UNIT I – PHYSICAL OPTICS

INTERFERENCE
Introduction
In the 17th century, the properties of light were explained by Sir Isaac Newton and Christian
Huygens. Sir Isaac Newton was explained the properties of light by introducing Corpuscular theory
in 1675. It explains reflection, refraction, and dispersion properties of light. It fails to explain
interference, diffraction, polarization, photo electric effect, and double refraction.
In 1679, Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. According to Huygens wave
theory, each point on the wave front is to be considered as a source of secondary wavelets. It
explains reflection, refraction, dispersion, double refraction, diffraction, interference, and
polarization properties of light. It fails to explain, photo electric effect, black body radiation etc.

Interference of light
The best evidence for the wave nature of light is interference phenomenon. This was
experimentally demonstrated by Thomas Young in 1801, through double slit experiment. Due to
interference, we will observe many observations in our day today life, such as multiple colours on
soap bubbles as well as on oil film when viewed under sun light. Interference concept is explained
on the basis of superposition of wave’s concept. When two light waves superimpose, then the
resultant amplitude or intensity in the region of superposition is different than the amplitude of
individual waves.

Principle of Superposition of waves:

When two or more waves travel simultaneously in a medium, the resultant displacement at any
point is due to the algebraic sum of the displacements due to individual waves.

Let y1 is the displacement of the particle of first wave in a given direction and y2 is the
displacement of the particle in second wave in the absence of the first wave.

1
Therefore according to principle of superposition, the resultant displacement is R=y1+ y2

 If the displacements are in the same direction then R = y1+y2.

 If the displacements are in opposite direction then R = y1-y2.

Coherence: Two waves are said to be coherent if they have same phase or maintaining constant
phase difference between them. Hence coherence is a measure of the correlation between the phases
of the wave measured at different points.
Interference: Modification or redistribution of light energy due to superposition of light waves
from two coherent sources is known as interference. The phenomenon of interference obeys law of
conservation of energy.

Types of Interference: i. Constructive Interference ii. Destructive Interference

i) Constructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the crest of another wave, the
resultant amplitude is the sum of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is increased. Hence
bright fringe is formed and it is known as constructive interference.
Condition: The path difference between the two waves is equal to the integral multiple of wave
length (𝜆) the constructive interference occurs.
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=𝑛𝜆 Where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 …

A = a1+a2

=
+
(Waves are in phase) Constructive interference

ii) Destructive Interference: When crest of one wave falls on the trough of another wave, the
resultant amplitude is the difference of the amplitudes of two waves and intensity is decreased.
Hence dark fringe is formed and it is known as destructive interference.

Condition: The path difference between the two waves is equal to the odd integral multiple of λ/2
destructive interference occurs
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛−1)𝜆/2 Where n = 1,2,3,4 … 𝑜𝑟
𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒 = (2𝑛+1)𝜆/2 Where n = 0,1,2,3,4 …

A=a1-a2

+ =

(Close to π out of phase) Destructive interference

2
Conditions for sustained interference:
i. The two sources should be coherent.
ii. The two sources must emit continuous waves of same wavelength and frequency.
iii. The background should be dark.
iv. The two sources should be monochromatic.
v. The amplitude of interfering waves should be equal.
vi. The two sources should be narrow.
vii. The distance between the two sources should be small.
viii. The distance between sources and screen should be large.

Interference in thin films by reflection:

Principle:-
The formation of colours in thin films can explained using the phenomenon of interference. In this
example, the formation of interference pattern is by the division of amplitude.
Consider a thin film of uniform thickness ’𝑡’ and refractive index ‘μ’. Let a monochromatic light
ray AB is incident on the upper surface of the film at point ‘A’ with an angle ‘𝑖’. The incidence
light ray AB is divided into two light rays ray 1 (BC) and ray 2 (EF) by the division of amplitude
principle. These two light rays BC and EF are parallel and superimpose and produce interference.
The intensity of interference fringe depends up on the path difference between the ray 1 and ray 2.

3
Newton’s Rings:
When a Plano-convex lens with its convex surface is placed on a plane glass plate, an air film of
gradually increasing thickness is formed between the two. At the point of contact, the thickness of the
film is zero. If monochromatic light is incident normally and the film is viewed in reflected light we
observe alternate bright and dark rings around the point of contact. These rings are known as

4
Newton’s rings.
Principle:-
The formation of Newton’s rings is due to the phenomenon of interference. In this example, the
formation of interference pattern is obtained by the division of amplitude.
Experimental arrangement
 The experimental arrangement of Newton’s rings is shown in figure.
 The Plano -convex lens (L) of large radius of curvature is placed with its convex surface on the
glass plate (P). The Plano convex lens touches the glass plate at O.
 A monochromatic light is allowed to fall normally on the lens with the help of glass plate M
kept at 450 to the incident monochromatic light.
 A part of light is reflected by the curved surface of the lens ‘L’ and a part of light is transmitted
and partly reflected back by the upper surface of the plane glass plate P. These reflected rays
interfere and give rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular fringes. These rings are
seen through a travelling microscope.
Explanation of Newton’s rings
Newton’s rings are formed due to the interference between the light rays reflected from the
lower surface of the lens and the upper surface of the glass plate (or top and bottom surfaces of the
air film).
Let a vertical light ray AB be partially reflected from the curved surface of plano convex
lens without phase change and partially transmitted light ray BC is again reflected at C on the glass
plate with additional phase change of π or path difference λ/2.

The path

difference between the two rays = 2𝜇𝑡Cos𝑟+𝜆/2

For air film 𝜇=1 and for normal incidence 𝑟=0, so
The path difference =2𝑡+𝜆/2
At the point of contact 𝑡=0, path difference is 𝜆/2 i.e., the reflected and incidence light are out of
phase and destructive interference occur. So the center fringe is always dark.
Constructive interference (or Bright fringe)
General condition: 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=𝑛𝜆
2𝑡+𝜆/2=𝑛𝜆
2𝑡=(2𝑛−1)𝜆/2 , Where 𝑛=0,1,2,………..
Destructive interference (or Dark fringe) General condition: 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=(2𝑛+1)𝜆/2
2𝑡+𝜆/2=(2𝑛+1)𝜆/2 2𝑡=𝑛 𝜆 , Where 𝑛=0,1,2,………..

5
Theory of Newton’s rings
To find the diameters of a dark and bright rings construct a circle with the radius of curvature R of a
lens L. Let us choose a point P at a distance ‘r’ from the center of lens and 𝑡 be the thickness of air
film at point p.

6
Applications of Newton’s rings:

1. Determination of wave length of sodium light using Newton’s rings:

By forming Newton’s rings and measuring the radii of the rings formed, we can calculate the
wavelength of the light used if the radius of curvature of the lens is known. Let R be the radius of
curvature of the lens and 𝜆 is the wavelength of the light used.
So the diameter of the mth dark ring can be written as
𝐷𝑚2=4 𝑚 𝜆 𝑅 ………………………. (1)
Similarly the diameter of the nth dark ring is
𝐷𝑛2=4 𝑛 𝜆 𝑅 …………………… (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2)
we get 𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚2=(4 𝑛𝜆 𝑅)−(4 𝑚 𝜆 𝑅)
𝐷𝑛2−𝐷𝑚2=4 (𝑛−𝑚) 𝜆 𝑅

Using the above relation wavelength can be calculated

2. Determination of refractive index of a liquid using Newton’s rings:

By forming Newton’s rings and measuring the diameter of the
rings formed, we can calculate the refractive index of the liquid.
In air film, the diameters of the mth and nth dark rings are 𝐷𝑚 and
𝐷𝑛 are measured with the help of travelling microscope.
The diameter of the nth dark ring is
𝐷𝑛2=4 𝑛 𝜆 𝑅 …………….. (1)
The diameter of the mth dark ring is
𝐷𝑚2=4 𝑚𝜆 𝑅 ………… (2)
Subtracting equation (1) from (2) we get
𝐷𝑛2− 𝐷𝑚2=[4 (𝑛−𝑚) 𝜆 𝑅]……… (3)
The Newton’s rings setup is taken in a liquid. Now the air film is
replaced by liquid film. In liquid film, the diameters of the same nth and mth dark rings are 𝐷′n and
𝐷′𝑚 are measured with the help of travelling microscope.

7
 Applications of interference: Interference phenomenon is used to
i. Determine the wavelength of light.
ii. Find the difference in wavelengths of two spectral lines having small separation.
iii. Find the thickness of transparent materials.
iv. Determine the refractive index of transparent solids, liquids and gases.
v. Find the velocity of light (Michelson interferometer experiment).
vi. Test the optical flatness of surfaces.
vii. Find the reflecting power of the lens and prism surfaces.

8
 DIFFRACTION
Introduction:
The wave nature of light is first confirmed by the phenomenon of interference. Further it is
confirmed by the phenomenon of diffraction. The word ‘diffraction’ is derived from the Latin word
diffractus which means break to piece. When the light waves encounter an obstacle, they bend
round the edges of the obstacle. The bending is predominant when the size of the obstacle is
comparable with the wavelength of light. The bending of light waves around the edges of an
obstacle is diffraction. It was first observed by Francesco Gremaldi.
Definition of Diffraction: The phenomenon of bending of light round the corners of obstacles and
spreading of light waves into the geometrical shadow of an obstacle placed in the path of light is
called Diffraction.
The effects of diffraction can be seen in everyday life. The most colorful examples of diffraction of
light are
1. The closely spaced tracks on a CD or DVD act as diffraction grating to form a rainbow pattern
when looking at a disk.
2. The hologram on a book or debit card.
3. Diffraction in the atmosphere by small particles can cause a bright ring to be visible around the
sun or the moon.
4. A shadow of a solid object using light from a compact source shows small fringes near its edges.
Differences between Interference and Diffraction:

Diffraction Interference
1. It is due to interaction of light waves coming 1. It is due to interaction of light waves coming
from different parts of the same wave front. It is from two different wave fronts originating
also called as self-interference. from the same source (i.e. coherent sources).
2. Diffraction bands decrease in their width as the
2. Interference bands are of equal width i.e. all
order increases.
are equally spaced.
3. The bright fringes are of varying intensity.
3. All the bright fringes are of the same
4. Points of minimum intensity are not perfectly
intensity.
dark. Hence fringes will not appear with
4. Points of minimum intensity are perfectly
contrast.
dark. Hence fringes will appear with
contrast.
Types of diffraction: The diffraction phenomena are classified into two ways
i. Fresnel diffraction
ii. Fraunhofer diffraction.
Fresnel diffraction:-
In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at finite distance. To study this diffraction
lenses are not used because the source and screen separated at finite distance. This diffraction can
be studied in the direction of propagation of light. In this diffraction the incidence wave front must
be spherical of cylindrical.
Fraunhofer diffraction:-
In this diffraction the source and screen are separated at infinite distance. To study this diffraction
lenses are used because the source and screen separated at infinite distance. This diffraction can be
studied in any direction. In this diffraction the incidence wave front must be plane.

9
Differences between Fresnel Diffraction and Fraunhofer Diffraction:
Fresnel Diffraction Fraunhofer Diffraction

1. The source and the screen are placed at finite 1. The source and the screen are placed at infinite
distances from the obstacle producing diffraction. distances from the obstacle producing diffraction.
2. No lenses are used for making the rays parallel or 2. Lenses are used for making the rays parallel or
convergent. convergent.
3. The incident wave front is either spherical or 3. The incident wave front is plane.
cylindrical.
4. Either a point source (or) an illuminated narrow 4. Extended source at infinite distance is used.
slit is used.
5. This is also called near-field diffraction. 5. This is also called far-field diffraction.
6. It is general approach. 6. It is simplified approach.
7. Mathematical treatment is quite complicated. 7. Mathematical treatment is simple
8. Examples: Diffraction at a straight edge, thin wire, 8. Examples: Diffraction at a single slit, double slit
narrow and n slits (grating) etc.,
slit, a small hole etc.,

Fraunhofer diffraction due to single slit:

Let us consider a slit AB of width ‘e’. Let a plane wave front 𝑤𝑤′ of monochromatic light of
wavelength λ is incident on the slit AB.
According to Huygens principle, every point on the wave front is a source of secondary wavelets.
The wavelets spread out to the right in all directions. The secondary wavelets which are travelling
normal to the slit are brought to focus at point P0 on the screen by using the lens. These secondary
wavelets have no path difference. Hence at point P0 the intensity is maxima and is known as central
maximum. The secondary wavelets travelling at an angle θ with the normal are focused at point P1.

Intensity at point P1 depends up on the path difference between the wavelets A and B reaching to
point P1. To find the path difference, a perpendicular AC is drawn to B from A.
The path difference between the wavelets from A and B in the direction of θ is

10
Let the width of the slit is divided into ‘n’ equal parts and the amplitude of the wave front each part
is ‘a’. Then the phase difference between any two successive waves from these parts would be

Using the vector addition method, the resultant amplitude R is

Principal maximum:-
The resultant amplitude R can be written as

In the above expression for 𝛼=0 values the resultant amplitude is maximum 𝑅=𝐴, then 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥=𝑅2=𝐴2

For 𝜃=0 and 𝛼=0 value the resultant intensity is maximum at P0 and is known as principal
maximum.
Minimum intensity positions: 𝐼 Will be minimum when sin𝛼=0

11
So we obtain the minimum intensity positions on either side of the principal maxima for all 𝛼=±𝑚𝜋
values.
Secondary maximum
In between these minima secondary maxima positions are located. This can be obtained by
differentiating the expression of 𝐼 w.r.t 𝛼 and equation to zero

In the above expression 𝛼 can never equal to zero,

so either sin𝛼=0 or 𝛼cos𝛼−sin𝛼=0
sin𝛼=0 gives the positions of minima
The condition for getting the secondary maxima is 𝛼cos𝛼−sin𝛼=0
𝛼cos𝛼=sin𝛼
𝛼 =tan𝛼
The values of 𝛼 satisfying the above equation are obtained graphically by plotting the curves 𝑌=𝛼
and 𝑌=tan𝛼 on the same graph. The plots of 𝑌=𝛼 and 𝑌=tan𝛼 is shown in figure.

In the graph the two curves intersecting curves gives the values of satisfying of 𝛼 satisfying the
above equation. From the graph intersecting points are 𝛼=0,±3𝜋/2,±5𝜋/2,±7𝜋/2…………
From the above concepts the intensity distribution curve verses 𝛼 is shown in figure.

12
Fraunhofer diffraction by a double slit:
Description: Consider two parallel slits AB and CD of equal width ‘e’ and separated by distance ‘d’.
The distance between the midpoints of the two slits is (e+d). Let a parallel beam of monochromatic
light incident on the two slits normally. Then the light will be focused on the screen XY placed at
the focal plane of the lens. The diffraction at two slits is the combination of diffraction as well as
interference.

Explanation: When a plane wave front is incident normally on both slits, the secondary wavelets
come to focus at P0 and the secondary wavelets traveling at an angle θ with normal come to a focus
at P1.
Theory: For simplicity let us assume the two slits equivalent to two coherent sources S1 and
S2 each sending a wavelet of amplitude A in a direction θ. The resultant amplitude at P1 will be the
result of interference between two waves of amplitude (A) and having phase difference δ between
them. To find δ, draw a perpendicular S1K on S2K.
Path difference between wavelets from S1 and S2 = S2K = (e+d) sinθ
Phase difference δ = (e+d) sin θ.
Resultant amplitude R2 = a12+a22+2a1a2cosδ

13
 2 2
= {A } + {A } +2{A }{A } cosδ
2 2
= {A } [1+1+2cosδ] = {A } 2[1+cosδ]
2 2
= {A } 2[2cos δ/2]

2 2 2
R =4A2 } cos δ/2

2 2 2 2
R = 4A } cos ( )

2 2 2
R2 = 4A } cos β where β =

2
I = R2 = 4A2 } cos2β

Intensity distribution: The resultant intensity depends upon two factors

1. 4A2 }2 which is same as that of single slit diffraction. This gives the intensity distribution

in the diffraction pattern due to single slit.

2. cos2β which gives the interference pattern due to waves starting from two parallel slits.
Therefore the resultant intensity at any point on the screen is the product of these two factors.
In the diffraction pattern,
 The central maximum is obtained in the direction θ = 0.
 The minima are obtained in the direction given by e sinθ = + m λ, m = 1, 2, 3, ----
 The positions of secondary maxima approaches to α = 0, + 3π/2, +5π/2 and so on.
In the interference pattern,
The maxima are obtained in the direction given by cos2β =1 ==> β = + nπ

==> = + nπ ==> = + nλ, n=0, 1, 2…

The intensity distribution in diffraction pattern, interference pattern and the resultant
pattern are as shown respectively.

14
Plane diffraction grating:
Construction: An arrangement consisting of large number of parallel slits of the same width and
separated by equal opaque spaces is known as diffraction grating. Fraunhofer constructed grating by
placing large no. of parallel wires closely side by side at regular intervals. Now gratings are
constructed by ruling equidistant parallel lines on a transparent glass material with a fine diamond
point. The ruled lines are opaque to light and the space between the lines is transparent to light and
acts as slit. This is known as plane transmission grating. If the lines are drawn on silvered surface
then it forms plane reflection grating. Commercial gratings are produced by taking the cast of an
actual grating on a transparent film like that of cellulose acetate. Solution of cellulose acetate is
poured on the ruled surface and allowed to dry to form a thin film, detachable from the surface.
These impressions of a grating are preserved by mounting the film between two glass sheets.

Let ‘e’ be the width of the line and ‘d’ be the width of the slit. Then (e+d) is known as grating
element. If N is the number of lines per inch on the grating, then
N (e+d) =1”=2.54 cm
(e+d) = (2.54)/𝑁 cm
There will be nearly 30,000 lines per inch of a grating. Due to the above fact, the width of the slit is
very narrow and is comparable to the wavelength of light. When light falls on the grating, the light
gets diffracted through each slit. As a result, both diffraction and interference of diffracted light gets
enhanced and forms a diffraction pattern. This pattern is known as diffraction spectrum.
Applications of diffraction:
1. The wavelength of spectral lines can be measured by using diffraction grating.
2. The wavelength of x-rays can be determined by x-ray diffraction.
3. The structures of the crystal can be determined by the x-ray diffraction.
4. The velocity of sound in liquids can be determined by using ultrasonic diffraction.
5. The size and shape of tumors, ulcers etc., inside the human body can be assessed by ultrasound
scanning.

15