DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

'The human digestive system'

— illustration for About Science Book 3 by
Science Press
---- by David Dickson
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
The process by which food molecules are
broken down is called digestion.
Digestion can occur both inside and
outside of the cell.
For a nutrient to be used by cells of an
organism, it must pass through the cell
membranes. This process is called
absorption.
There are two types of digestion:
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
1. MECHANICAL DIGESTION
• Pieces of food are first cut,crushed or,
broken into smaller particles without
being changed chemically
• Mechanical break down increases the
surface area of food and prepares the
food for faster chemical digestion
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Examples for mechanical breakdown
1. Cutting of food particles with teeth
2. Emulsification
bile
Big oil small oil
droplets droplets
Numerous oil droplets are physically formed as a result of
emulsification.
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
2.CHEMICAL DIGESTION
• It is carried out by digestive enzymes
which act only on the surface of the food
particles.
• Chemical digestion takes place in stages
- large molecules are broken down into
smaller molecules
- smaller molecules are broken down into
digestive end products
DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION
Examples for chemical digestion

lipase
lipid fatty acids+ glycerol
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
Food passes through the digestive tube
in the following order
Oral cavity pharynx esophagus
(mouth) (throat) (gullet)

Stomach small large

intestine intestine

Rectum anus
 HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
• Liver, pancreas and salivary glands lie
outside of the digestive tract and they are
called as accessory organs.(Helper)
• These organs aid digestion by the
secretion of digestive fluids.
 THE MOUTH AND PHARYNX
• Mechanical breakdown and chemical
digestion occur.
• Chunks of food are bitten of with the teeth
and ground into pieces small enough to
swallow
• The tongue moves and shapes the food
mass in the mouth.
• Saliva:Water,Ca++,Na+ ions, mucus, lysozyme,
amylase(pityalin)
• The pH of saliva is between 6 and 7
• Amylase enzyme breaks down starch into
maltose.
Functions of Saliva
– It is effective in taste.
– Starts digestion of carbohydrates
– Facilitates the ingestion of food
– It keeps the mouth moist.(It is necessary to
speak)
– It converts the large food into bolus form.
 EPIGLOTTIS
• To prevent food and liquids from entering
the larynx, it is automatically closed off
during swallowing by a flap of tissue called
epiglottis.
• At the same time, breathing stops
momentarily and passageways to the
nose, ears and mouth are blocked
 THE ESOPHAGUS
• The esophagus is a tube through which food
passes from pharynx to the stomach.
• When the food has been chewed sufficiently , it is
pushed by the tongue to the back of the throat, or
pharynx. This starts the automatic swallowing
reflex, which forces the food into the esophagus,
the tube leading to the stomach.
• Beginning in the esophagus, the movement of food
down the digestive tube is aided by alternate
waves of relaxation and contraction in the
muscular walls of the alimentary canal. This is
called peristalsis.
When the food enters to esaphagus from mouth,sphinchter muscle closed the opening of the
esaphagus.
TISSUES:Connective tissue---smooth muscle--- cylindirical epithelium cells

@
 THE ESOPHAGUS
• Where the esophagus opens into the
stomach , there is a ring of muscle called
sphincter. There are two sphincters to
isolate the stomach.

Cardiac sphincter Pyloric sphincter

is located between is located between
the esophagus and the stomach and
the stomach the intestine
• When the wave of peristalsis reaches the
sphincter, it relaxes and opens, and the
food (bolus) enters the stomach.
• During vomitting, a wave of peristalsis
passes upward -reverse peristalsis-
causing the cardiac sphincter to open, and
the contents of the stomach to be “thrown
up”
 THE STOMACH

• The stomach is thick-walled muscular

sac.
• Food is stored temporarily in the stomach.
• Mechanical breakdown and the partial
digestion of protein occur.
• Churning of the stomach causes
mechanical break down and helps the
mixing of the food with its secretions.
• Periton--Connective tissue—Smooth
muscle—Mucusa layer
• Stomach serves as mixed gland:
Gasrtic Juice:water,HCl,Mucus and
pepsinogen
 What are the functions of HCl?

• Decreases the pH of stomach

• Exhibits antiseptic properties.
• Converts pepsinogen into active pepsin
• Facilitate the absorption of Fe++ and Ca++
ions in intestine
 THE SMALL INTESTINE
From outside to inside:Connective tissue—Smooth muscle—Mucusa layer
pyloric sphincter 6.5 meters in length

chyme 2.5 cm in diameter

duodenum jejenum ileum

Most of the digestion

takes place

FUNCTIONS OF THE SMALL INTESTINE:

1. Most of the chemical digestion takes
place and completed in it
2. It is the site of absorption
• Pancereas is connected to the small
intestine(Duodenum part) by pancreatic
duct(Wirsung Canal) and liver is
connected by bile duct.
• Connection area of pancreatic duct and
bile duct in duedonum is sphicter of oddi.
 THE SMALL INTESTINE
It has a number of structural features that increase
the surface area for absorbtion.
a) It is very long
b) Its lining has many folds
c) The lining is covered with millions of finger-like
projections which are called villi
d) The epithelial cells that make up the intestinal
lining have brush borders. In the brush borders,
the membranes of cells that face into the intestinal
opening have tiny projections called microvilli
that further increase the surface area of the cells.
Within each villus , there is a
network of blood capillaries
and in the center of it there is a
lacteal. Fatty acids and
glycerol are absorbed into tiny
lacteals of the lymphatic
system.
• Absorption involves simple diffusion,facilitated
diffusion,osmosis,active transport and
pinocytosis.
• When food is present, the small intestine is in
constant motion. This peristaltic movements
have four effect:
1. They squeeze chyme through the intestine
2. They mix the chyme with the digestive
enzymes
3. They break down food particles mechanically
4. They speed up absorption of digestive end
products by bringing the intestinal contents into
contact with intestinal wall.
 LARGE INTESTINE
• Undigested and unabsorbed materials pass from
the small intestine through a sphincter into the
large intestine.
• Cecum—Colon---Rectum---Anus
• No digestion occurs
• On the right side of the abdomen, where the small
intestine joins the large intestine, is a small pouch
the appendix.(It plays no part in the HDS)
• The appendix becomes infected or inflamed, a
condition known as appendicitis
 FUNCTIONS OF THE LARGE
INTESTINE
1. Reabsorbtion of water form the food mass ¾ of
water is reabsorbed.
• If too much water is reabsorbed, constipation
results.
• If too little water is reabsorbed , diarrhea
results.
2. The absorption of vitamins (vitamin K and
Vitamin B) that are produced by bacteria that
normally live in the large intestine.
3. The elimination- removal of undigested and
indigestible material from the digestive tract.
 LARGE INTESTINE
• This material consists of cellulose,
bacteria, bile, mucus and worn-out cells
from the digestive tract. As this material
travels through the intestine, it becomes
feces.
• Fecal matter is stored in the rectum and
periodically eliminated, through the anus.
 PANCREAS
• Pancreas is located in the abdominal
cavity between stomach and duodenum.
• It is both endocrine and exocrine gland.
• It secretes insulin and glucagon form the
Islets of Langerhans
• pH of pancreatic juice is 8.5
Pancreas is a mixed gland:
1)Endocrine secretion: Insilune and Glucagon
2)Exocrine secretion(Wirsung’s Chanal/duct)
Water ,some minerals.NaHCO3 (stimulated by secretin hormone )
DNAse,
RNAse, (stimulated by
Lipase, cholecystokinin
Amylase, hormone)
Trypsinogen ,
chymotrypsinogen
 PANCREATIC JUICE

Bicarbonate ions Enzymes

•Converts the acidic chyme into 1. Amylase
alkaline solution 2. Proteases
•Chyme is neutralised by HCO3- 3. Lipase
and turns into alkaline solution.
4. Nuclease
H+ + HCO3 - H2 CO3

Acid from Bicarbonate Alkaline

stomach from liver because
and medium of
pancreas intestine is
basic
 ENZYMES OF PANCREATIC JUICE
1. Pancreatic Amylase:
amylase
Starch + water maltose + dextrin

2. Proteases

Trypsin chymotrypsin
anterokinase
Trypsinogen trypsin
(inactive) (active)
They continue the break down of large protein molecules into amino acids
begun in the stomach
Trypsin and
chymotrypsin
Polypeptides + water peptide + amino acids
ENZYMES OF PANCREATIC JUICE

3. Lipase

lipase
lipid fatty acids + glycerol

4 . Nucleases

Nucleic acids nucleotides

LIVER
 FUNCTIONS OF LIVER
It has a wide range of functions
• Detoxification
• protein synthesis and protein storage
• role in protein metabolism
• production of biochemicals necessary for
digestion.
• glycogen storage
• decomposition of red blood cells.
• plasma protein synthesis
• hormone production
•major role in metabolism
• Role in carbohydrate metabolism:
• –synthess of glucose from certain amino
acids, lactate(Gluconeogenesis )
• –Breakdown of glycogen into
glucose(Glycogenolysis)
• –the formation of glycogen from
glucose(Glycogenesis)(muscle tissues can
also do this)
• Role in digestion of fats
• Synthesis of coagulation factors
• red blood cell production in fetus
• role in childhood growth
• The liver stores a multitude of substances,
including glucose (in the form of
glycogen),
• The liver converts ammonia to urea
• The liver produces albumin, the major
osmolar component of blood serum
• Stores fat soluble vitamins
 DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
1. Digestion of carbohydrates in mouth

Salivary amylase
Cooked starch + water maltose+dextrin

2. Digestion of carbohydrates in duodenum

Amylase
Starch + water maltose+dextrin
Digestion of carbohydrates in the small intestine

Maltase
Maltose + water glucose+ glucose

Sucrase
Sucrose + water glucose+ fructose

Lactase
Lactose + water glucose+ galactose

Dextrine + water---- Dextrinase------ Glucose

Digestion of carbohydrates starts in mouth
and continues in the duodenum

Touching the chyme to the inner surface

of duodenum

Duodenum secretes secretin

Given into the blood

Stimulates the pancreas

Pancreas produces pancreatic juice

 DIGESTION OF PROTEIN
1. Protein digestion in stomach
Pepsinogen + HCl pepsin
(inactive) (active)
pepsin
Protein + water polypeptide + dipeptide
Casein
Food in stomach

Secretes gastrin hormone

Given into blood

Stimulates stomach glands

To secrete HCl Pepsinogen, mucus

and renin in baby’s

Activate the pepsinogen to convert into

pepsin
2. Protein digestion in duodenum

Trypsinogen +anterokinase trypsin

(inactive) (active)
trypsin
Polypeptide + water small polypeptides+ amino acids
carboxypeptidase (From pancreas and small intestine)

Chymotrypsin
typsin
Cyhmotrypsinogen
3. Protein digestion in rest of the small intestine

Aminopeptidase
Small peptide + water Carboxypeptidase dipeptides + Tripeptides +amino acids

Dipeptidase

Dipeptides + Tripeptides + Water Tripeptidase Amino acids

 DIGESTION OF LIPIDS

Fat + bile fat droplets

lipase
Fat droplets + water fatty acids + glycerol
Chyme in the intestine

Secretes cholecystokinin

Stimulates liver to secrete bile

Secreted into duodenum

REABRORPTION OF DIGESTED FOOD SUBSTANCES
• Asortin involves simple diffusion,facilitated
diffusion,osmosis,active transport and
pinocytosis.
• The monomers of carbohydrate reabsorbed in a
different order.
• Galactose—Glucose---Fructose
• Amino acids and monosaccharides are
reabsorbed to the blood vessels(Hepatic portal
vein)
• Triglycerides are absorbed to the lymph vessels
in the form of chylomicron.
 Diseases of the digestive
system
Reflux: is when some of the acid content of the
stomach flows up into the esophagus, into the
gullet, which moves food down from the mouth.
• Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver tissue.
There are three types:A.B and C
• Hemorrhoid, also called piles, are vascular
structures in the anal canal. In their normal
state, they are cushions that help with
stool control. They become a disease
when swollen or inflamed; the unqualified
term "hemorrhoid" is often used to refer to
the disease.
Gastritis is an inflammation, irritation, or
erosion of the lining of the stomach
 Diseases of the digestive
system
• Ulcer:The most common symptom of a
stomach ulcer is a burning or gnawing pain
in the center of the tummy (abdomen).