepery. er ret ut se ove, The fell goverment not dite Ee ins she Wose The government rend vo much land tat a ra ee and nse aon to he cenal pvenent_/ Sin woul te of che Be ES te Ke land sem cee asin she Ea iad cifece ns. he terces wee ot tetra, Congre wanted ee eer tke pera apical amy, a euln ey the el Guta ead oe onthe eto See ee ote entaminneive eaten fm wk fii aod Fr hal wal ofl ote, When hey wereld, {lagen een hers ael fa ‘eck fhe cafdng di venta come down uc ose sections of hi shite faneweltemsned andl the goverment bgnelessng ciple esc ul the cfg, i ede, bec 8 fo i Wa. Tae prion ofthe tang denned nd are ltl kia vaich ee » permanent een 0 Sr fcenl povernene ‘Amen Land Ply ‘soil once, chee ata Igri coherence Amato cre Torna of ToS eel inl pretest th equ cee ee As Inn ol ie to ellen wo he Caereenen eecwoul matte hod in gate ial Pc bie thom lnm ecto fone gone ale Each ec,au | as ala n| n|as w | 4 po ‘Se Mie “The omsipunbtng tin up ede the Ordnance of 18S, in tum, woul conn four unter seston of 160 srs each, The goverment oul then wel th nds arf toms at. ny spleen. ay Tin lun ater he motion cold Se pce a Se an fice a ‘inn pice ely et $2.00 ee edie o $1.25 an ae 0 “The tse premie of thi ater, one not quetoned ul che nd ofthe (sans ne ‘was that the land system oi oe serve ee. ‘country's inrnos y poring pb ad int pia hands Te feel goverment oul in ite eve av el ert get ice! of undo. The dy Ic of public nuk tnd thet tntoontonfvo salle would eae engumu epblan four fr the United Sates, With pe Inde ead alle th United Sues weld not mae Barge and became a oan of wea anid end por tenant Srl echoes, nga to ceeoy toon its would gene he nd and chs cree the welts at mol pr te | Some develope of the coey as whl ‘oroniy moulds landaysem promo the crenonofapereosreican sonny, ht wold so dow hen wh bane poe nro ‘hell, rn aod cal: Under he Ordnance of 78, the govemment r- ‘Sredone con (cmb 1 nach omahipto oem rte pa {Shoe Afr 846, Congres eds second sein umber 38) fore poe ‘fechole Tetons and oatr sorties se the anode he come {ervchola tur mor fen they sol! them ith congraioal pein. In 115, Conon dete tha te water mt chars mina pee, al {eta $2.50 cy forschoal nde Thy wee then fo er the foes in+ permanenc increasing ool ind. Congr ter sind itech Uifpaning andes ober snl pope. Congr granu nds othe sates © fod the bling of canal te Greging ad Seating of ve, andthe bling 8 hy wran dep sen, As Ams nod in had Snippet this wan cles sytem. At Arrcrs imposed ion dl Escort Apalaclane, thy ceed the checkrboord lnisape ove om the ar foey But the stom tok on a Rube Ondbers suey ae Congress srpska wih Berween 1189 and 1834, Congres pase 373 dierent Tine Iechanged the minima prc, ocd ceded chen decided enn ced les = ren armed, however, the and tem neve fl conformed tobe cal soy tht Aman took p the lan the ease Applian ein, Sees {ove facrthan oneyo endo when sneered nares, eye iEanleeiewaeaiyipoce The tetien wee ate and whee thy were {bing hey Hed om owt adn ee The exons S¢ ing numbers feqnton—pore who openly deed she ow orn dh Gaibudon-—createl poli! ptten ne ex evaded ‘Exiremnccrairecearypallicane tok sae conaring views of thse Segal trie: Some erye hem ra pop fovea Tne view sfrmany ease ed sete Whigs bee the Cl Wat, oats not oly Sesh propery whch they Bate, hey sh lee she eed Komori chat the law tend the land pam to cent Anau rennen fared tht Faguaing onion te Wes wold become repo Esha scered bbc who tok tha ings of the het nde bt ho Bee unable ro sappor the hase neon ofthe ep To oppose tng asin ths voto athe dene ofthe Wes to aay ther pollens parclarly weremer and mow Denoert aw suas "enti To them, ate wor ne cirlo barbarians hey were ole fone They wee eating the pi eth sd develope ofthe oun Ihe bok the eer ofthe lew he fled ines Th awit 1 [eat « ration of anal comment fer, And inthe eer of het spore pai wet omg captal poor fares mho wed teen proce very “rena ecenary fo by Sean. A gute woe i ee, sel [hem war ny “bomowing” the lnd in os produce he income essay © fercha te The te goverment nothing, allowed people seq po and prevented he gow ofa landholding: How col anyone manage Tete indore people teeny when ne ep sey eed Gcse tthe pole domain! Spacer sores led werent mining the cil euality othe coon. nth ne oer eating, he ponte con won. To pss ate, Epononat in Gor, ld by Sensor Thoma Har Best o Misoun, sc: {ered in ping tempor peptone nthe 130 and hens pean “prempion tis 194 Peepn ws singly lenin quang Under se tay oper hd fiat ob opt 100 ates flan on wich ey od de inpovemens, When he govern ar ey tothe ad fale ated vo peat tela ofee nd pay the minimum ric fre he Ait debate ve sing shows, Spe over ed aw woe fen ages140 about the very nature of American society and how it should replicate elf in. few teritories. To forge a workable land policy, therefore, Congzes on some level had to agree ons common vision of American soctety. Land vrved at art of teal of approval for social consensse. When Americans agreed that sodien ‘eee needed for wa, they gave chem land grants to encourage enlistment. When, ‘hey agreed that vere shouldbe rewarded, they gave them land grants. When ‘Congress agreed that che government shoold make rivers navigable or aid the sats in building the canals inorder to facilitate commerce, fe gave the states ‘pants of lands that could be sold eo pay for the improvement. Th what was a capta-ahore and lndich country, Congres wad land instead of money to secue agend-upon public gal. le did so by ising land sexip, Land seri was the nineteenth-centiry equivalent of fod stamps. sud by the government, It could be redeemed in exchange for a specie commodity: Land Satie food stamps, however, sexip could lealy be teaded and sold. When ‘Congres dsatbted stip veterans, few of ther actully took upland on the public domain. Most wl two others A reglar market inland sip developed, Ed speculators interested in western lands purchased scrip and then aed buy lands. Speculators prefered serip beease ie sold stl chan the $1.25 an sre che lw mandated as dhe minimum pce fr federal land. Because Americans believed that how they distributed the public domain determined the kind of society they were reating, fundamental differences ovet the nature of American society and America's future deadlocked land plies, ‘When the North and South suuggled for dominance in the Union, ehey clashed ‘over the ditibiton of land in the Weer. Southem congresnen In the 1830: ‘pposed any attenps at homestead leisation that would gle free land to small farmers, “Becer fr vs," declared a Misisppian, “that these tertitoies should ‘equa waste, ahowling wilderness, trod only by ed hunters than beso seed.” ‘A homestead peli would, scutherers believed, only increase the number of ‘tre farms with Yankees and foreigners pre-crnmitted ores che partipancy of slvebolder in the public domain." In the 1850s propos for homestead ‘2%, land grans fora Pacific ralroad, and grants to establish apicalaral and techanica! colleges all fll victim to sectional divisions, All three measure ‘promised to Benet the North atthe expense of che South Land Paiyin Operation For all chet diferences, nohemess and southerners usually agreed that land could go to setual seer speculation in lind was an evil that ovgt to Be prevented. Land speculators were people who bought land st auction from the ‘overament,wsing cas of land sctip, and then held the land ati hey could fell eto other ata profe. Such people mere populniy persed ar economic parasites who added tothe burden tome by the honest farmer. “This thetorieal agreement on the els of speciltion found, however, lle refleein inthe operation ofthe la. Speculators could buy vitcaly uae mounts of land a any U.S. land office, usually at she minimum pice. Congres Ai ite to preven peclation, in parc because without the and system fot have worked ata. Once the federal government stopped ofeing speculation in one fom or another offered the eal acces to the cash necesary fr puchate,“towa in the 1850 and 1860s can serve ae an example of how the land eyscer. “had come ro depend on speculation In 1862 speculators owned two-hids ofthe "privately held and in ows. Between 1850 and 1860 from 50 percent 075 percent hee buying farms in Towa obtained thelr entire holding ether fom speculetors © x fom lnnde that the federal goverment had granted tothe state In all, 60 cent 90 percent of fowa farmers had bought a lest part oftheir hadings fom parties other than che federal government. "When looked ar more closely sch figures do not present picture of farmers Jing fecnd by mpecaltor. The two were no alvays aves. Farmers and calor not only eaaperated, But on many cceasions they were alo the sme son. Probbly the more common form of cooperation between the spcalatoe che farmer occured inthe so-called time entry stem. "Tune entry evolved preemtion could only woe if quatrs actully had the cash to pay fr tht land when it eame up forsale. Very often setlers who had preempted land sil lacked the fonds to py frit To ge che money, farmers went fo a land “agent, who advanced them the purchase price at 40 percent interest. As wecurty he lun the farmer put te ile wo the land in the land agente name: Ataich gh ees rats, the Speculatoecbained a handsome prof, but the fae: ill iced the land relatively cheaply. The otal cost ofthe land to the seer (the : ice ris interest came fo only $2r0 $3 per ace, usally fa ess chan the real market value ofthe lend ae the ume of sale. The dimeenty system _ probably accounted for about TO peoent ofthe speculation that took pace nat "sl in Lowa bu ako later on the pies snd plnne west ofthe Minow River The emainingsecilative tranenctions did involve dine porchase end subse- Gent resale of tacts of land by speculaors. Despite charges to the contrary, "however, speculators could not etord to on land unt he price rose. Itead, they sought wo resell the land quickly and thus avd the burden of mes. In the Etch yar of wtelement, rapid esale was noe difcule, and profs were large Spectre i central Lowa who wed srp to buy Land beneath the iim rice could reap retims of fom 30 percent to 129 percent annually on thei aversment at a die when other lvesenens usally brought fetus of only 5 reent to 10 percent ‘With theseLinds of profits posible, emer themselves als speculated in lan. “They formed claims cbs, which ostensbly exited to protect the rights of weiter: pit speculate or lain jumpers. Members ofthe cubs, usually the quate | fst took up land in an area, agreed not to bid guint each other at land | sions and to prevent ote rots bidding against club members. nonmembers ‘grored ¢ chilis warnings apanst competiove bidding, members of the chub | Srcred hem fom the auction. Membets of dese lat clube denounced lage fpeculator, but they themuelver were smallecalespecuator Acta! eters © Sacer Sly in 160 acres of land did noe ned claims clubs. The Preemption © Act lead proected a 160-acre claim. The major reason people had for joining “scams club wast secure moce than the 16D. acre maritaom guaranteed by the Preemption Act. They could dhen ell he land and wed the process pay of | crdevelop thei home fam Claims clubs, dhe time-encry sytem, and the market in land sxip were all | cxralegel modiécation ofthe este at made i ore Hexble and ore sited =f local conditions. Such extmlepal modifeatons changed the system moreae DisramuTN THE LAND ffeccvely chan legal changes could bave done. efor de land stem began to Alvebut lands inthe Ws, there was chs long tradition of extalegal and ileal odgcations of che law. Lop Changes tthe Land Sytem Extalegal changes in the satem were, in ff, all chat could ake place as long ‘the sctional eas Between the Noth and dhe South pessed, Only when the ‘cern of the South left Cangies in the hands of northem Republicans did changes inthe land system proceed. Socklly and economically, che Republican party ofthe 1860s aipleed tbe the voie ofa united homogentows Nott. The pty embodied a uroplan expels vision ofa word wherein labor was rewarded {ndividal opportunity prevented clas distinctions from arising, and progres nd frowth were dhe rational destiny. Aldhough this vision would yield to a much Ersher realty after the war, «shaped Republican land policy. Republican cone fresmen, who spoke fr northem farmers and artisans as much afr nother faptlis, modifed che land stem to insure che replication of © socery of tmodem commercial farmers in the West 4 7 Daring the Gril War the Republican and program revlved around thee bill: (( the Homestead Ac, che Pic Ralload Grant, and the Morrill Act. These cree | Is ll paced by Congres in 1862, were supposed to complement each other, | The centerpiece was the Homestead Act, which granted 160 acres ofthe public domain eo eitaenr and nancitsens alike who would live upon the land and faa, ik Norchem farmers snd those labor reformers who followed the thecies of George Henry Evans long waged sich 2 eoposl for fe grants of land to factual seer, dell, the law woud allow Unemployed nordeen workers and the children of norhem farmers to begin ives a independent landowner in the ‘West By dreng of nerployed labore helaw woukdatmulaneouly neiese | the wags of eastern workngzen “Accompanying the Homestead Act wat an act providing # land grant for @ ‘eci raload. Te immedies gal ofthe rao at wast te che Pte Coast to the Union, but Congres also recognised tha ralroads were necessary 0 giv the farms povided by the Homestead Act aces to markers, Congres approved lend grants and loans to the fst anseonsinenal rallroad in 1862 and made simular grants o ther rallrods in the ensuing years, 3 "Ths lpr of he Replenish Moll Act which ‘provided land gran to the stats to create a publi sistem of higher education ‘Sesigned to seve farmers and killed workingmen. The lands granted by Congress, lay almot exclusively the West, and the states cold sell chem to fand sare “ivertes that would give thle ctsens access tothe eduction necessary for ‘progress and advancement. A common vision of prosperous, progteive eco: ‘omicaly expansive, and hannonious West Inspired ll dee sc. There Was Tele anticipation of the confits an contradictions thei aplication would involve Ta the Homestead Act, Congress above all expected the Amesican fur to uplizate che American pas. Congress embeded the ideal of 160-acr farm in the Homestead Act. I yas an ideal tore suited to the Eat than othe West and ‘more appropriate fr the American pest than the American future. Without iigation, a quaeerscetion farm inthe male ofthe Great Plains or the UtaheranUTING THE LAND ry desert wat aot a ticket to independence but to starvation. Congress presumed, totaal hat and would fred fem noel poisons for equ Tand for mining or logging or gang. Ain the Ea, achnl seers isodaced > extalegal improviatios to resonate the various contradictions between the “onions they confronted and the conditions the law envisioned, bu these improvisations didnot solve the basic problems of what became an increasingly onvadicory land ete. ‘The Homestead Act and Ditton ofthe Pailie Dorn No ls eves nae about the fc of implementing inthe West the Republican von of expt eucalarlsocery bared on salholgs than the Homesead Act and the allroad land rae. In any waye thes avs were tremendously succes, but they alo involved condi and fares thar Congress fad noe enwtoned "The tems ofthe Homestead Act were generous and sraighuforvard. The law provided 16 acres offre land to any sete who pid a all linge and esi Sand igroved the land fr ve on afer sone of eden he sete ‘iced to buy the land for $1.15 on acre, he or she cou do so. Purchasing the land wos ppaling to chowe ee ined in api development, Beene once stealer ene he fc be moved pd he one den ed titer to improve the homestead oto uy more land. Originally, ster cou onl hone ae end, i IS ‘Congres extended the set 9 te ‘aatveyed public doin. Aboot ie sed Ac hd adn hope he efor Hepes (recley, the leading Republican eitor of the period, wrote In the New York ‘rn that che act embodied “oe ofthe most Beneficent and vial refomns ever stempced in any age or cime™s reform clcusted to diminish seas the ‘umber of pauper an illsand increase te proportion of working, independent, ‘elesasitng farmers fn the land evermore" ‘According to a supporters, the Homestead Act ensured the final relation”, cf the od pale goal that had pied the land sytem: a cas of prosperous Sal farmer whose oxn prosper fed the economic development ofthe aon. Bic the Homestead Act never came remotely cow fo achieving the pandiose expectation of fs advocts. In cera areas of the Wer, sucha the eastern Dakotas and Nebraska, dhe law dd work ly wel In these places the federal spvernment drbued 56.5 percent ofthe public domain through the Flomesead ‘Ace and numerous farmers esblited propor farms. But ehewhere te aw | srr duapoinamene. Csi td or dnin excess opustion wer and Tecate the poor onthe land. Between 1852 and 1850 the American population | few by 3 mllion people, but only aproximacely 2 lion peopl weed on. {he 37,659 fame aimed hough the Homestead At. “Tne cretion of realy 400,000 farms and the dation of milins of acres flan to farming fas represented by any standard a formidable sce, bat it war nonetheles only lied scces in teen of dhe promises mace for the fact Mech of che reason for sich prt soca is in he rtd land tht many fier seed, They could noe asceed in farming ie with echniges sited 0 humid lands, That the homestead grant of 160 ates of land simply we a a8 sppropsiate ni for aguculete tn much ofthe West was ony one sipect of he