CS8493 – OPERATING SYSTEMS

REGULATIONS – 2017

UNIT I - OPERATING SYSTEM OVERVIEW

PART A
1. List and briefly define the four main elements of a computer?
 Processor – Controls the operation of the computer & performs its data processing
functions
 Main memory – Stores data & programs.it is volatile.
 I/O modules – Move data between the computer & its external
environment such as disks, communication equipment & terminals.
 System Bus – Provides for communication among processors, main memory & I/O
modules.
2. Define the two main categories of processor register?
Two categories are
 User- visible registers: - It Enable the machine or assembly language programmer
to minimize main memory references by optimizing register use.
 Control & Status registers: - Registers used by the processor to control
the operation of the processor.
3. What is dual mode operation and what is the need of it? (APR/MAY 2019)
The two modes of OS are user mode and kernel mode. The user mode helps the
operating system in running user applications. The kernel model is required when the system
boots and operating system is loaded. Some of the privileged instructions work in kernel
mode only.
4. In general terms, what are the four distinct actions that machine instruction can specify?
 Processor – Memory
 Processor –I/O
 Data Processing
 Control
5. What is an Interrupt?
 Interrupt are provided primarily as way to improve processor utilization.
 It is a mechanism by which other modules( I/O, Memory) may interrupt the
normal sequencing of the processor
 Classes of interrupts:-
 Program
 Timer
 I/O
 Hardware failure
6. Define the term trap or exception? (April/May 2019)
In computing and operating systems, a trap, also known as an exception or a fault, is
typically a type of synchronous interrupt caused by an exceptional condition (e.g., breakpoint,
division by zero, invalid memory access).
7. What are the advantages of Multiprocessor systems? (April/May 2019)
The advantages of the multiprocessing system are: Increased Throughput − By increasing
the number of processors, more work can be completed in a unit time. Cost Saving − Parallel
system shares the memory, buses, peripherals etc. Multiprocessor system thus
saves money as compared to multiple single systems.
8. How are multiple interrupt dealt with?
Two approaches can be taken to dealing with interrupts
  Disabled Interrupt – Processor ignores any new interrupt request signal.
 Define Priority for interrupt – It allows an interrupt of higher priority.
9. What characteristics distinguish the various elements of a memory hierarchy?
Characteristics are
 Cost Per bit
 Capacity
 Access Time
 Frequency of access to the memory by the processor.
10. What is Cache Memory?
 Cache memory is invisible to the OS
 It interacts with other memory management hardware
 Cache contains a copy of a portion of main memory.

8. List and briefly define 3 Techniques of I/O operation?

 Programmed I/O
 Interrupt Driven I/O
 Direct memory access
9. What is the distinction b/w spatial locality & temporal locality?
Temporal locality refers to the reuse of specific data and/or resources within
relatively small time durations.
Spatial locality refers to the use of data elements within relatively close storage
locations. Sequential locality, a special case of spatial locality, occurs when data
elements are arranged and accessed linearly, e.g., traversing the elements in a
one-dimensional array.
10. Define Locality of Reference
Locality of reference, also known as the principle of locality, is the phenomenon of
the same value or related storage locations being frequently accessed.
There are two basic types of reference locality.
 Temporal locality refers to the reuse of specific data and/or resources within
relatively small time durations.
 Spatial locality refers to the use of data elements within relatively close storage locations.
 Sequential locality, a special case of spatial locality, occurs when data elements
are arranged and accessed linearly, e.g., traversing the elements in a one-
dimensional array.
11. What is an operating system?(Nov/Dec 2011)
An operating system is a program that manages the computer hardware. it act as an
intermediate between a user’s of a computer and the computer hardware. It controls
and coordinates the use of t h e hardware among the various application programs for
the various users.
12. What are the 3 objective of an OS Design? (April/May 2017, NOV/DEC 2017,
April/May 2010, May/June 2012)
 Convenience – An OS makes a computer more convenient to use
 Efficiency -- An OS allows the system resources to be used in efficient manner
 Ability to Evolve – An OS Constructed in such a way as to permit the effective
development, testing & introducing new function.
13. List the Services of operating system function.
1. Program development
2. Program execution
3. User Interface
4. I/O Operations
5. File system Manipulation
 6. Communication
7. Error Detection
8. Resource allocation
9. Accounting
10. Security
14. Define Kernel
The kernel is a software code that resides in the central core of a operating system. It has
complete control over the system.

15. Define Sytem call (April/May 2019, April/May 2011, Nov/Dec2011)

System Call provides the interface between running program and the OS User can
request any services from OS through System Call.
List the categories of system call:-
 File management
 Process Management
 Inter process Communication
 I/O Device Management
 Information Processing & Maintenance
16. What is System Programs? (April/May2011)
System programs provide a convenient environment to the user for developing
and executing the programs.
Categories:-
1. File management
2. Status Information
3. File Modification
4. Programming language support
5. Program loading & execution
6. Communication
17. List out some system calls required to control the communication system.
(April/May2019)
Types of System Calls Windows LINUX

CreatePipe() pipe()

Communication CreateFileMapping() shmget()

MapViewOfFile() mmap()

17. What is Boot strapping?

The boot program is stored on disk with predetermined address called boot sector.
The boot program then loads the operating system into memory to startup the
computer this arrangement is known as bootstrapping.
18. Difference b/w Monolithic & Microlithic.

Monolithic Microlithic
Kernel size is large Kernel size is small
OS is Complex to design OS is easy to Design Implement & Install
Request may be serviced faster Request may be serviced slower
Kernel Provides only IPC and low level Device
All OS services are included in the Kernel
management services
 19. What are advantages of Multiprogramming? (Nov/Dec 2017, Nov/Dec 2010)
Multi Programming increases CPU Utilization by organizing jobs so that the CPU
always has one to execute.
Advantage:-
It increase CPU utilization,
It makes efficient use of the CPU overlapping the demands for the CPU & I/O
devices Increased throughput and Lower response time.
20. Define Real Time System
Real time system is one that must react to input & responds to them quickly. A real
time system has well defined, fixed time constants.
21. What does the CPU do when there are no user programs to run?(Nov/Dec 2011)
The CPU will always do processing. Even though there are no application programs running,
the operating system is still running and the CPU will still have to process.

22. Describe the actions taken by a kernel to context-switch between processes.

In general, the operating system must save the state of the currently running process and
restore the state of the process scheduled to be run next. Saving the state of a process
typically includes the values of all the CPU registers in addition to memory allocation.
Context switches must also perform many architecture-specific operations, including
flushing data and instruction caches.
23. What is multicore processor?
Hardware has been to place multiple processor cores on the same physical chip, resulting in
a Multicore processor. Each core maintains its architectural state and thus appears to the
operating system to be a separate physical processor.
24. What is memory stall?
Researchers have discovered that when a processor accesses memory, it spends a
significant amount of time waiting for the data to become available. This situation, known
as a memory stall, may occur for various reasons, such as a cache miss.
25. What is Boot strapping?
 The boot program is stored on disk with predetermined address called boot sector.
 The boot program then loads the operating system into memory to startup
the computer this arrangement is known as bootstrapping.
26. Can multiple user level threads achieve better performance on a multiprocessor
system than a single processor system? Justify your answer.
We assume that user-level threads are not known to the kernel. In that case, the answer is
because the scheduling is done at the process level. On the other hand, some OS allows
user-level threads to be assigned to different kernel-level processes for the purposes of
scheduling. In this case the multithreaded solution could be faster
27. Mention the circumstances that would a user be better off using a time-sharing
system rather than a PC or a single user workstation?
A user is better off fewer than three situations: when it is cheaper, faster, or easier. For
example:
 When the user is paying for management costs and the costs are cheaper for a
time-sharing system than for a single-user computer.
 When running a simulation or calculation that takes too long to run on a single PC or
workstation.
 When a user is travelling and doesn't have laptop to carry around, they can
connect remotely to a time-shared system and do their work.
28. Do timesharing differ from Multiprogramming? If so, How? (April/May 2015)
Time Sharing: here, OS assigns some time slots to each job. Here, each job is executed
according to the allotted time slots.
 Job1: 0 to 5 Job2: 5 to 10 Job3: 10 to 15
Multi-Tasking: in this operating system, jobs are executed in parallel by the operating system.
But, we can achieve this multi-tasking through multiple processors (or) multicore CPU only.
CPU1: Job1 CPU2: Job2 CPU3: Job3

29. Why API s need to be used rather than system calls? (April/May 2015)
System calls are much slower than APIs (library calls) since for each system call, a context
switch has to occur to load the OS (which then serves the system call).

Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API Managed by run-time

support library (Set of functions built into libraries included with compiler.)
30. Describe the actions taken by a thread library to context switch between user-level
threads.
he user-level threads are known only within a given process. To context switch, we only
need to save the thread-specific context: the program counter, CPU registers, and the
thread-specific stack pointer.
31. What is the purpose of system programs? (May/June 2016)
System programs can be thought of as bundles of useful system calls. They provide
basic functionality to users so that users do not need to write their own programs to
solve common problems.
32. What are the advantages of peer-to-peer systems over client-server systems? (May/June
2016)
 It is easy to install and so is the configuration of computers on this network, all the
resources and contents are shared by all the peers, unlike server-client architecture
where Server shares all the contents and resources.
 P2P is more reliable as central dependency is eliminated. Failure of one peer
doesn’t affect the functioning of other peers. In case of Client –Server network, if
server goes down whole network gets affected.
 There is no need for full-time System Administrator. Every user is the
administrator of his machine. User can control their shared resources.
 The over-all cost of building and maintaining this type of network is comparatively very
less.
33. Compare and contrast DMA and cache memory. (Nov/Dec 2015)
 DMA is a hardware device that can move to/from memory without using CPU
instructions.
 For instance, a hardware device (lets say, your PCI sound device) wants audio to
play back. You can either:
 Write a word at a time via a CPU mov instructions.
 Configure the DMA device. You give it a start address, a destination, and the
number of bytes to copy. The transfer now occurs while the CPU does
something else instead of spoon feeding the audio device.
 DMA can be very complex (scatter gather, etc), and varies by bus type and system.
34. Write the difference between Batch systems and Time sharing systems. (Nov/Dec 2015)
 A batch is a sequence of jobs. This batch is submitted to batch processing
operating systems, and output would appear some later time in the form of a
program or as program error. To speed up processing similar jobs are batched
together.
 The major task of batch operating systems is to transfer control automatically
from one job to next. Here the operating is always in the memory.
 Time sharing or multi-tasking is a logical execution of multiprogramming.
Multiple jobs are executed by the CPU switching between them. Here the
computer system provides on line communication between the user and the
system.
  Here the CPU is never idle. Time shared operating system allows many users
to share the computer simultaneously.
 Time sharing systems requires some sort of memory management and protection

PART-B
1. Enumerate the different operating system structure and explain with neat sketch.
(APRIL/MAY 2019, APRIL/MAY 2018, APRIL/MAY 2017, Nov/Dec 2015, NOV/DEC 2013,
APRIL/MAY 2010)
An operating system is a construct that allows the user application programs to interact with
the system hardware. Since the operating system is such a complex structure, it should be created
with utmost care so it can be used and modified easily. An easy way to do this is to create the
operating system in parts. Each of these parts should be well defined with clear inputs, outputs and
functions.
Simple Structure
There are many operating systems that have a rather simple structure. These started as small systems
and rapidly expanded much further than their scope. A common example of this is MS-DOS. It was
designed simply for a niche amount for people. There was no indication that it would become so
popular.
An image to illustrate the structure of MS-DOS is as follows:

It is better that operating systems have a modular structure, unlike MS-DOS. That would lead to
greater control over the computer system and its various applications. The modular structure would
also allow the programmers to hide information as required and implement internal routines as they
see fit without changing the outer specifications.
Layered Structure
One way to achieve modularity in the operating system is the layered approach. In this, the bottom
layer is the hardware and the topmost layer is the user interface.
An image demonstrating the layered approach is as follows:
As seen from the image, each upper layer is built on the bottom layer. All the layers hide some
structures, operations etc from their upper layers.
One problem with the layered structure is that each layer needs to be carefully defined. This is
necessary because the upper layers can only use the functionalities of the layers below them.

2. Discuss multiprocessor systems in detail. (APRIL/MAY 2017, MAY/JUNE 2013)

Multiprocessor Operating System refers to the use of two or more central
processing units (CPU) within a single computer system. These multiple CPUs are in a close
communication sharing the computer bus, memory and other peripheral devices. These systems are
referred as tightly coupled systems.
These types of systems are used when very high speed is required to process a large volume of data.
These systems are generally used in environment like satellite control, weather forecasting etc.
Multiprocessing system is based on the symmetric multiprocessing model, in which each
processor runs an identical copy of operating system and these copies communicate with each other.
In this system processor is assigned a specific task. A master processor controls the system. This
scheme defines a master-slave relationship. These systems can save money in compare to single
processor systems because the processors can share peripherals, power supplies and other devices.
The main advantage of multiprocessor system is to get more work done in a shorter period of time.
Moreover, multiprocessor systems prove more reliable in the situations of failure of one processor.
In this situation, the system with multiprocessor will not halt the system; it will only slow it down.
The whole task of multiprocessing is managed by the operating system, which allocates different
tasks to be performed by the various processors in the system.
Applications designed for the use in multiprocessing are said to be threaded, which means that they
are broken into smaller routines that can be run independently. This allows the operating system to
let these threads run on more than one processor simultaneously, which is multiprocessing that
results in improved performance.
Multiprocessor system supports the processes to run in parallel. Parallel processing is the ability of
the CPU to simultaneously process incoming jobs. This becomes most important in computer
system, as the CPU divides and conquers the jobs. Generally the parallel processing is used in the
fields like artificial intelligence and expert system, image processing, weather forecasting etc.
In a multiprocessor system, the dynamically sharing of resources among the various processors may
cause therefore, a potential bottleneck. There are three main sources of contention that can be found
in a multiprocessor operating system:
Locking system: In order to provide safe access to the resources shared among multiple processors,
they need to be protected by locking scheme. The purpose of a locking is to serialize accesses to the
protected resource by multiple processors. Undisciplined use of locking can severely degrade the
performance of system. This form of contention can be reduced by using locking scheme, avoiding
long critical sections, replacing locks with lock-free algorithms, or, whenever possible, avoiding
sharing altogether.
Shared data: The continuous accesses to the shared data items by multiple processors (with one or
more of them with data write) are serialized by the cache coherence protocol. Even in a moderate-
scale system, serialization delays can have significant impact on the system performance. In
addition, bursts of cache coherence traffic saturate the memory bus or the interconnection network,
which also slows down the entire system. This form of contention can be eliminated by either
avoiding sharing or, when this is not possible, by using replication techniques to reduce the rate of
write accesses to the shared data.
False sharing: This form of contention arises when unrelated data items used by different
processors are located next to each other in the memory and, therefore, share a single cache line:
The effect of false sharing is the same as that of regular sharing bouncing of the cache line among
several processors. Fortunately, once it is identified, false sharing can be easily eliminated by setting
the memory layout of non-shared data.
Apart from eliminating bottlenecks in the system, a multiprocessor operating system developer
should provide support for efficiently running user applications on the multiprocessor. Some of the
aspects of such support include mechanisms for task placement and migration across processors,
physical memory placement insuring most of the memory pages used by an application is located in
the local memory, and scalable multiprocessor synchronization primitives.

3. Explain system calls, system programs and OS generation.

(NOV/DEC 2019, APR/MAY 2017, Nov/Dec 2015, NOV/DEC 2012, APR/MAY 2015)
The interface between a process and an operating system is provided by system calls. In general,
system calls are available as assembly language instructions. They are also included in the manuals
used by the assembly level programmers.
System calls are usually made when a process in user mode requires access to a resource. Then it
requests the kernel to provide the resource via a system call.
Types of System Calls
There are mainly five types of system calls. These are explained in detail as follows:
Here are the types of system calls:
Process Control
These system calls deal with processes such as process creation, process termination etc.
File Management
These system calls are responsible for file manipulation such as creating a file, reading a file,
writing into a file etc.
Device Management
These system calls are responsible for device manipulation such as reading from device buffers,
writing into device buffers etc.
Information Maintenance
These system calls handle information and its transfer between the operating system and the user
program.
Communication
These system calls are useful for interprocess communication. They also deal with creating and
deleting a communication connection.
Some of the examples of all the above types of system calls in Windows and Unix are given as
follows:
Types of System Calls Windows Linux
CreateProcess() fork()
Process Control ExitProcess() exit()
WaitForSingleObject() wait()

CreateFile() open()
ReadFile() read()
File Management
WriteFile() write()
CloseHandle() close()
 SetConsoleMode() ioctl()
Device Management ReadConsole() read()
WriteConsole() write()

GetCurrentProcessID() getpid()
Information Maintenance SetTimer() alarm()
Sleep() sleep()

CreatePipe() pipe()
Communication CreateFileMapping() shmget()
MapViewOfFile() mmap()

There are many different system calls as shown above. Details of some of those system calls are as
follows:
wait()
In some systems, a process may wait for another process to complete its execution. This happens
when a parent process creates a child process and the execution of the parent process is suspended
until the child process executes. The suspending of the parent process occurs with a wait() system
call. When the child process completes execution, the control is returned back to the parent process.
exec()
This system call runs an executable file in the context of an already running process. It replaces the
previous executable file. This is known as an overlay. The original process identifier remains since a
new process is not created but data, heap, stack etc. of the process are replaced by the new process.
fork()
Processes use the fork() system call to create processes that are a copy of themselves. This is one of
the major methods of process creation in operating systems. When a parent process creates a child
process and the execution of the parent process is suspended until the child process executes. When
the child process completes execution, the control is returned back to the parent process.
exit()
The exit() system call is used by a program to terminate its execution. In a multithreaded
environment, this means that the thread execution is complete. The operating system reclaims
resources that were used by the process after the exit() system call.
kill()
The kill() system call is used by the operating system to send a termination signal to a process that
urges the process to exit. However, kill system call does not necessary mean killing the process and
can have various meanings.

System Program:
System programs provide an environment where programs can be developed and executed.
In the simplest sense, system programs also provide a bridge between the user interface and system
calls. In reality, they are much more complex. For example, a compiler is a complex system
program.
System Programs Purpose
The system program serves as a part of the operating system. It traditionally lies between the user
interface and the system calls. The user view of the system is actually defined by system programs
and not system calls because that is what they interact with and system programs are closer to the
user interface.
An image that describes system programs in the operating system hierarchy is as follows:

In the above image, system programs as well as application programs form a bridge between the
user interface and the system calls. So, from the user view the operating system observed is actually
the system programs and not the system calls.
Types of System Programs
System programs can be divided into seven parts. These are given as follows:
Status Information
The status information system programs provide required data on the current or past status of the
system. This may include the system date, system time, available memory in system, disk space,
logged in users etc.
Communications
These system programs are needed for system communications such as web browsers. Web
browsers allow systems to communicate and access information from the network as required.
File Manipulation
These system programs are used to manipulate system files. This can be done using various
commands like create, delete, copy, rename, print etc. These commands can create files, delete files,
copy the contents of one file into another, rename files, print them etc.
Program Loading and Execution
The system programs that deal with program loading and execution make sure that programs can be
loaded into memory and executed correctly. Loaders and Linkers are a prime example of this type of
system programs.
File Modification
System programs that are used for file modification basically change the data in the file or modify it
in some other way. Text editors are a big example of file modification system programs.
Application Programs
Application programs can perform a wide range of services as per the needs of the users. These
include programs for database systems, word processors, plotting tools, spreadsheets, games,
scientific applications etc.
Programming Language Support
These system programs provide additional support features for different programming languages.
Some examples of these are compilers, debuggers etc. These compile a program and make sure it is
error free respectively.

OS generation:
Operating Systems have evolved over the years. So, their evolution through the years can be
mapped using generations of operating systems. There are four generations of operating systems.
These can be described as follows:

The First Generation (1945 - 1955): Vacuum Tubes and Plugboards

Digital computers were not constructed until the Second World War. Calculating engines
with mechanical relays were built at that time. However, the mechanical relays were very slow and
were later replaced with vacuum tubes. These machines were enormous but were still very slow.
These early computers were designed, built and maintained by a single group of people.
Programming languages were unknown and there were no operating systems so all the
programming was done in machine language. All the problems were simple numerical calculations.
By the 1950’s punch cards were introduced and this improved the computer system. Instead of using
plugboards, programs were written on cards and read into the system.
The Second Generation (1955 - 1965): Transistors and Batch Systems
Transistors led to the development of the computer systems that could be manufactured and
sold to paying customers. These machines were known as mainframes and were locked in air-
conditioned computer rooms with staff to operate them.
The Batch System was introduced to reduce the wasted time in the computer. A tray full of jobs was
collected in the input room and read into the magnetic tape. After that, the tape was rewound and
mounted on a tape drive. Then the batch operating system was loaded in which read the first job
from the tape and ran it. The output was written on the second tape. After the whole batch was done,
the input and output tapes were removed and the output tape was printed.
The Third Generation (1965 - 1980): Integrated Circuits and Multiprogramming
Until the 1960’s, there were two types of computer systems i.e the scientific and the
commercial computers. These were combined by IBM in the System/360. This used integrated
circuits and provided a major price and performance advantage over the second generation systems.
The third generation operating systems also introduced multiprogramming. This meant that the
processor was not idle while a job was completing its I/O operation. Another job was scheduled on
the processor so that its time would not be wasted.
The Fourth Generation (1980 - Present): Personal Computers
Personal Computers were easy to create with the development of large-scale integrated
circuits. These were chips containing thousands of transistors on a square centimeter of silicon.
Because of these, microcomputers were much cheaper than minicomputers and that made it possible
for a single individual to own one of them.
The advent of personal computers also led to the growth of networks. This created network
operating systems and distributed operating systems. The users were aware of a network while using
a network operating system and could log in to remote machines and copy files from one machine to
another.

4. Write short notes on operating system services and components.(NOV/DEC 2019, MAY/JUNE
2012)
An Operating System provides services to both the users and to the programs.

 It provides programs an environment to execute.

 It provides users the services to execute the programs in a convenient manner.
Following are a few common services provided by an operating system −

 Program execution
 I/O operations
 File System manipulation
 Communication
 Error Detection
 Resource Allocation
 Protection

Program execution

Operating systems handle many kinds of activities from user programs to system programs like
printer spooler, name servers, file server, etc. Each of these activities is encapsulated as a process.
A process includes the complete execution context (code to execute, data to manipulate, registers,
OS resources in use). Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to
program management −
  Loads a program into memory.
 Executes the program.
 Handles program's execution.
 Provides a mechanism for process synchronization.
 Provides a mechanism for process communication.
 Provides a mechanism for deadlock handling.

I/O Operation

An I/O subsystem comprises of I/O devices and their corresponding driver software. Drivers hide
the peculiarities of specific hardware devices from the users.
An Operating System manages the communication between user and device drivers.

 I/O operation means read or write operation with any file or any specific I/O device.
 Operating system provides the access to the required I/O device when required.

File system manipulation

A file represents a collection of related information. Computers can store files on the disk
(secondary storage), for long-term storage purpose. Examples of storage media include magnetic
tape, magnetic disk and optical disk drives like CD, DVD. Each of these media has its own
properties like speed, capacity, data transfer rate and data access methods.
A file system is normally organized into directories for easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain files and other directions. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to file management −

 Program needs to read a file or write a file.

 The operating system gives the permission to the program for operation on file.
 Permission varies from read-only, read-write, denied and so on.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete files.
 Operating System provides an interface to the user to create/delete directories.
 Operating System provides an interface to create the backup of file system.

Communication

In case of distributed systems which are a collection of processors that do not share memory,
peripheral devices, or a clock, the operating system manages communications between all the
processes. Multiple processes communicate with one another through communication lines in the
network.
The OS handles routing and connection strategies, and the problems of contention and security.
Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to communication −

 Two processes often require data to be transferred between them

 Both the processes can be on one computer or on different computers, but are connected
through a computer network.
 Communication may be implemented by two methods, either by Shared Memory or by
Message Passing.
 Error handling

Errors can occur anytime and anywhere. An error may occur in CPU, in I/O devices or in the
memory hardware. Following are the major activities of an operating system with respect to error
handling −

 The OS constantly checks for possible errors.

 The OS takes an appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing.

Resource Management

In case of multi-user or multi-tasking environment, resources such as main memory, CPU cycles
and files storage are to be allocated to each user or job. Following are the major activities of an
operating system with respect to resource management −

 The OS manages all kinds of resources using schedulers.

 CPU scheduling algorithms are used for better utilization of CPU.

Protection

Considering a computer system having multiple users and concurrent execution of multiple
processes, the various processes must be protected from each other's activities.
Protection refers to a mechanism or a way to control the access of programs, processes, or users to
the resources defined by a computer system. Following are the major activities of an operating
system with respect to protection −

 The OS ensures that all access to system resources is controlled.

 The OS ensures that external I/O devices are protected from invalid access attempts.
 The OS provides authentication features for each user by means of passwords.
Components of Operating System
 Kernel.
 Process Execution.
 Interrupt.
 Memory Management.
 Multitasking.
 Networking.
 Security.
 User Interface.

5. Discuss about the functionality of system boot with respect to operating system. (APR/MAY
2015)
The BIOS, operating system and hardware components of a computer system should all be
working correctly for it to boot. If any of these elements fail, it leads to a failed boot sequence.
System Boot Process
The following diagram demonstrates the steps involved in a system boot process:
Here are the steps:

 The CPU initializes itself after the power in the computer is first turned on. This is done by
triggering a series of clock ticks that are generated by the system clock.
 After this, the CPU looks for the system’s ROM BIOS to obtain the first instruction in the
start-up program. This first instruction is stored in the ROM BIOS and it instructs the system
to run POST (Power on Self Test) in a memory address that is predetermined.
 POST first checks the BIOS chip and then the CMOS RAM. If there is no battery failure
detected by POST, then it continues to initialize the CPU.
 POST also checks the hardware devices, secondary storage devices such as hard drives,
ports etc. And other hardware devices such as the mouse and keyboard. This is done to make
sure they are working properly.
 After POST makes sure that all the components are working properly, then the BIOS finds
an operating system to load.
 In most computer systems, the operating system loads from the C drive onto the hard drive.
The CMOS chip typically tells the BIOS where the operating system is found.
 The order of the different drives that CMOS looks at while finding the operating system is
known as the boot sequence. This sequence can be changed by changing the CMOS setup.
 After finding the appropriate boot drive, the BIOS first finds the boot record which tells it to
find the beginning of the operating system.
 After the initialization of the operating system, the BIOS copies the files into the memory.
Then the operating system controls the boot process.
 In the end, the operating system does a final inventory of the system memory and loads the
device drivers needed to control the peripheral devices.
 The users can access the system applications to perform various tasks.

Without the system boot process, the computer users would have to download all the software
components, including the ones not frequently required. With the system boot, only those software
components need to be downloaded that are legitimately required and all extraneous components are
not required. This process frees up a lot of space in the memory and consequently saves a lot of
time.
6. Sketch the structure of Direct Memory Access in detail. (APR/MAY 2017, APR/MAY 2015)

For the execution of a computer program, it requires the synchronous working of more than one
component of a computer. For example, Processors – providing necessary control information,
addresses…etc, buses – to transfer information and data to and from memory to I/O devices…etc.
The interesting factor of the system would be the way it handles the transfer of information among
processor, memory and I/O devices. Usually, processors control all the process of transferring data,
right from initiating the transfer to the storage of data at the destination. This adds load on the
processor and most of the time it stays in the ideal state, thus decreasing the efficiency of the
system. To speed up the transfer of data between I/O devices and memory, DMA controller acts as
station master. DMA controller transfers data with minimal intervention of the processor.
DMA Controller:

The term DMA stands for direct memory access. The hardware device used for direct memory
access is called the DMA controller. DMA controller is a control unit, part of I/O device’s interface
circuit, which can transfer blocks of data between I/O devices and main memory with minimal
intervention from the processor.
DMA Controller Diagram in Computer Architecture
DMA controller provides an interface between the bus and the input-output devices. Although it
transfers data without intervention of processor, it is controlled by the processor. The processor
initiates the DMA controller by sending the starting address, Number of words in the data block and
direction of transfer of data .i.e. from I/O devices to the memory or from main memory to I/O
devices. More than one external device can be connected to the DMA controller.

DMA controller contains an address unit, for generating addresses and selecting I/O device
for transfer. It also contains the control unit and data count for keeping counts of the number
of blocks transferred and indicating the direction of transfer of data. When the transfer is
completed, DMA informs the processor by raising an interrupt. The typical block diagram of
the DMA controller is shown in the figure below.
Working of DMA Controller
DMA controller has to share the bus with the processor to make the data transfer. The device that
holds the bus at a given time is called bus master. When a transfer from I/O device to the memory or
vice verse has to be made, the processor stops the execution of the current program, increments the
program counter, moves data over stack then sends a DMA select signal to DMA controller over the
address bus.
If the DMA controller is free, it requests the control of bus from the processor by raising the bus
request signal. Processor grants the bus to the controller by raising the bus grant signal, now DMA
controller is the bus master. The processor initiates the DMA controller by sending the memory
addresses, number of blocks of data to be transferred and direction of data transfer. After assigning
the data transfer task to the DMA controller, instead of waiting ideally till completion of data
transfer, the processor resumes the execution of the program after retrieving instructions from the
stack.

7. Describe the differences between symmetric and asymmetric multiprocessing. What are three
advantages andone disadvantage of multiprocessor systems? (MAY/JUNE 2016).
Symmetric Multiprocessing system: in this case each processor runs an identical copy of the OS,
and hence they can communicate with each other as needed. Example: all modern OS (windows
NT, UNIX, LINUX, windows 7,10).

Asymmetric Multiprocessing system: master-slave concept. A master processor controls the

system, the other processor either look to the master for instruction or have predefined task assigned
. Example SunOS v4.

Advantages of multiprocessor systems:

1. Increased throughput
2. economy of scale
3. reliability more
Disadvantages:

1. Common computer bus, clock , memory and peripheral devices.

 2. cost is more

BASIS FOR SYMMETRIC ASYMMETRIC

COMPARISON MULTIPROCESSING MULTIPROCESSING

Basic Each processor run the tasks in Only Master processor run the tasks

Operating System. of Operating System.

Process Processor takes processes from a Master processor assign processes to

common ready queue, or there the slave processors, or they have

may be a private ready queue for some predefined processes.

each processor.

Architecture All processor in Symmetric All processor in Asymmetric

Multiprocessing has the same Multiprocessing may have same or

architecture. different architecture.

Communication All processors communicate with Processors need not communicate as

another processor by a shared they are controlled by the master

memory. processor.
 BASIS FOR SYMMETRIC ASYMMETRIC

COMPARISON MULTIPROCESSING MULTIPROCESSING

Failure If a processor fails, the If a master processor fails, a slave is

computing capacity of the system turned to the master processor to

reduces. continue the execution. If a slave

processor fails, its task is switched to

other processors.

Ease Symmetric Multiprocessor is Asymmetric Multiprocessor is simple

complex as all the processors as master processor a

need to be synchronized to

maintain the load balance.

 UNIT II - PROCESS MANAGEMENT

PART – A

1. Define Process?
A Process can be thought of as a program in execution. A process will need certain
resources such as CPU time, memory, files & I/O devices to accomplish its task.
2. Draw & briefly explain the process states? (Nov/Dec 2017)

 New- The process is being created.

 Running – Instructions are being executed
 Waiting – The process is waiting for some event to occur
 Ready – The process is waiting to be assigned a processor
 Terminated - the process has finished execution
3. What is process control block? List out the data field associated with PCB.(NOV/DEC
2017)
Each process is represented in the operating system by a process control block also
called a task cont rol block.(PCB) Also called a task control block.
Process state
Process number
Program counter
CPU registers
Memory limits
List of open files
CPU scheduling information
Memory management information
Accounting information
I/O status information

4. What is meant by context switching?

Switching the CPU to another process requires saving the state of the old process
and loading the saved state for the new process. This task is known as context switch.
5. List out the benefits and challenges of thread handling. (Apr/May 2019)
 Improved throughput.
 Simultaneous and fully symmetric use of multiple processors for computation and I/O.
 Superior application responsiveness.
  Improved server responsiveness.
 Minimized system resource usage.
 Program structure simplification.
 Better communication.
6. Define co- operating process and independent process.
Independent process:
 A process is independent if it cannot affect or be affected by the other
processes executing in the system.
A process that does not share data with any other process is independent. Co operating process:

 A process is co-operating if it can affect or be affected by other processes executing in the

system.
 Any process that shares data with any other process is cooperating.
7. What are the benefits of multithreaded programming? (April/May2013)
The benefits of multithreaded programming can be broken down into four major categories
• Responsiveness
• Resource sharing
• Economy scalability
• Utilization of multiprocessor architectures.
8. What is a thread?
A thread otherwise called a lightweight process (LWP) is a basic unit of CPU utilization, it
comprises of a thread id, a program counter, a register set and a stack. It shares with
otherthreads bel onging to the same process its code section, data section, and operating
system resources such as ope n files and signals.
9. What are the primary distinction between Short term and CPU Scheduler? (Nov/Dec
2019)
The primary distinction between the two schedulers lies in the frequency of execution. The short-
term scheduler is designed to frequently select a new process for the CPU, at least once every 100
milliseconds. Because of the short time between executions, the short-term scheduler must be fast. The
long-term scheduler executes much less frequently; minutes may separate the creation of one new
process and the next. The long-term scheduler controls the degree of multiprogramming. Because of
the longer interval between executions, the long-term scheduler can afford to take more time to decide
which process should be selected for execution.
10. Under What circumstances CPU scheduling decision takes place.
1. When a process switches from running state to waiting state
2. When a process switches from running state to ready state.
3. When a process switches from running state to waiting state to ready state
4. When a process terminates.
11. What are the various scheduling criteria for CPU scheduling?
The various scheduling criteria are
 CPU utilization
 Throughput
 Turnaround time
 Waiting time
 Response time
10. Write down the definition of TestAndSet() Instruction.
boolean TestAndSet (boolean &target)
{
boolean rv=*target;
*target=true;
return rv;
}
 11. Define busy waiting and spinlock (NOV/DEC 2017).
Busy Waiting:-
When a process is in its critical section, any other process that tries to enter its critical section
Must loop continuously in the entry code. This is called as busy waiting.
Spinlock:-
Busy waiting waster CPU cycles that some other process might be able to use productively.
This type of semaphore is also called a spinlock. This is because the process “spin” while waiting
for the lock
12. What is mean by monitors?
A high level synchronization construct. A monitor type is an ADT which presents set
of programmer define operations that are provided mutual exclusion within the
monitor.

13. What are the characterizations of deadlock?

1. Mutual exclusion: only one process at a time can use a resource.
2. Hold and wait: a process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire
additional resources held by other processes.
3. No preemption: a resource can be released only voluntarily by the process
holding it, after that process has completed its task.
4. Circular wait: there exists a set {P0, P1, …, P0} of waiting processes such that
P0 is waiting for a resource that is held by P1, P1 is waiting for a resource that is
held by P2,…, Pn–1 is waiting for a resource that is held by Pn, and P0 is waiting for a
resource that is held by P0.Deadlock can arise if four conditions hold simultaneously.
14. Differentiate a Thread form a Process. (Nov/Dec 2012)
Threads
 Will by default share memory
 Will share file descriptors
 Will share file system context
 Will share signal handling
Processes
 Will by default not share memory
 Most file descriptors not shared
 Don't share file system context
 Don't share signal handling
15. What are the difference b/w user level threads and kernel level threads? (May/June
2012,16)(Nov/Dec2015)
User threads
 User threads are supported above the kernel and are implemented by a thread library at
the user level. Thread creation & scheduling are done in the user space, without kernel
intervention. Therefore they are fast to create and manage blocking system call will
cause the entire process to block
Kernel threads
Kernel threads are supported directly by the operating system .Thread creation,
scheduling and management are done by the operating system. Therefore they are
slower to create & manage compared to user threads. If the thread performs a blocking
system call, the kernel can schedule another thread in the application for execution
16. What is the use of fork and exec system calls?
Fork is a system call by which a new process is created. Exec is also a system call,
which is used after a fork by one of the two processes to place the process memory
space with a new program.
17. Define thread cancellation & target thread.
The thread cancellation is the task of terminating a thread before it has completed. A
thread that is to be cancelled is often referred to as the target thread. For example, if
multiple threads are concurrently searching through a database and one thread returns
the result, the remaining threads might be cancelled.
18. What are the different ways in which a thread can be cancelled?
Cancellation of a target thread may occur in two different scenarios:
 Asynchronous cancellation: One thread immediately terminates the
target thread is called asynchronous cancellation.
 Deferred cancellation: The target thread can periodically check if it should
terminate, allowing the target thread an opportunity to terminate itself in an orderly
fashion.
19. Define PThreads
PThreads refers to the POSIX standard defining an API for thread creation and
synchronization. This is a specification for thread behavior, not an implementation.
20. What is critical section problem?
Consider a system consists of 'n' processes. Each process has segment of code called a
critical section, in which the process may be changing common variables, updating a
table, writing a file. When one process is executing in its critical section, no other
process can be allowed to execute in its critical section.
21. What are the requirements that a solution to the critical section problem must satisfy?
The three requirements are
 Mutual exclusion
 Progress
 Bounded waiting
22. Define mutual exclusion.(Nov/Dec2011)April/May 2013)
Mutual exclusion refers to the requirement of ensuring that no two process or threads
are in their critical section at the same time. i.e. If process Pi is executing in its critical
section, then no other processes can be executing in their critical sections.
23. Define entry section and exit section.
The critical section problem is to design a protocol that the processes can use to
cooperate. Each process must request permission to enter its critical section.
Entry Section : The section of the code implementing this request is the entry section.
Exit Section : The section of the code following the critical section is an exit section.
The General Structure:
do {
entry section
critical section
exit section
remainder section
 } while(1);
24. Give two hardware instructions and their definitions which can be used for implementing
mutual exclusion.
TestAndSet
boolean TestAndSet (boolean &target)
{
boolean rv = target;
target= true; return rv;
}
Swap
void Swap (boolean &a, boolean &b)
{
boolean temp = a;
a= b;
b = temp;
}
25. What is semaphore? Mention its importance in operating system. (Nov/Dec2011,2012)
A semaphore 'S' is a synchronization tool which is an integer value that, apart from
initialization, is accessed only through two standard atomic operations; wait and signal.
Semaphores can be used to deal with the n-process critical section problem. It can be
also used to solve various Synchronization problems.
26. How the mutual exclusion may be violated if the signal and wait operations are not
executed automatically.
A wait operation atomically decrements the value associated with a semaphore. If two
wait operations are executed on a semaphore when its value is1, if the two operations
are not performed atomically, then it is possible that both operations might proceed to
decrement the semaphore value, thereby violating mutual exclusion.
27. Define CPU scheduling.
CPU scheduling is the process of switching the CPU among various processes. CPU
scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed operating systems. By switching the CPU
among processes, the operating system can make the computer more productive.
28. What is preemptive and nonpreemptive scheduling? (NOV/DEC 2017)
Under non-preemptive scheduling once the CPU has been allocated to a process, the
process keeps the CPU until it releases the CPU either by terminating or switching to
the waiting state.
Preemptive scheduling can preempt a process which is utilizing the CPU in between its
execution and give the CPU to another process.
29. What is a Dispatcher?
The dispatcher is the module that gives control of the CPU to the process selected by
the short-term scheduler. This function involves:
 Switching context.
 Switching to user mode.
 Jumping to the proper location in the user program to restart that program.
30. Define the term ‘dispatch latency’? (April/May 2015)
The time taken by the dispatcher to stop one process and start another running is
known as dispatch latency.
31. Define throughput?
Throughput in CPU scheduling is the number of processes that are completed per unit
time. For long processes, this rate may be one process per hour; for short transactions,
throughput might be 10 processes per second.
32. What is turnaround time?
Turnaround time is the interval from the time of submission to the time of completion
of a process. It is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get into memory, waiting in
 the ready queue, executing on the CPU, and doing I/O.
33. Define race condition.
When several process access and manipulate same data concurrently, then the outcome
of the execution depends on particular order in which the access takes place is called
race condition. To avoid race condition, only one process at a time can manipulate the
shared variable.
34. Write the four situations under which CPU scheduling decisions take place?
CPU scheduling decisions take place under one of four conditions:
 When a process switches from the running state to the waiting state, such as for
an I/O request or invocation of the wait ( ) system call.
 When a process switches from the running state to the ready state, for example
in response to an interrupt.
 When a process switches from the waiting state to the ready state, say at
completion of I/O or a return from wait ( ). When a process terminates.
35. Define deadlock. (Nov/Dec2010)
A process requests resources; if the resources are not available at that time, the process
enters a wait state. Waiting processes may never again change state, because the
resources they have requested are held by other waiting processes. This situation is
called a deadlock.
36. What is the sequence in which resources may be utilized?
Under normal mode of operation, a process may utilize a resource in the following sequence:
 Request: If the request cannot be granted immediately, then the requesting
process must wait until it can acquire the resource.
 Use: The process can operate on the resource.
 Release: The process releases the resource.
37. What are conditions under which a deadlock situation may arise? (NOV/DEC 2019)
A deadlock situation can arise if the following four conditions hold simultaneously in a
system:
a. Mutual exclusion
b. Hold and wait
c. No pre-emption
d. Circular wait
38. What is a resource-allocation graph?
Resource allocation graph is directed graph which is used to describe deadlocks. This graph consists
of a set of vertices V and a set of edges E. The set of vertices V is partitioned into two different
types of nodes; P the set consisting of all active processes in the system and R the set consisting of
all resource types in the system.
39. Define request edge and assignment edge.
A directed edge from process Pi to resource type Rj (denoted by Pi → Rj) is called as
request edge; it signifies that process Pi requested an instance of resource type Rj and is
currently waiting for that resource. A directed edge from resource type Rj to process Pi
(denoted by Rj → Pi) is called an assignment edge; it signifies that an instance of
resource type has been allocated to a process Pi.
40. What are the methods for handling deadlocks?
The deadlock problem can be dealt with in one of the three ways:
1. Use a protocol to prevent or avoid deadlocks, ensuring that the system
will never enter a deadlock state.
2. Allow the system to enter the deadlock state, detect it and then recover.
3. Ignore the problem all together, and pretend that deadlocks never occur in thesystem.
41. How real-time Scheduling does differs from normal scheduling? (Nov/Dec2012)
In a normal Scheduling, we have two types of processes. User process & kernel Process.
Kernel processes have time constraints. However, user processes do not have time
constraints.
 In a RTOS, all process are Kernel process & hence time constraints should be strictly
followed. All process/task (can be used interchangeably) are based on priority and time
constraints are important for the system to run correctly.
42. What do you meant by short term scheduler. (APRIL/MAY 2019)
The selection process is carried out by the short term scheduler or CPU scheduler. The
scheduler selects the process form the process in memory that is ready to execute and
allocates the CPU to the process.
43. What is the concept behind strong semaphore and spinlock? (Nov/Dec2015)
A spinlock is one possible implementation of a lock, namely one that is implemented
by busy waiting ("spinning"). A semaphore is a generalization of a lock (or, the other
way around, a lock is a special case of a semaphore). Usually, but not necessarily,
spinlocks are only valid within one process whereas semaphores can be used to
synchronize between different processes, too.
A semaphore has a counter and will allow itself being acquired by one or several
threads, depending on what value you post to it, and (in some implementations)
depending on what its maximum allowable value is.
44. What is the meaning of the term busy waiting? (April/May2016, NOV/DEC 2017)
Busy waiting means that a process is waiting for a condition to be satisfied in a tight
loop without relinquish the processor. Alternatively, a process could wait by
relinquishing the processor, and block on a condition and wait to be awakened at some
appropriate time in the future.
45. List out the methods used to recover from the deadlock. (April/May2019)
(a)Abort all the Deadlocked Processes: Aborting all the processes will certainly break
the deadlock, but with great expenses.
(b). Abort one process at a time until deadlock is eliminated: Abort one deadlocked process
at a time, until deadlock cycle is eliminated from the system.
46. Give the queuing diagram representation of process scheduling. (Apr/May 2019)

PART-B

1. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU – burst time in
given ms:
Process Burst time (B.T) Arrival time(A.T)
P1 8 0.00
 P2 4 1.001
P3 9 2.001
P4 5 3.001
P5 3 4.001
Draw four Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes using FCFS, SJF, Priority
and RR (quantum=2) scheduling. Also calculate waiting time and turnaround time for each
scheduling algorithms. (APRIL/MAY 2017)
Solution:
FCFS

Process Burst time(B.T) Arrival time(A.T)

P1 8 0.00
P2 4 1.001
P3 9 2.001
P4 5 3.001
P5 3 4.001
Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 8 12 21 26 29

Process C.T T.A=C.T-A.T W.T=T.A-B.T

P1 8 8 0
P2 4 10.999 6.99
P3 9 18.999 9.999
P4 5 22.999 17.999
P5 3 24.999 21.999
Where,

C.T -Completion time

T.A-Turnaround Time

A.T-Arrival Time

W.T-Waiting Time

Average Waiting Time=(0+6.999+9.999+.17.999+21.99)/5

Average Waiting Time=11.3992

Average Turnaround Time=(8+10.99+18.99+22.99+24.99)/5

Average Turnaround Time=17.199

SJF

Gantt Chart

P1 P5 P2 P4 P1 P3
0 1 4 8 13 20 29

Process A.T B.T C.T T.A.T W.T

P1 0.00 8 20 20 12

P2 1.001 4 8 6.99 2.99

P3 2.001 9 29 26.99 17.99

P4 3.001 5 13 9.99 4.99

P5 4.001 3 4 0 -3

Average Turnaround Time=(20+6.99+26.99+9.99+0)/5

Average Turnaround Time=12.799

Average Waiting Time= (12+2.99+17.99+4.99-3)/5

Average Waiting Time=6.999

Where,

T.A.T=C.T-A.T

W.T=T.A.T-B.T

C.T -Completion time

T.A.T-Turnaround Time

A.T-Arrival Time

B.T-Burst Time

PRIORITY:

Here in the question, No priority is given, So assume the priority.

Process Burst time Arrival time Assume priority

P1 8 0.00 1
P2 4 1.001 2
P3 9 2.001 3
P4 5 3.001 4
P5 3 4.001 5
Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5
0 8 12 21 26 29

Process C.T T.A.T W.T

P1 8 8 0
P2 12 10.999 6.99
 P3 21 18.999 9.99
P4 26 22.999 17.99
P5 29 24.999 21.99
Where,

T.A.T=C.T-

A.TW.T=T.A.T

-B.T

Average Turnaround Time=(8+10.99+18.99+22.99+24.99)/5

Average Turnaround Time=17.192

Average Waiting Time=(0+6.99+9.99+17.99+21.99)/5

Average Waiting Time=11.392

ROUND ROBIN

Process Burst time(B.T) Arrival time(A.T)

P1 8 0.00
P2 4 1.001
P3 9 2.001
P4 5 3.001
P5 3 4.001

Quantum -2

P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P1 P3 P4 P1 P3 P3
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 19 21 23 24 26 28 29

Process B.T C.T T.A.T W.T

P1 8 26 26 18

P2 4 14 12.99 8.99

P3 9 29 26.99 17.99

P4 5 24 20.99 15.99

P5 3 19 14.99 11.99

Where,

Average Turnaround Time=(26+12.99+26.99+20.99+14.99)/5

Average Turnaround Time=20.392

Average Waiting Time=(18+8.99+17.99+15.99+11.99)/5

Average Waiting Time=14.592

2. What is a race condition? Explain how a critical section avoids this condition. What
are the properties which a data item should possess to implement a critical section?
Describe a solution to the Dining philosopher problem so that to races arise.
(NOV/DEC 2019, APRIL/MAY 2017)

Race Conditions
A race condition is an undesirable situation that occurs when a device or system attempts to
perform two or more operations at the same time, but because of the nature of the device or system,
the operations must be done in the proper sequence to be done correctly.

Avoiding Race Conditions:

Critical Section:
To avoid race condition we need Mutual Exclusion. Mutual Exclusion is some way
of making sure that if one process is using a shared variable or file, the other processes will be
excluded from doing the same things. The difficulty above in the printer spooler occurs because
process B started using one of the shared variables before process A was finished with it. That part
of the program where the shared memory is accessed is called the critical region or critical section.
If we could arrange matters such that no two processes were ever in their critical regions at the same
time, we could avoid race conditions. Although this requirement avoids race conditions, this is not
sufficient for having parallel processes cooperate correctly and efficiently using shared data. (Rules
for avoiding Race Condition) Solution to Critical section problem: 1. No two processes may be
simultaneously inside their critical regions. (Mutual Exclusion) 2. No assumptions may be made
about speeds or the number of CPUs. 3. No process running outside its critical region may block
other processes. 4. No process should have to wait forever to enter its critical region.

Dining Philosophers Problem:

The dining philosopher problem is another classic synchronization problem which is used to
evaluate situations where there is a need of allocating multiple resources to multiple processes.
Problem Statement:
Consider there are five philosophers sitting around a circular dining table. The dining table
has five chopsticks and a bowl of rice in the middle as shown in the below figure.

Dining Philosophers Problem

At any instant, a philosopher is either eating or thinking. When a philosopher wants to eat,
he uses two chopsticks - one from their left and one from their right. When a philosopher wants to
think, he keeps down both chopsticks at their original place.

Solution:
From the problem statement, it is clear that a philosopher can think for an indefinite amount
of time. But when a philosopher starts eating, he has to stop at some point of time. The philosopher
is in an endless cycle of thinking and eating.
An array of five semaphores, stick[5], for each of the five chopsticks.
The code for each philosopher looks like:
while(TRUE) {
wait(stick[i]);
wait(stick[(i+1) % 5]); // mod is used because if i=5, next
// chopstick is 1 (dining table is circular)
/* eat */
signal(stick[i]);
signal(stick[(i+1) % 5]);
/* think */
}
When a philosopher wants to eat the rice, he will wait for the chopstick at his left and picks
up that chopstick. Then he waits for the right chopstick to be available, and then picks it too. After
eating, he puts both the chopsticks down.
But if all five philosophers are hungry simultaneously, and each of them pickup one chopstick, then
a deadlock situation occurs because they will be waiting for another chopstick forever. The possible
solutions for this are:

 A philosopher must be allowed to pick up the chopsticks only if both the left and right
chopsticks are available.

Allow only four philosophers to sit at the table. That way, if all the four philosophers pick up four
chopsticks, there will be one chopstick left on the table. So, one philosopher can start eating and
eventually, two chopsticks will be available. In this way, deadlocks can be avoided.

Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0.0 8
P2 0.4 4
P3 1.0 1
ii) With example elucidate livelock. (4)

a) FCFS
 Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3
0 8 12 13

Process A.T B.T C.T T.A.T

P1 0.0 8 8 8
P2 0.4 4 12 11.6
P3 1.0 1 13 12
Where,

T.A.T=C.T-A.T

C.T -Completion time

T.A.T-Turn around Time

A.T-Arrival Time

B.T-Burst Time
Average Turnaround Time=(8+11.6+12) / 3=31.6 / 3

=10.53

b) SJF non-preemptive

 Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3
0 8 12 13

Process A.T B.T C.T T.A.T

P1 0.0 8 8 8
P2 0.4 4 12 11.6
P3 1.0 1 13 12
Where,

T.A.T=C.T-A.T

C.T -Completion time

T.A.T-Turnaround Time

A.T-Arrival Time

B.T-Burst Time
Average Turnaround Time=(8+11.6+12) / 3=31.6 / 3=10.53

a) Preemptive SJF

Gantt Chart

P1 P2 P3 P1 P2
0 0.4 1 2 9.6 12.6

Process A.T B.T C.T T.A.T

P1 0.0 8 9.6 9.6
P2 0.4 4 12.6 12.2
P3 1.0 1 2 1
Where,

T.A.T=C.T-A.T

C.T -Completion time

T.A.T-Turnaround Time

A.T-Arrival Time
B.T-Burst Time
Average Turnaround Time=(9.6+12.2+1) / 3=22.8 / 3

Average Turnaround Time=7.6

3. Explain the FCFS, preemptive and non-preemptive versions of Shortest-Job First and
Round Robin (time slice = 2) scheduling algorithms with Gantt charts for the four Processes
given. Compare their average turnaround and waiting time. (NOV/DEC 2012)

Process Arrival Time Waiting Time

P1 0 8
P2 1 4
P3 2 9
P4 3 5

Refer Notes(unit-2)

4. Write in detail about several CPU scheduling algorithms. (APRIL/MAY 2018,

MAY/JUNE 2014, APRIL/MAY2011)
 CPU scheduling is the basis of multi programmed operating systems.
 The objective of multiprogramming is to have some process running at all
times, in order to maximize CPU utilization.
 Scheduling is a fundamental operating-system function.

Scheduling Algorithms:

The following subsections will explain several common scheduling strategies, looking at only a
single CPU burst each for a small number of processes. Obviously real systems have to deal with a
lot more simultaneous processes executing their CPU-I/O burst cycles.

First-Come First-Serve Scheduling, FCFS:

 FCFS is very simple - Just a FIFO queue, like customers waiting in line at the bank or the
post office or at a copying machine.
 Unfortunately, however, FCFS can yield some very long average wait times, particularly if
the first process to get there takes a long time. For example, consider the following three
processes:

Process Burst Time

P1 24

P2 3

P3 3

 In the first Gantt chart below, process P1 arrives first. The average waiting time for the three
processes is ( 0 + 24 + 27 ) / 3 = 17.0 ms.
  In the second Gantt chart below, the same three processes have an average wait time of ( 0 +
3 + 6 ) / 3 = 3.0 ms. The total run time for the three bursts is the same, but in the second case
two of the three finish much quicker, and the other process is only delayed by a short
amount.

 FCFS can also block the system in a busy dynamic system in another way, known as
the convoy effect. When one CPU intensive process blocks the CPU, a number of I/O
intensive processes can get backed up behind it, leaving the I/O devices idle. When the CPU
hog finally relinquishes the CPU, then the I/O processes pass through the CPU quickly,
leaving the CPU idle while everyone queues up for I/O, and then the cycle repeats itself
when the CPU intensive process gets back to the ready queue.

Shortest-Job-First Scheduling, SJF:

 The idea behind the SJF algorithm is to pick the quickest fastest little job that needs to be
done, get it out of the way first, and then pick the next smallest fastest job to do next.
 ( Technically this algorithm picks a process based on the next shortest CPU burst, not the
overall process time. )
 For example, the Gantt chart below is based upon the following CPU burst times, ( and the
assumption that all jobs arrive at the same time. )

Process Burst Time

P1 6

P2 8

P3 7

P4 3

 In the case above the average wait time is ( 0 + 3 + 9 + 16 ) / 4 = 7.0 ms, ( as opposed to
10.25 ms for FCFS for the same processes. )
 SJF can be proven to be the fastest scheduling algorithm, but it suffers from one important
problem: How do you know how long the next CPU burst is going to be?
o For long-term batch jobs this can be done based upon the limits that users set for
their jobs when they submit them, which encourages them to set low limits, but risks
their having to re-submit the job if they set the limit too low. However that does not
work for short-term CPU scheduling on an interactive system.
o Another option would be to statistically measure the run time characteristics of jobs,
particularly if the same tasks are run repeatedly and predictably. But once again that
really isn't a viable option for short term CPU scheduling in the real world.
o A more practical approach is to predict the length of the next burst, based on some
historical measurement of recent burst times for this process. One simple, fast, and
relatively accurate method is the exponential average, which can be defined as
follows. ( The book uses tau and t for their variables, but those are hard to distinguish
from one another and don't work well in HTML. )

estimate[ i + 1 ] = alpha * burst[ i ] + ( 1.0 - alpha ) * estimate[ i ]

o In this scheme the previous estimate contains the history of all previous times, and
alpha serves as a weighting factor for the relative importance of recent data versus
past history. If alpha is 1.0, then past history is ignored, and we assume the next burst
will be the same length as the last burst. If alpha is 0.0, then all measured burst times
are ignored, and we just assume a constant burst time. Most commonly alpha is set at
0.5, as illustrated in Figure a.
 Figure a

 SJF can be either preemptive or non-preemptive. Preemption occurs when a new process
arrives in the ready queue that has a predicted burst time shorter than the time remaining in
the process whose burst is currently on the CPU. Preemptive SJF is sometimes referred to
as shortest remaining time first scheduling.
 For example, the following Gantt chart is based upon the following data:

Process Arrival Time Burst Time

P1 0 8

P2 1 4

P3 2 9

p4 3 5
  The average wait time in this case is ( ( 5 - 3 ) + ( 10 - 1 ) + ( 17 - 2 ) ) / 4 = 26 / 4 = 6.5 ms. (
As opposed to 7.75 ms for non-preemptive SJF or 8.75 for FCFS. )

Priority Scheduling:

 Priority scheduling is a more general case of SJF, in which each job is assigned a priority
and the job with the highest priority gets scheduled first. ( SJF uses the inverse of the next
expected burst time as its priority - The smaller the expected burst, the higher the priority. )
 Note that in practice, priorities are implemented using integers within a fixed range, but
there is no agreed-upon convention as to whether "high" priorities use large numbers or
small numbers. This book uses low number for high priorities, with 0 being the highest
possible priority.
 For example, the following Gantt chart is based upon these process burst times and
priorities, and yields an average waiting time of 8.2 ms:

Process Burst Time Priority

P1 10 3

P2 1 1

P3 2 4

P4 1 5

P5 5 2

 Priorities can be assigned either internally or externally. Internal priorities are assigned by
the OS using criteria such as average burst time, ratio of CPU to I/O activity, system
resource use, and other factors available to the kernel. External priorities are assigned by
users, based on the importance of the job, fees paid, politics, etc.
 Priority scheduling can be either preemptive or non-preemptive.
 Priority scheduling can suffer from a major problem known as indefinite blocking,
or starvation, in which a low-priority task can wait forever because there are always some
other jobs around that have higher priority.
 o If this problem is allowed to occur, then processes will either run eventually when
the system load lightens ( at say 2:00 a.m. ), or will eventually get lost when the
system is shut down or crashes. ( There are rumors of jobs that have been stuck for
years. )
o One common solution to this problem is aging, in which priorities of jobs increase
the longer they wait. Under this scheme a low-priority job will eventually get its
priority raised high enough that it gets run.

Round Robin Scheduling

 Round robin scheduling is similar to FCFS scheduling, except that CPU bursts are assigned
with limits called time quantum.
 When a process is given the CPU, a timer is set for whatever value has been set for a time
quantum.
o If the process finishes its burst before the time quantum timer expires, then it is
swapped out of the CPU just like the normal FCFS algorithm.
o If the timer goes off first, then the process is swapped out of the CPU and moved to
the back end of the ready queue.
 The ready queue is maintained as a circular queue, so when all processes have had a turn,
then the scheduler gives the first process another turn, and so on.
 RR scheduling can give the effect of all processors sharing the CPU equally, although the
average wait time can be longer than with other scheduling algorithms. In the following
example the average wait time is 5.66 ms.

Process Burst Time

P1 24

P2 3

P3 3

 The performance of RR is sensitive to the time quantum selected. If the quantum is large
enough, then RR reduces to the FCFS algorithm; If it is very small, then each process gets
1/nth of the processor time and share the CPU equally.
 BUT, a real system invokes overhead for every context switch, and the smaller the time
quantum the more context switches there are. Most modern systems use time quantum
between 10 and 100 milliseconds, and context switch times on the order of 10 microseconds,
so the overhead is small relative to the time quantum.
  Turnaround time also varies with quantum time, in a non-apparent manner.

 In general, turnaround time is minimized if most processes finish their next cpu burst within
one time quantum. For example, with three processes of 10 ms bursts each, the average
turnaround time for 1 ms quantum is 29, and for 10 ms quantum it reduces to 20. However,
if it is made too large, then RR just degenerates to FCFS. A rule of thumb is that 80% of
CPU bursts should be smaller than the time quantum.

Multilevel Queue Scheduling

 When processes can be readily categorized, then multiple separate queues can be
established, each implementing whatever scheduling algorithm is most appropriate for that
type of job, and/or with different parametric adjustments.
 Scheduling must also be done between queues, that is scheduling one queue to get time
relative to other queues. Two common options are strict priority ( no job in a lower priority
queue runs until all higher priority queues are empty ) and round-robin ( each queue gets a
time slice in turn, possibly of different sizes. )
 Note that under this algorithm jobs cannot switch from queue to queue - Once they are
assigned a queue, that is their queue until they finish.
Multilevel Feedback-Queue Scheduling

 Multilevel feedback queue scheduling is similar to the ordinary multilevel queue scheduling
described above, except jobs may be moved from one queue to another for a variety of
reasons:
o If the characteristics of a job change between CPU-intensive and I/O intensive, then
it may be appropriate to switch a job from one queue to another.
o Aging can also be incorporated, so that a job that has waited for a long time can get
bumped up into a higher priority queue for a while.
 Multilevel feedback queue scheduling is the most flexible, because it can be tuned for any
situation. But it is also the most complex to implement because of all the adjustable
parameters. Some of the parameters which define one of these systems include:
o The number of queues.
o The scheduling algorithm for each queue.
o The methods used to upgrade or demote processes from one queue to another. (
Which may be different. )
o The method used to determine which queue a process enters initially.
 5. What is critical section? Specify the requirements for a solution to critical section
problem. (MAY/JUNE 2019, NOV/DEC 2012)
The Critical-Section Problem:

 There are n processes that are competing to use some shared data
 Each process has a code segment, called critical section, in which the shared data is
accessed.
 Problem – ensure that when one process is executing in its critical section, no other process
is allowed to execute in its critical section.
Requirements to be satisfied for a Solution to the Critical-Section Problem

1. Mutual Exclusion - If process Pi is executing in its critical section, then no other processes can be
executing in their critical sections.
2. Progress - If no process is executing in its critical section and there exist some processes that wish to enter
their critical section, then the selection of the processes that will enter the critical section next cannot be
postponed indefinitely.
3. Bounded Waiting - A bound must exist on the number of times that other processes are allowed to
enter their critical sections after a process has made a request to enter its critical section and before
that request is granted.

do {

entry section critical

section

exit section

remainder section

} while (true);

 Two general approaches are used to handle critical sections in operating systems:
preemptive kernels and nonpreemptive kernels.
 A preemptive kernel allows a process to be preempted while it is running in kernel mode.
 A non-preemptive kernel does not allow a process running in kernel mode to be
preempted; a kernel-mode process will run until it exits kernel mode, blocks, or
voluntarily yields control of the CPU.

6. How monitors help in process synchronization. (NOV/DEC 2009)

 A high-level abstraction that provides a convenient and effective mechanism
for process synchronization
 Only one process may be active within the monitor at a time monitor monitor-name
{

// shared variable declarations

procedure body P1 (…) { …. }

procedure body Pn (…) {……}

{
 initialization code

 To allow a process to wait within the monitor, a condition variable must be declared as o
condition x, y;

 Two operations on a condition variable:

 x.wait () –a process that invokes the operation is suspended.

 x.signal () –resumes one of the suspended processes(if any)

8. Consider the following system snapshot using data structures in the banker’s
algorithm, with resources A, B, C and D and process P0 to P4.
Max Allocation Need Available

A B C D A B C D A B C D A B C D

P0 6 0 1 2 4 0 0 1 3211

P1 1 7 5 0 1 1 0 0

P2 2 3 5 6 1 2 5 4

P3 1 6 5 3 0 6 3 3

P4 1 6 5 6 0 2 1 2

Using banker’s algorithm, Answer the following questions:

a) How many resources of type A, B, C and D are there? (2)

b) What are the contents of the need matrix? (3)
c) Is the system in a safe state? Why? (3)
 d) If a requests from process P4 arrives for additional resources of (1,2,0,0), can
the banker’s algorithm grant the request immediately? Show the new system
state and other criteria. (7)

Solution:

a) How many resources of type A, B, C and D are there?

A-9; B-13;C-10;D-11
b) What are the contents of the need matrix?

Need [i, j] = Max [i, j] – Allocation [i, j]

So, the content of Need Matrix is:
Process Need
A B C D
P0 2 0 1 1
P1 0 6 5 0
P2 1 1 0 2
P3 1 0 2 0
P4 1 4 4 4

c) Is the system in a safe state? Why?

The system is in a safe state as the processes can be finished in the sequence
P0, P2, P4, P1 and P3.
d) If a requests from process P4 arrives for additional resources of (1,2,0,0), can
the banker’s algorithm grant the request immediately? Show the new system
state and other criteria.

If a request from process P4 arrives for additional resources of (1,2,0,0,), and if this request is
granted, the new system state would be tabulated as follows.

9. Write in detail about deadlock avoidance and Bankers algorithm in detail. .

(NOV/DEC 2009) (APRIL/MAY2010, NOV/DEC 2012) (NOV/DEC 2013)
Deadlock Avoidance
 Requires that the system has some additional a priori information available.

• Simplest and most useful model requires that each process declare the maximum
number of resources of each type that it may need.
• The deadlock-avoidance algorithm dynamically examines the resource-allocation
state to ensure that there can never be a circular-wait condition.
• Resource-allocation state is defined by the number of available and allocated
resources, and the maximum demands of the processes.
Safe State
• When a process requests an available resource, system must decide if immediate allocation
leaves the system in a safe state.
• System is in safe state if there exists a sequence <P1, P2, …, Pn> of ALL the
processes is the systems such that for each Pi, the resources that Pi can still request can be
satisfied by currently available resources + resources held by all the Pj, with j < i.
• That is:

– If Pi resource needs are not immediately available, then Pi can wait until all Pj have
finished.
– When Pj is finished, Pi can obtain needed resources, execute, return allocated
resources, and terminate.

– When Pi terminates, Pi +1 can obtain its needed resources, and so on.

Avoidance algorithms
• Single instance of a resource type. Use a resource-allocation graph

• Multiple instances of a resource type. Use the banker’s algorithm

Resource-Allocation Graph Scheme
 • Claim edge Pi o Rj indicated that process Pj may request resource Rj; represented by a dashed line.
• Claim edge converts to request edge when a process requests a resource.
• Request edge converted to an assignment edge when the resource is allocated to the process.
• When a resource is released by a process, assignment edge reconverts to a claim edge.
• Resources must be claimed a priori in the system.

Banker’s Algorithm
• Multiple instances.
• Each process must a priori claim maximum use.
• When a process requests a resource it may have to wait.
• When a process gets all its resources it must return them in a finite amount of time.
• Let n = number of processes, and m = number of resources types.
• Available: Vector of length m. If available [j] = k, there are k instances of resource
type Rj available.
• Max: n x m matrix. If Max [i,j] = k, then process Pi may request at most k instances of
resource type Rj.
• Allocation: n x m matrix. If Allocation[i,j] = k then Pi is currently allocated k instances of
Rj.
• Need: n x m matrix. If Need[i,j] = k, then Pi may need k more instances of Rj to complete its
task.

Nee Example of Banker’s Algorithm

• 5 processes P0 through P4;
3 resource types:
A (10 instances), B (5instances), and C (7 instances).
• Snapshot at time T0:
Allocation Max Available

ABC ABC ABC

P0 010 753 332

P1 200 322

P2 302 902
 P3 211 222

P4 002 433
• The content of the matrix Need is defined to be Max – Allocation.
Need

ABC

P0 743

P1 122

P2 600

P3 011

P4 431

• The system is in a safe state since the sequence < P1, P3, P4, P2, P0> satisfies safety criteria.
d [i,j] = Max[i,j] – Allocation [i,j].

10. Write in detail about deadlock recovery. (APRIL/MAY2011)

Deadlock recovery performs when a deadlock is detected.

When deadlock detected, then our system stops working, and after the recovery of the deadlock, our
system start working again.

Therefore, after the detection of deadlock, a method/way must require to recover that deadlock to
run the system again. The method/way is called as deadlock recovery.

Here are various ways of deadlock recovery that we will discuss briefly in this tutorial.

 Deadlock recovery through preemption

 Deadlock recovery through rollback
 Deadlock recovery through killing processes

Let's discuss about all the above three ways of deadlock recovery one by one.

Deadlock Recovery through Preemption

The ability to take a resource away from a process, have another process use it, and then give it back
without the process noticing. It is highly dependent on the nature of the resource.

Deadlock recovery through preemption is too difficult or sometime impossible.

Deadlock Recovery through RollBack

In this case of deadlock recovery through rollback, whenever a deadlock is detected, it is easy to see
which resources are needed.

To do the recovery of deadlock, a process that owns a needed resource is rolled back to a point in
time before it acquired some other resource just by starting one of its earlier checkpoints.
Deadlock Recovery through Killing Processes

This method of deadlock recovery through killing processes is the simplest way of deadlock
recovery.

Sometime it is best to kill a process that can be return from the beginning with no ill effects.

11. Consider the following set of processes, with the length of the CPU – burst time given
in Milliseconds:
Process Burst Time Priority
P1 10 3
P2 1 1
P3 2 3
P4 1 4
P5 5 2

The processes are arrived in the order P1, P2, P3, P4, P5, all at time 0.
• Draw 4 Gantt charts illustrating the execution of these processes
using FCFS, SJF Priority and RR (Time Slice = 1) scheduling
• What is the turnaround time of each process for each of the scheduling?
• Calculate the waiting time for each of the process (APRIL/MAY 2018,
MAY/JUNE 2012, NOV/DEC 2015)

Refer Notes (Unit-2)

13. Discuss in detail the critical section problem and also write the algorithm for Readers-
Writers Problem with semaphores (NOV/DEC 2013)

The Critical-Section Problem:

 There are n processes that are competing to use some shared data
 Each process has a code segment, called critical section, in which the shared data is
accessed.
 Problem – ensure that when one process is executing in its critical section, no other process
is allowed to execute in its critical section.

READERS-WRITERS PROBLEM:

The readers-writers problem relates to an object such as a file that is shared between multiple
processes. Some of these processes are readers i.e. they only want to read the data from the object
and some of the processes are writers i.e. they want to write into the object.
The readers-writers problem is used to manage synchronization so that there are no problems with
the object data. For example - If two readers access the object at the same time there is no problem.
However if two writers or a reader and writer access the object at the same time, there may be
problems.
To solve this situation, a writer should get exclusive access to an object i.e. when a writer is
accessing the object, no reader or writer may access it. However, multiple readers can access the
object at the same time.
This can be implemented using semaphores. The codes for the reader and writer process in the
reader-writer problem are given as follows:
Reader Process
The code that defines the reader process is given below:

wait (mutex);

rc ++;

if (rc == 1)

wait (wrt);

signal(mutex);

. READ THE OBJECT

wait(mutex);

rc --;

if (rc == 0)

signal (wrt);

signal(mutex);

In the above code, mutex and wrt are semaphores that are initialized to 1. Also, rc is a variable that
is initialized to 0. The mutex semaphore ensures mutual exclusion and wrt handles the writing
mechanism and is common to the reader and writer process code.
The variable rc denotes the number of readers accessing the object. As soon as rc becomes 1, wait
operation is used on wrt. This means that a writer cannot access the object anymore. After the read
operation is done, rc is decremented. When re becomes 0, signal operation is used on wrt. So a
writer can access the object now.
Writer Process
The code that defines the writer process is given below:

wait(wrt);

. WRITE INTO THE OBJECT

signal(wrt);
If a writer wants to access the object, wait operation is performed on wrt. After that no other writer
can access the object. When a writer is done writing into the object, signal operation is performed
on wrt.

14. Discuss how deadlocks could be detected in detail. (APR/MAY 2015)

Deadlock Detection
• Allow system to enter deadlock state
• Detection algorithm
• Recovery scheme
Single Instance of Each Resource Type
• Maintain wait-for graph
Nodes are processes.
– Pi o Pj if Pi is waiting for Pj.
• Periodically invoke an algorithm that searches for a cycle in the graph. If there is a cycle,
there exists a deadlock.
• An algorithm to detect a cycle in a graph requires an order of n2 operations, where n is
the number of vertices in the graph.

Several Instances of a Resource Type

• Available: A vector of length m indicates the number of available resources of each type.
• Allocation: An n x m matrix defines the number of resources of each type currently
allocated to each process.
• Request: An n x m matrix indicates the current request of each process. If Request [ij] =
k, then process Pi is requesting k more instances of resource type. Rj.

15. Show how wait() and signal() semaphore operations could be implemented in
multiprocessor environments using the test and set instruction. The solution should
exhibit minimal busy waiting. Develop pseudo code for implementing the operations.
(APR/MAY 2015)

Semophores

 It is a synchronization tool that is used to generalize the solution to the critical

section problem in complex situations.
  A Semaphore s is an integer variable that can only be accessed via two indivisible
(atomic) operations namely
wait (s)
{
1. wait or P operation ( to test )
2. signal or V operation ( to increment )
while(s 0);
s--;

}
signal (s)
{
s++;
}

Mutual Exclusion Implementation using semaphore

do
{
wait(mutex);
critical
section

remainder
section } while
(1);

signal(mutex);

Semaphore Implementation
 The semaphore discussed so far requires a busy waiting. That is if a process is in critical-
section, the other process that tries to enter its critical-section must loop continuously in
the entry code.
 To overcome the busy waiting problem, the definition of the semaphore operations wait
and signal should be modified.

o x When a process executes the wait operation and finds that the semaphore value
is not positive, the process can block itself. The block operation places the process
into a waiting queue associated with the semaphore.
o A process that is blocked waiting on a semaphore should be restarted when some
other process executes a signal operation. The blocked process should be
restarted by a wakeup operation which put that process into ready queue.
 x To implemented the semaphore, we define a semaphore as a record as:
typedef struct {
int value;
 struct process *L;
} semaphore;

Deadlock & starvation:

Example: Consider a system of two processes , P0 & P1 each accessing two semaphores ,S
& Q, set to the value 1.

P0 P1

Wait (S) Wait (Q)

Wait (Q) Wait (S)
Signal(S) Signal (Q)
Signal (Q) Signal(S)


Suppose that P0 executes wait(S), then P1 executes wait(Q). When P0 executes
wait (Q), it must wait until P1 executes signal(Q).Similarly when P1 executes
wait(S), it must wait until P0 executes signal(S). Since these signal operations
cannot be executed, P0 & P1 are deadlocked.
 Another problem related to deadlock is indefinite blocking or starvation, a
situation where a process wait indefinitely within the semaphore. Indefinite
blocking may occur if we add or remove processes from the list associated with
a semaphore in LIFO order.
Types of Semaphores

 Counting semaphore – any positive integer value

 Binary semaphore – integer value can range only between 0 and 1

16.Discuss about the issues to be considered in the multithreaded program. (APR/MAY

2015): (MAY/JUNE 2014)(APRIL/MAY2011, MAY/JUNE 2012)
Some of the issues with multithreaded programs are as follows
1. Increased Complexity: Multithreaded processes are quite complicated. Coding for these can only be
handled by expert programmers.
2. Complications due to Concurrency: It is difficult to handle concurrency in multithreaded processes.
This may lead to complications and future problems.
3. Difficult to Identify Errors: Identification and correction of errors is much more difficult in
multithreaded processes as compared to single threaded processes.
4. Testing Complications: Testing is a complicated process i multithreaded programs as compared to single
threaded programs. This is because defects can be timing related and not easy to identify.
5. Unpredictable results: Multithreaded programs can sometimes lead to unpredictable results as they are
essentially multiple parts of a program that are running at the same time.
6. Complications for Porting Existing Code: A lot of testing is required for porting existing code in
multithreading. Static variables need to be removed and any code or function calls that are not thread safe
need to be replaced.

17.(i) Describe the actions taken by a kernel to context-switch between processes.

(ii) Provide two programming examples in which multithreading does not provide better
performance than a single- threaded solution. (MAY/JUNE 2016)
Context Switch
x When CPU switches to another process, the system must save the state of the old
process and load the saved state for the new process
x Context-switch time is overhead; the system does no useful work while switching
x Time dependent on hardware support

Multithreading Models
Multithreading allows the execution of multiple parts of a program at the same time. These parts are
known as threads and are lightweight processes available within the process. Therefore,
multithreading leads to maximum utilization of the CPU by multitasking.
The main models for multithreading are one to one model, many to one model and many to many
model. Details about these are given as follows:
One to One Model
The one to one model maps each of the user threads to a kernel thread. This means that many
threads can run in parallel on multiprocessors and other threads can run when one thread makes a
blocking system call.
A disadvantage of the one to one model is that the creation of a user thread requires a corresponding
kernel thread. Since a lot of kernel threads burden the system, there is restriction on the number of
threads in the system.
A diagram that demonstrates the one to one model is given as follows:

Many to One Model

The many to one model maps many of the user threads to a single kernel thread. This model is quite
efficient as the user space manages the thread management.
A disadvantage of the many to one model is that a thread blocking system call blocks the entire
process. Also, multiple threads cannot run in parallel as only one thread can access the kernel at a
time.
A diagram that demonstrates the many to one model is given as follows:
Many to Many Model
The many to many model maps many of the user threads to a equal number or lesser kernel threads.
The number of kernel threads depends on the application or machine.
The many to many does not have the disadvantages of the one to one model or the many to one
model. There can be as many user threads as required and their corresponding kernel threads can run
in parallel on a multiprocessor.
A diagram that demonstrates the many to many model is given as follows:
 UNIT III - STORAGE MANAGEMENT
PART – A

1. Why page are sizes always powers of 2? (Nov/Dec2016)

Recall that paging is implemented by breaking up an address into a page and offset
number. It is most efficient to break the address into X page bits and Y offset bits,
rather than perform arithmetic on the address to calculate the page number and offset.
Because each bit 25 26 position represents a power of 2, splitting an address between
bits results in a page size that is a power of 2.
2. Consider a logical address space of eight pages of 1024 words each, mapped onto a
physical memory of 32 frames.
a. How many bits are there in the logical address?
b. How many bits are there in the physical address? (Apri/May 2012,13)
Each page/frame holds 1K; we will need 10 bits to uniquely address each of those 1024
addresses. Physical memory has 32 frames and we need 25 bits to address each frame,
requiring in total 5+10=15 bits. A logical address space of 64 pages requires 6 bits to
address each page uniquely, requiring 16bits in total.
a. Logical address: 13 bits
b. Physical address: 15 bits
3. In the IBM/370, memory protection is provided through the use of keys. A key is a 4-bit
quantity. Each 2K block of memory has a key (the storage key) associated with it. The
CPU also has a key (the protection key) associated with it. A store operation is allowed
only if both keys are equal, or if either is zero. Which of the following memory-
management schemes could be used successfully with this hardware?
 Bare machine
 Single-user system
 Multiprogramming with a fixed number of processes
 Multiprogramming with a variable number of processes
 Paging
 Segmentation
Answer:
a. Protection not necessary set system key to 0.
b. Set system key to 0 when in supervisor mode.
c. Region sizes must be fixed in increments of 2k bytes, allocate key with memoryblocks.
d. Same as above.
e. Frame sizes must be in increments of 2k bytes, allocate key with pages.
f. Segment sizes must be in increments of 2k bytes, allocate key with segments
4. Difference between internal and external fragmentation (April/May2018, NOV/DEC 2017)

Internal fragmentation is the area occupied by a process but cannot be used by the
process. This space is unusable by the system until the process release the space.
External fragmentation exists when total free memory is enough for the new
process but it's not contiguous and can't satisfy the request. Storage is fragmented
into small holes.

5. Consider the following page reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6.

How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, assuming one,
two, three, four, five, six, or seven frames? Remember all frames are initially empty, so your
first unique pages will all cost one fault each. • LRU replacement • FIFO replacement •
 Optimal replacement (Nov/Dec2017)
Number of frames LRU FIFO Optimal

1 20 20 20
2 18 18 15
3 15 16 11
4 10 14 8
5 8 10 7
6 7 10 7
7 7 7 7

7. Define dynamic loading.(NOV/DEC 2017)

To obtain better memory-space utilization dynamic loading is used. With dynamic
loading, a routine is not loaded until it is called. All routines are kep to disk in are
locatable load format. The main program is loaded into memory and executed. If the
routine needs another routine, the calling routine checks whether the routine has been
loaded. If not, there locatable linking loader is called to load the desired program into
memory.
8. Define dynamic linking.
Dynamic linking is similar to dynamic loading, rather that loading being postponed
until execution time, linking is postponed. This feature is usually used with system
libraries, such as language subroutine libraries
9. What are overlays? Compare swapping and overlays
To enable a process to be larger than the amount of memory allocated to it, overlays are
used. The idea of overlays is to keep in memory only those instructions and data that
are needed at a given time. When other instructions are needed, they are loaded into
space occupied previously by instructions that are no longer needed.
10. List the strategies for managing free memory in kernel?
1. Buddy System
2. Slab Allocation
Buddy System: - The buddy system allocates memory from a fixed size segment
consists of physical contiguous pages. Memory is allocated using power-of-2. This
allocation satisfy request in units sized as a power of 2.
Slab Allocation:- A Slab is made up of one or more physically contiguous pages. A
cache consists of one or more slabs. The slab allocation uses caches to store kernel
Objects.
11. What is virtual memory? Mention its advantages. (Nov/Dec 2012)
Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes that may not be
completely in memory. It is the separation of user logical memory from physical
memory. This separation provides an extremely large virtual memory, when only a
smaller physical memory is available.
The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical
memory.
12. Define Demand paging and write advantages. (Nov/Dec2012)
Virtual memory is commonly implemented by demand paging. In demand paging, the
pager brings only those necessary pages into memory instead of swapping in a whole
process. Thus it avoids reading into memory pages that will not be used anyway,
decreasing the swap time and the amount of physical memory needed.
13. What is the purpose of paging the page tables? (Nov/Dec2016)
In certain situations the page tables could become large enough that by paging the page
tables, one could simplify the memory allocation problem (by ensuring that everything
is allocated as fixed-size pages as opposed to variable-sized chunks) and also enable the
swapping of portions of page table that are not currently used.
14. Compare paging with segmentation with respect to the amount of memory required by the
address translation

structures in order to convert virtual addresses to physical addresses.

 Paging requires more memory overhead to maintain the translation structures.
Segmentation requires just two registers per segment: one to maintain the base of
the segment and the other to maintain the extent of the segment.
 Paging on the other hand requires one entry per page, and this entry provides the
physical address in which the page is located.

15. What do you mean by thrashing? (May/Jun 2015)

Thrashing is the coincidence of high page traffic and low CPU utilization.
16. How do you limit the effects of thrashing? (April/May 2019)
To limit the effect of thrashing we can use local replacement algorithm. With Local
replacement algorithm, if the process starts thrashing, it cannot steal frames from
another process and cause the latter to thrash as well. The problem is not entirely
solved. Thus the effective access time will increase even for the process that is not
thrashing.
17. What do mean by page fault? (NOV/DEC 2019, Nov/Dec2010)
Page fault is the situation in which the page is not available whenever a processor needs to
execute it.
19. Define TLB.(May/June 2011)
 Translation Look-Aside Buffer, a table in the processors memory that contains
information about the pages in memory the processor has accessed recently
 The TLB enables faster computing because it allows the address
processing to take place independent of the normal address-translation
pipeline
20. Define Pre paging.
It is an attempt to prevent the high level of initial paging. This strategy is to bring into
memory at one time all the pages the will be needed.
Example: - Solaris uses pre paging.

21. Define logical address and physical address. (April/May2016)

An address generated by the CPU is referred as logical address. An address seen by the
memory unit that is the one loaded into the memory address register of the memory is
commonly referred as physical address
22. What is the main function of the memory-management unit?
The runtime mapping from virtual to physical addresses is done by a hardware device called a
memory management unit (MMU)
23. What is difference between demand paging n pure demand paging?
In demand paging, a page is not loaded into main memory until it is needed.
In pure demand paging, even a single page is not loaded into memory initially. Hence
pure demand paging causes a page fault.
24. Define Copy-on-write.
Copy-on-write finds its main use in virtual memory operating systems; when a process
creates a copy of itself, the pages in memory that might be modified by either the
process or its copy are marked copy-on- write.
25. Define swapping (NOV/DEC 2017).
A process needs to be in memory to be executed. However a process can be swapped
temporarily out of memory to a backing store and then brought back into memory for
continued execution. This process is called swapping.
 26. What are the common strategies to select a free hole from a set of availableholes?
The most common strategies are
A. First fit B. Best fit C. Worst fit
27. Define lazy swapper.
Rather than swapping the entire process into main memory, a lazy swapper is used. A
lazy swapper never swaps a page into memory unless that page will be needed.
28. Define effective access time.
Let p be the probability of a page fault (0£p£1). The value of p is expected to be close
to 0; that is, there will be only a few page faults. The effective access time is
Effective access time = (1-p) * ma + p* page fault time. ma: memory-access time
29. What is the basic approach of page replacement?
If no frame is free is available, find one that is not currently being used and free it. A
frame can be freed by writing its contents to swap space, and changing the page table to
indicate that the page is no longer in memory.
Now the freed frame can be used to hold the page for which the process faulted.
30. What is the various page replacement algorithms used for page replacement?
FIFO page replacement
Optimal page replacement
LRU page replacement
LRU approximation page replacement
Counting based page replacement
Page buffering algorithm.

31. Differentiate between Global and Local page replacement algorithms. (NOV/DEC 2012)(May/June
2013, 15)

Global Page Replacement Algorithm Local Page Replacement Algorithm

Allows a process to select a replacement frame Each process select form only its own set of
from the set of all frames, even if that frame is allocated frames
currently allocated to some other process
The number of frames allocated to a process can The number of frames allocated to a
change since a process may happen to select only process does not change
frames allocated to other processes, thus
increasing the number of frames allocated to it
A process cannot control its own page-fault rate A process can control its own page-fault
rate

32. What are the major problems to implement demand paging?

The two major problems to implement demand paging is developing Frame
allocation algorithm Page replacement algorithm.

33. What is a reference string?

An algorithm is evaluated by running it on a particular string of memory references and
computing the number of page faults. The string of memory reference is called a
reference string.
34. Differentiate a page from a segment.
In segmentation, the address space is typically divided into a preset number of segments
like data segment (read/write), code segment (read-only), stack (read/write) etc. And
the programs are divided into these segments accordingly. Logical addresses are
 represented as tuple <segment, offset>. While with paging, the address space is divided
into a sequence of fixed size units called "pages". And logical addresses take the form
of a tuple <page, offset>.

35. What is address binding? (Nov/Dec2010)

The process of associating program instructions and data to physical memory addresses
is called address binding, or relocation.

36. How do you limit the effects of thrashing? (May/June 2011)

To limit the effect of thrashing we can use local replacement algorithm. With Local
replacement algorithm, if the process starts thrashing, it cannot steel frames from
another process and cause the latter to thrash as well.
The problem is not entirely solved. Thus the effective access time will increase even
for the process that is not thrashing.

37. Mention the significance of LDT and SDT.

The Global Descriptor Table or GDT is a data structure used by Intel x86-family
processors starting with the 80286 in order to define the characteristics of the various
memory areas used during program execution, including the base address, the size and
access privileges like executability and writability. These memory areas are called
segments.
The Local Descriptor Table (LDT) is a memory table used in the x86 architecture in
protected mode and containing memory segment descriptors: start in linear memory,
size, executability, writability, access privilege, actual presence in memory, etc.
 The LDT is supposed to contain memory segments which are private to a
specific program, while the GDT is supposed to contain global segments.
 The x86 processors contain facilities for automatically switching the current
LDT on specific machine events, but no facilities for automatically
switching the GDT.
 The LDT is the sibling of the Global Descriptor Table (GDT) and defines up
to 8192 memory segments accessible to programs –
 Unlike the GDT, the zeroth entry is a valid entry, and can be used like any other LDT
entry.
 Unlike the GDT, the LDT cannot be used to store certain system entries: TSSs or
LDTs.
38. Define demand paging in memory management. What are the steps required to handle a page
fault in demand paging. (Nov/Dec 2015)
A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping where
processes reside in secondary memory and pages are loaded only on demand, not in
advance. When a context switch occurs, the operating system does not copy any of the
old program’s pages out to the disk or any of the new program’s pages into the main
memory Instead, it just begins executing the new program after loading the first page
and fetches that program’s pages as they are referenced. While executing a program, if
the program references a page which is not available in the main memory because it
was swapped out a little ago, the processor treats this invalid memory reference as a
page fault and transfers control from the program to the operating system to demand
the page back into the memory.

39. How does the system detect thrashing? (May/June 2016)

Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the minimum number of pages required by a
process, forcing it to continuously page fault. The system can detect thrashing by
evaluating the level of CPU utilization as compared to the level of multiprogramming.
It can be eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.
 40. Name two differences between logical and physical addresses. (NOV/DEC 2019, May/June
2016)
A logical address does not refer to an actual existing address; rather, it refers to an abstract
address in an abstract address space. Contrast this with a physical address that refers to an actual
physical address in memory. A logical address is generated by the CPU and is translated into a
physical address by the memory management unit(MMU). Therefore, physical addresses are
generated by the MMU

PART-B

1. Describe the hierarchical paging technique for structuring page tables. (8)
(MAY/JUNE 2013)

Multilevel Paging is a paging scheme which consist of two or more levels of page tables in
a hierarchical manner. It is also known as hierarchical paging. The entries of the level 1 page
table are pointers to a level 2 page table and entries of the level 2 page tables are pointers to a
level 3 page table and so on. The entries of the last level page table are stores actual frame
information. Level 1 contain single page table and address of that table is stored in PTBR
(Page Table Base Register).
Virtual address:

In multilevel paging whatever may be levels of paging all the page tables will be stored in
main memory. So it requires more than one memory access to get the physical address of page
frame. One access for each level needed. Each page table entry except the last level page table entry
contains base address of the next level page table.

Reference to actual page frame:

 Reference to PTE in level 1 page table = PTBR value + Level 1 offset present in virtual
address.
 Reference to PTE in level 2 page table = Base address (present in Level 1 PTE) + Level 2
offset (present in VA).
 Reference to PTE in level 3 page table= Base address (present in Level 2 PTE) + Level 3
offset (present in VA).
 Actual page frame address = PTE (present in level 3).
 Generally the page table size will be equal to the size of page.
Assumptions:
Byte addressable memory, and n is the number of bits used to represent virtual address.
Important formula:

Number of entries in page table:

= (virtual address space size) / (page size)
= Number of pages

Virtual address space size:

= 2n B

Size of page table:

<>= (number of entries in page table)*(size of PTE)

If page table size > desired size then create 1 more level.

Disadvantage:
Extra memory references to access address translation tables can slow programs down by a
factor of two or more. Use translation look aside buffer (TLB) to speed up address
translation by storing page table entries.

2. What is the cause for thrashing? How does the system detect thrashing? Once it
detects, what can the system do to eliminate this problem? (NOV/DEC 2017,
MAY/JUNE 2009)

Cause for thrashing:

Thrashing is caused by under allocation of the minimum number of pages required by a

process, forcing it to continuously page fault. The system can detect thrashing by
evaluating the level of CPU utilization as compared to the level of multiprogramming.
It can be eliminated by reducing the level of multiprogramming.

How does the system detect thrashing?

 Thrashing occurs when too many processes are run on a processor at a given time. ...
This can be detected by monitoring the page fault frequency and CPU utilization. If
increasing the number of processes results in increasing page fault rate and decreasing CPU
utilization, then the system is thrashing.

3. Write in detail about Segmentation. (NOV/DEC 2009)

Segmentation:

Segmentation is a memory management technique in which each job is divided into several
segments of different sizes, one for each module that contains pieces that perform related functions. Each
segment is actually a different logical address space of the program.
When a process is to be executed, its corresponding segmentation are loaded into non-contiguous memory
though every segment is loaded into a contiguous block of available memory.
Segmentation memory management works very similar to paging but here segments are of variable-length
where as in paging pages are of fixed size.
A program segment contains the program's main function, utility functions, data structures, and so on. The
operating system maintains a segment map table for every process and a list of free memory blocks
along with segment numbers, their size and corresponding memory locations in main memory. For each
segment, the table stores the starting address of the segment and the length of the segment. A reference to
a memory location includes a value that identifies a segment and an offset.

4. Write in detail about Segmentation with Paging. (APRIL/MAY 2018,

APRIL/MAY2010)

Segmentation and Paging-

 Paging and Segmentation are the non-contiguous memory allocation techniques.
 Paging divides the process into equal size partitions called as pages.
 Segmentation divides the process into unequal size partitions called as segments.
Segmented Paging-
In segmented paging,
 Process is first divided into segments and then each segment is divided into pages.
 These pages are then stored in the frames of main memory.
 A page table exists for each segment that keeps track of the frames storing the pages of that
segment.
 Each page table occupies one frame in the main memory.
 Number of entries in the page table of a segment = Number of pages that segment is divided.
 A segment table exists that keeps track of the frames storing the page tables of segments.
 Number of entries in the segment table of a process = Number of segments that process is
divided.
 The base address of the segment table is stored in the segment table base register.
Translating Logical Address into Physical Address-
 CPU always generates a logical address.
 A physical address is needed to access the main memory.

Following steps are followed to translate logical address into physical address-
Step-01:
CPU generates a logical address consisting of three parts-
1. Segment Number
2. Page Number
3. Page Offset

 Segment Number specifies the specific segment from which CPU wants to reads the data.
 Page Number specifies the specific page of that segment from which CPU wants to read the data.
 Page Offset specifies the specific word on that page that CPU wants to read.
Step-02:

 For the generated segment number, corresponding entry is located in the segment table.
 Segment table provides the frame number of the frame storing the page table of the referred
segment.
 The frame containing the page table is located.
Step-03:
 For the generated page number, corresponding entry is located in the page table.
  Page table provides the frame number of the frame storing the required page of the referred
segment.
 The frame containing the required page is located.
Step-04:
 The frame number combined with the page offset forms the required physical address.
 For the generated page offset, corresponding word is located in the page and read.

The following diagram illustrates the above steps of translating logical address into physical
address-

Advantages-
The advantages of segmented paging are-
 Segment table contains only one entry corresponding to each segment.
 It reduces memory usage.
 The size of Page Table is limited by the segment size.
 It solves the problem of external fragmentation.
Disadvantages-
The disadvantages of segmented paging are-
 Segmented paging suffers from internal fragmentation.
 The complexity level is much higher as compared to paging.

5. Explain the segmentation with paging implemented in OS/2 32-bit IBM system. Describe the
following algorithms: (APRIL/MAY2010)(April/May2019)
a. First fit
b. Best Fit
c. Worst Fit

Segmentation with Paging(32 and 64 bit architecture) :

 The IBM OS/2,32 bit version is an operating system running on top of the Intel 386
architecture. The 386 uses segmentation with paging for memory management. The
maximum number of segments per process is 16 KB, and each segment can be as large as 4
gigabytes.
 The local-address space of a process is divided into two partitions. o The first partition
consists of up to 8 KB segments that are private to that process. o The second partition
consists of up to 8KB segments that are shared among all the processes.
 Information about the first partition is kept in the local descriptor table (LDT), information
about the second partition is kept in the global descriptor table (GDT).
 Each entry in the LDT and GDT consist of 8 bytes, with detailed information about a
particular segment including the base location and length of the segment. The logical address
is a pair (selector, offset) where the selector is a16-bit number:

s g p

13 1 2

Where s designates the segment number, g indicates whether the segment is in the GDT
or LDT, and p deals with protection.

 The base and limit information about the segment in question are used to generate a
linear-address.
 First, the limit is used to check for address validity. If the address is not valid, a
memory fault is generated, resulting in a trap to the operating system. If it is valid, then
the value of the offset is added to the value of the base, resulting in a 32-bit linear
address. This address is then translated into a physical address.
 The linear address is divided into a page number consisting of 20 bits, and a page offset
consisting of 12 bits. Since we page the page table, the page number is further divided
into a 10-bit page directory pointer and a 10-bit page table pointer. The logical address
is as follows.

P1 P2 D

10 10 12
  To improve the efficiency of physical memory use. Intel 386 page tables can be
swapped to disk. In this case, an invalid bit is used in the page directory entry to
indicate whether the table to which the entry is pointing is in memory or on disk.
 If the table is on disk, the operating system can use the other 31 bits to specify the
disk location of the table; the table then can be brought into memory on demand.

(a) First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough.

(b) Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless
ordered by size. Produces the smallest leftover hole.
(c) Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list. Produces the largest
leftover hole
First-fit and best-fit are better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization

Fragmentation
External Fragmentation – This takes place when enough total memory space exists to satisfy a
request, but it is not contiguous i.e, storage is fragmented into a large number of small holes
scattered throughout the main memory.
Internal Fragmentation – Allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory.

Example: hole = 184 bytes

Process size = 182 bytes.
We are left with a hole of 2 bytes.

6. Explain how paging supports virtual memory. With a neat diagram explain how logical
address is translated into physical address. (NOV/DEC 2012)

Virtual Memory:
  It is a technique that allows the execution of processes that may not be
completely in main memory.
 In practice, most real processes do not need all their pages, or at least not all at
once, for several reasons:
1. Error handling code is not needed unless that specific error occurs, some of
which are quite rare.
2. Arrays are often over-sized for worst-case scenarios, and only a small
fraction of the arrays are actually used in practice.
3. Certain features of certain programs are rarely used.

Advantages:
o Allows the program that can be larger than the physical memory.
o Separation of user logical memory from physical memory
o Allows processes to easily share files & address space.
o Allows for more efficient process creation.
Virtual memory can be implemented using
o Demand paging
o Demand segmentation

Virtual Memory That is Larger than Physical Memory

Demand Paging:
A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping. When we
want to execute a process, we swap it into memory. Rather than swapping the entire
process into memory, however, we use a lazy swapper called pager. Lazy Swapper -Never
swaps a page into memory unless that page will be needed.
When a process is to be swapped in, the pager guesses which pages will be used before
the process is swapped out again. Instead of swapping in a whole process, the pager brings
only those necessary pages into memory. Thus, it avoids reading into memory pages that
will not be used in anyway, decreasing the swap time and the amount of physical memory
needed.
 Transfer of a paged memory to contiguous disk space

Hardware support is required to distinguish between those pages that are in memory and
those pages that are on the disk using the valid-invalid bit scheme. Where valid and invalid
pages can be checked by checking the bit. Marking a page will have no effect if the
process never attempts to access the page. While the process executes and accesses pages
that are memory resident, execution proceeds normally.

Valid-Invalid bit
A valid – invalid bit is associated with each page table entry.
Valid bit represents the associated page is in memory.
In-Valid bit represents
(d) invalid page or
(e) valid page but is currently on the disk
Page table when some pages are not in main memory

Advantages

 Programs could be written for a much larger address space (virtual memory space)
than physically exists on the computer.
 Because each process is only using a fraction of their total address space, there is
more memory left for other programs, improving CPU utilization and system
 throughput.
 Less I/O is needed for swapping processes in and out of RAM, speeding things
up.

Handling Page Fault

If a page is needed that was not originally loaded up, then a page fault trap is generated,
which must be handled in a series of steps:
1. Determine whether the reference is a valid or invalid memory access
2. a)If the reference is invalid then terminate the process.
b)If the reference is valid then the page has not been yet brought into main memory.
3. Find a free frame.
4. Read the desired page into the newly allocated frame.
5. Reset the page table to indicate that the page is now in memory.
6. Restart the instruction that was interrupted.

Pure demand paging:

 Never bring a page into memory until it is required.
 We could start a process with no pages in memory.
 When the OS sets the instruction pointer to the 1st instruction of the process,
which is on the non-memory resident page, then the process immediately faults
for the page.
 After this page is bought into the memory, the process continue to execute,
faulting as necessary until every page that it needs is in memory.

Performance of demand paging

Let p be the probability of a page fault (0≤ p ≤ 1)
 Effective Access Time (EAT)

EAT = (1 – p) x ma + p x page fault time.

 Where ma memory access, p  Probability of page fault (0≤ p ≤ 1)

 The memory access time denoted ma is in the range 10 to 200 ns.

 If there are no page faults then EAT = ma.
To compute effective access time, we must know how much time is needed to service a page
fault.

A page fault causes the following sequence to occur:

1. Trap to the OS
2. Save the user registers and process state.
3. Determine that the interrupt was a page fault.
4. Check whether the reference was legal and find the location of page on disk.
5. Read the page from disk to free frame.
a. Wait in a queue until read request is serviced.
b. Wait for seek time and latency time.
c. Transfer the page from disk to free frame.
6. While waiting, allocate CPU to some other user.
7. Interrupt from disk.
8. Save registers and process state for other users.
9. Determine that the interrupt was from disk.
7. Reset the page table to indicate that the page is now in memory.
8. Wait for CPU to be allocated to this process again.
9. Restart the instruction that was interrupted.

7. Explain the principles of segmented and paging implemented in memory with a diagram.
(NOV/DEC2013)(MAY/JUNE2016)
Paging
(f)It is a memory management scheme that permits the physical address space of a
process to be noncontiguous.
(g) It avoids the considerable problem of fitting the varying size memory chunks on tothe
backing store.

Basic Method
 Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called “pages”.
 Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called “frames”
 Page size is a power of 2, between 512 bytes and 16MB.
Address Translation Scheme
 Address generated by CPU is divided into:
o Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which contains base
address of each page in physical memory
o Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical memory
address that is sent to the memory unit

o For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n

Paging Hardware
Every address generated by the CPU is divided into two parts: a page number (p) and a page
offset (d). The page number is used as an index into a page table. The page table contains the
base address of each page in physical memory. This base address is combined with the page
offset to define the physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit.

Paging model of logical and physical memory

Allocation

 When a process arrives into the system, its size (expressed in pages) is examined.
 Each page of process needs one frame. Thus if the process requires ‘n‘ pages, atleast ‘n‘
frames must be available in memory.
 If ‘n‘ frames are available, they are allocated to this arriving process.
 The 1st page of the process is loaded into one of the allocated frames & the frame
number is put into the page table.
 Repeat the above step for the next pages & so on.

Paging example for a 32-byte memory

with 4-byte pages
Page size = 4 bytes

Physical memory size = 32 bytes

i.e ( 4 X 8 = 32 so, 8 pages)

Logical address ‘0‘ maps to physical

address 20 i.e ( (5 X 4) +0)

Where Frame no = 5, Page

size = 4, Offset = 0

When we use a paging scheme, we have no external fragmentation: Any free frame can be
allocated to a process that needs it. However, we may have some internal fragmentation.

Calculating internal fragmentation

o Page size = 2,048 bytes
o Process size = 72,766 bytes
o 35 pages + 1,086 bytes
o Internal fragmentation of 2,048 - 1,086 = 962 bytes.

Before Allocation After Allocation

Frame table: It is used to determine which frames are allocated, which frames are available, how
many total frames are there, and so on.(ie) It contains all the information about the frames in the
physical memory.

Hardware implementation of Page Table

The hardware implementation of the page table can be done in several ways.
 The page table is implemented as a set of dedicated registers. These registers should be
built with very high-speed logic to make the paging-address translation efficient. If the
page table is very large (for example, 1 million entries). The use of fast registers to
implement the page table is not feasible.
  The page table is kept in main memory. Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the
page table. In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses.
One for the page table and one for the data / instruction
 The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup
hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs)
 Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely
identifies each process to provide address-space protection for that process

If the page number is not in the TLB (known as a TLB miss), a memory reference to the page
table must be made. When the frame number is obtained, we can use it to access memory. In
addition, add the page number and frame number to the TLB, so that they will be found quickly
on the next reference. If the TLB is already full of entries, the operating system must select one
for replacement.

Hit ratio: Percentage of times that a particular page is found in the TLB.
For example hit ratio is 80% means that the desired page number in the TLB is 80% of the
time.
Effective Access Time
 Assume hit ratio is 80%.
 If it takes 20ns to search TLB & 100ns to access memory, then the memory
access takes 120ns(TLB hit)
 If we fail to find page no. in TLB (20ns), then we must 1st access memory for
page table (100ns) & then access the desired byte in memory (100ns). Therefore
Total = 20 + 100 + 100
= 220 ns(TLB miss).
Memory Protection
Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame
 One bit can define a page to be read-write or read-only. Every reference to memory
 goes through the page table to find the correct frame number. An attempt to write to a
read-only page causes a hardware trap to the operating system
 Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table:
“valid (v)” indicates that the associated page is in the process logical address space,
and is thus a legal page
“invalid (i)” indicates that the page is not in the process logical address space
 page-table length register (PTLR), to indicate the size of the page table. This value
is checked against every logical address to verify that the address is in the valid range
for the process.

Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table

Structures of the Page Table

a) Hierarchical Paging
b) Hashed Page Tables
c) Inverted Page Tables
a) Hierarchical Paging
Break up the Page table into smaller pieces. Because if the page table is too large then it is
quite difficult to search the page number.

Example: “Two-Level Paging “

 A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size) is divided into:
 a page number consisting of 22 bits
 a page offset consisting of 10 bits
  Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into:
 a 12-bit page number
 a 10-bit page offset
Thus, a logical address is as follows:

Where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within the page
of the inner page table. This is also Known as forward-mapped page table

Address-Translation Scheme
Address-translation scheme for a two-level 32-bit paging architecture

It requires more number of memory accesses, when the number of levels is increased.

b) Hashed Page Tables

 Hashed page table is used if address spaces greater than 32 bits

 Each entry in hash table contains a linked list of elements that hash to the same
location.
 Each entry consists of;
(a) Virtual page numbers
(b) Value of mapped page frame.
(c) Pointer to the next element in the linked list.
 Working Procedure:
o The virtual page number in the virtual address is hashed into the hash table.
o Virtual page number is compared to field (a) in the 1st element in the linked list.
o If there is a match, the corresponding page frame (field (b)) is used to formthe
desired physical address.
o If there is no match, subsequent entries in the linked list are searched for a
matching virtual page number.
 Clustered page table: It is a variation of hashed page table & is similar to hashed page table
except that each entry in the hash table refers to several pages rather than a single page.

c)Inverted Page Table

It has one entry for each real page (frame) of memory & each entry consists of the virtual
address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process
that owns that page. So, only one page table is in the system.

 When a memory reference occurs, part of the virtual address ,consisting of

<Process-id, Page-no> is presented to the memory sub-system.
 Then the inverted page table is searched for match:
(i) If a match is found, then the physical address is generated.
(ii) If no match is found, then an illegal address access has been attempted.
Merit: Reduce the amount of memory needed.
Demerit: Improve the amount of time needed to search the table when a page reference
occurs.

Shared Pages
One advantage of paging is the possibility of sharing common code.
Shared code
 One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors,
compilers, window systems).
 Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes
Reentrant code (Pure code): Non-self modifying code. If the code is reentrant, then it never
changes during execution. Thus two or more processes can execute the same code at the same
time.

Private code and data

 Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data
 The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical
address space
Drawback of Paging – Internal fragmentation
In the worst case a process would need n pages plus one byte. It would be allocated n+1 frames
resulting in an internal fragmentation of almost an entire frame.
Example:
Page size = 2048 bytes
Process size= 72766 bytes
Process needs 35 pages plus 1086 bytes.
It is allocated 36 frames resulting in an internal fragmentation of 962 bytes.

Segmentation:
Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory.
A program is a collection of segments. A segment is a logical unit such as: Main program,
Procedure, Function, Method, Object, Local variables, global variables, Common block,
Stack, Symbol table, arrays

User’s View of a Program

Logical View of Segmentation

Segmentation Hardware

(h) Logical address consists of a two tuple : <Segment-number, offset>

(i) Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry has:
o Base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in
memory
o Limit – specifies the length of the segment
(j) Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table‘s location in
memory
(k) Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a
program; Segment number ‘s‘ is legal, if s < STLR
 To define an implementation to map two dimensional user-defined addresses into one-
dimensional physical addresses. This mapping is effected by a segment table. Each entry in
the segment table has a segment base and a segment limit. The segment base contains the
starting physical address where the segment resides in memory, whereas the segment limit
specifies the length of the segment.

A logical address consists of two parts: a segment number, s, and an offset into that segment,
d. The segment number is used as an index to the segment table. The offset d of the logical
address must be between 0 and the segment limit. If it is not, we trap to the operating system
(logical addressing attempt beyond, end of segment). When an offset is legal, it is added to
the segment base to produce the address in physical memory of the desired byte. The segment
table is thus essentially an array of base-limit register pairs.

EXAMPLE:
For example, segment 2 is 400 bytes long and begins at location 4300. Thus, a reference to
byte 53 of segment 2 is mapped onto location 4300 + 53 = 4353.
Sharing of Segments

 Another advantage of segmentation involves the sharing of code or data.

 Each process has a segment table associated with it, which the dispatcher uses to define
the hardware segment table when this process is given the CPU.
 Segments are shared when entries in the segment tables of two different processes point
to the same physical location.
8. Explain the various page table structures in detail. (APRIL/MAY2011)(MAY/JUNE 2014)

Structures of the Page Table

d) Hierarchical Paging
e) Hashed Page Tables
f) Inverted Page Tables
d) Hierarchical Paging
Break up the Page table into smaller pieces. Because if the page table is too large then it is
quite difficult to search the page number.

Example: “Two-Level Paging “

 A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size) is divided into:
 a page number consisting of 22 bits
 a page offset consisting of 10 bits
 Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into:
 a 12-bit page number
 a 10-bit page offset
Thus, a logical address is as follows:

Where p1 is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within the page
of the inner page table. This is also Known as forward-mapped page table

Address-Translation Scheme
Address-translation scheme for a two-level 32-bit paging architecture

It requires more number of memory accesses, when the number of levels is increased.

e) Hashed Page Tables

  Hashed page table is used if address spaces greater than 32 bits

 Each entry in hash table contains a linked list of elements that hash to the same
location.
 Each entry consists of;
(d) Virtual page numbers
(e) Value of mapped page frame.
(f) Pointer to the next element in the linked list.
 Working Procedure:
o The virtual page number in the virtual address is hashed into the hash table.
o Virtual page number is compared to field (a) in the 1st element in the linked list.
o If there is a match, the corresponding page frame (field (b)) is used to formthe
desired physical address.
o If there is no match, subsequent entries in the linked list are searched for a
matching virtual page number.

Clustered page table: It is a variation of hashed page table & is similar to hashed page table
except that each entry in the hash table refers to several pages rather than a single page.

f) Inverted Page Table

It has one entry for each real page (frame) of memory & each entry consists of the virtual
address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process
that owns that page. So, only one page table is in the system.

 When a memory reference occurs, part of the virtual address ,consisting of

<Process-id, Page-no> is presented to the memory sub-system.
 Then the inverted page table is searched for match:
(iii) If a match is found, then the physical address is generated.
(iv) If no match is found, then an illegal address access has been attempted.
Merit: Reduce the amount of memory needed.
Demerit: Improve the amount of time needed to search the table when a page reference
 occurs.

Shared Pages
One advantage of paging is the possibility of sharing common code.
Shared code
 One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors,
compilers, window systems).
 Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes
Reentrant code (Pure code): Non-self modifying code. If the code is reentrant, then it never
changes during execution. Thus two or more processes can execute the same code at the same
time.

Private code and data

 Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data
 The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical
address space

Drawback of Paging – Internal fragmentation

In the worst case a process would need n pages plus one byte. It would be allocated n+1 frames
resulting in an internal fragmentation of almost an entire frame.
Example:
Page size = 2048 bytes
Process size= 72766 bytes
Process needs 35 pages plus 1086 bytes.
It is allocated 36 frames resulting in an internal fragmentation of 962 bytes.

9. Write short notes on LRU, FIFO and clock replacement strategies?

(APRIL/MAY2010, APRIL/MAY2011)(MAY/JUNE2016)

Page Replacement
  If no frames are free, we could find one that is not currently being used & free it.
 We can free a frame by writing its contents to swap space & changing the page table to
indicate that the page is no longer in memory.
 Then we can use that freed frame to hold the page for which the process faulted.

Basic Page Replacement

1. Find the location of the desired page on disk
2. Find a free frame
- If there is a free frame, then use it.
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim
frame
- Write the victim page to the disk, change the page & frame tables accordingly.
3. Read the desired page into the (new) free frame. Update the page and frame tables.
4. Restart the process

Note:
If no frames are free, two page transfers are required & this situation effectively
doubles the page- fault service time.

Modify (dirty) bit:

 It indicates that any word or byte in the page is modified.
 When we select a page for replacement, we examine its modify bit.
- If the bit is set, we know that the page has been modified & in this case we must write
that page to the disk.
- If the bit is not set, then if the copy of the page on the disk has not been overwritten,
then we can avoid writing the memory page on the disk as it is already there.
FIFO page replacement algorithm
 A simple and obvious page replacement strategy is FIFO, i.e. first-in-first-out.
 As new pages are brought in, they are added to the tail of a queue, and the page at the
head of the queue is the next victim.
Example:
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1

No.of available frames = 3 (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process

No. of page faults = 15

Drawback:
FIFO page replacement algorithm performance is not always good.

To illustrate this, consider the following example:

Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
 If No. of available frames = 3 then the no. of page faults =9
 If No. of available frames =4 then the no. of page faults =10
 Here the no. of page faults increases when the no. of frames increases .This is called as
Belady’s Anomaly.

LRU(Least Recently Used) page replacement algorithm

The Least Recently Used, algorithm is that the page that has not been used in the longest time
is the one that will not be used again in the near future.
Example:
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
No. of available frames = 3

No. of page faults = 12

LRU page replacement can be implemented using

1. Counters
 Every page table entry has a time-of-use field and a clock or counter is associated
with the CPU.
 The counter or clock is incremented for every memory reference.
 Each time a page is referenced, copy the counter into the time-of-use field.
  When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page with the smallest counter value.
2. Stack
 Keep a stack of page numbers
 Whenever a page is referenced, remove the page from the stack and put it on top of
the stack.
 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page that is at the bottom of the
stack.(LRU page)
Use of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page References

10. Explain any four page replacement algorithms in detail? (NOV/DEC 2009) (NOV/DEC
2013) NOV/DEC2012) (MAY/JUNE2016)

Page Replacement
 If no frames are free, we could find one that is not currently being used & free it.
 We can free a frame by writing its contents to swap space & changing the page table to
indicate that the page is no longer in memory.
 Then we can use that freed frame to hold the page for which the process faulted.

Basic Page Replacement

5. Find the location of the desired page on disk
6. Find a free frame
- If there is a free frame, then use it.
- If there is no free frame, use a page replacement algorithm to select a victim
frame
- Write the victim page to the disk, change the page & frame tables accordingly.
7. Read the desired page into the (new) free frame. Update the page and frame tables.
8. Restart the process
Note:
If no frames are free, two page transfers are required & this situation effectively
doubles the page- fault service time.

Modify (dirty) bit:

 It indicates that any word or byte in the page is modified.
 When we select a page for replacement, we examine its modify bit.
- If the bit is set, we know that the page has been modified & in this case we must write
that page to the disk.
- If the bit is not set, then if the copy of the page on the disk has not been overwritten,
then we can avoid writing the memory page on the disk as it is already there.

Page Replacement Algorithms

1. FIFO Page Replacement
2. Optimal Page Replacement
3. LRU Page Replacement
4. LRU Approximation Page Replacement

 We evaluate an algorithm by running it on a particular string of memory references &

computing the number of page faults. The string of memory reference is called a
reference string. The algorithm that provides less number of page faults is termed to
be a good one.
 As the number of available frames increases, the number of page faults decreases.
This is shown in the following graph:
 (b) FIFO page replacement algorithm
 A simple and obvious page replacement strategy is FIFO, i.e. first-in-first-out.
 As new pages are brought in, they are added to the tail of a queue, and the page at the
head of the queue is the next victim.
Example:
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
No.of available frames = 3 (3 pages can be in memory at a time per process)

No. of page faults = 15

Drawback:
FIFO page replacement algorithm performance is not always good.

To illustrate this, consider the following example:

Reference string: 1, 2, 3, 4, 1, 2, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
 If No. of available frames = 3 then the no. of page faults =9
 If No. of available frames =4 then the no. of page faults =10
 Here the no. of page faults increases when the no. of frames increases .This is called as
Belady’s Anomaly.

(c) Optimal page replacement algorithm

 The Belady's anomaly lead to the search for an optimal page-replacement algorithm,
which is simply that which yields the lowest of all possible page-faults, and which does
not suffer from Belady's anomaly.
 This algorithm is simply "Replace the page that will not be used for the longest time in
the future."
Example:
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
No.of available frames = 3
No. of page faults = 9
Drawback:
It is difficult to implement as it requires future knowledge of the reference string.
 (d) LRU(Least Recently Used) page replacement algorithm
The Least Recently Used, algorithm is that the page that has not been used in the longest time
is the one that will not be used again in the near future.
Example:
Reference string: 7,0,1,2,0,3,0,4,2,3,0,3,2,1,2,0,1,7,0,1
No. of available frames = 3

No. of page faults = 12

LRU page replacement can be implemented using

3. Counters
 Every page table entry has a time-of-use field and a clock or counter is associated
with the CPU.
 The counter or clock is incremented for every memory reference.
 Each time a page is referenced, copy the counter into the time-of-use field.
 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page with the smallest counter value.
4. Stack
 Keep a stack of page numbers
 Whenever a page is referenced, remove the page from the stack and put it on top of
the stack.
 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page that is at the bottom of the
stack.(LRU page)
Use of A Stack to Record The Most Recent Page References

(e) LRU Approximation Page Replacement

 Reference bit
- With each page associate a reference bit, initially set to 0
- When page is referenced, the bit is set to 1
 When a page needs to be replaced, replace the page whose reference bit is 0
 The order of use is not known, but we know which pages were used and which were
not used.
(i) Additional Reference Bits Algorithm
 Keep an 8-bit byte for each page in a table in memory.
 At regular intervals, a timer interrupt transfers control to OS.
 The OS shifts reference bit for each page into higher- order bit shifting the other
bits right 1 bit and discarding the lower-order bit.
Example:
 If reference bit is 00000000 then the page has not been used for 8 time periods.
 If reference bit is 11111111 then the page has been used atleast once each time
period.
 If the reference bit of page 1 is 11000100 and page 2 is 01110111 then page 2 is
the LRU page.

(ii) Second Chance Algorithm

 Basic algorithm is FIFO
 When a page has been selected, check its reference bit.
- If 0 proceed to replace the page
- If 1 give the page a second chance and move on to the next FIFO page.
- When a page gets a second chance, its reference bit is cleared and arrival
time is reset to current time.
- Hence a second chance page will not be replaced until all other pages are
replaced.

(iii) Enhanced Second Chance Algorithm

 Consider both reference bit and modify bit
 There are four possible classes
1. (0,0) – neither recently used nor modified, Best page to replace
2. (0,1) – not recently used but modified, page has to be written out before
replacement.
3. (1,0) - recently used but not modified, page may be used again
 4. (1,1) – recently used and modified, page may be used again and page has to be written
to disk

13. What is thrashing? Explain the working set model in detail. (MAY/JUNE 2009)
Given memory partitions of 100KB, 500KB, 200KB, 300KB and 600KB(in order), how would
each of the first-fit, best-fit and worst-fit algorithms place processes of212KB, 417KB, 12KB
and 426KB(in order)? Which algorithm makes the most efficient use of memory? (NOV/DEC
2008)
Refer Notes (Unit-3)

14. Explain in briefly and compare, fixed and dynamic memory partitioning
schemes.(NOV/DEC2012)

Contiguous Allocation
(l) Main memory usually into two partitions:
o Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector.
o User processes then held in high memory.
(m) Single-partition allocation
o Relocation-register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from
changing operating-system code and data.
o Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address; limit register contains
range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit register.

Memory Protection
(n) It should consider;
 Protecting the OS from user process.
 Protecting user processes from one another.
(o) The above protection is done by “Relocation-register & Limit-register scheme ―
(p) Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address i.e base value.
(q) Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the

limit register

A base and a limit register define a logical address space

 HW address protection with base and limit registers

Each process is contained in a single contiguous section of memory. There are

two methods namely:
1. Fixed – Partition Method
2. Variable – Partition Method

Fixed – Partition Method

(r) Divide memory into fixed size partitions, where each partition has exactly one process.
(s) The drawback is memory space unused within a partition is wasted.(eg.when process size <
partition size)

Variable-partition method:
(t) Divide memory into variable size partitions, depending upon the size of the incoming process.
(u) When a process terminates, the partition becomes available for another process.
(v) As processes complete and leave they create holes in the main memory.
(w) Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout
memory.

15. Consider the following page reference string (MAY/JUNE 2012) (APR/MAY 2015)
1,2,3,4,2,1,5,6,2,1,3,7,6,3,2,1,3,6.
How many page faults would occur for the following replacement algorithms, assuming one,
two, three and four frames? LRU replacement, FIFO replacement Optimal replacement
Refer notes .. Page No.409-420

16. When do page faults occur? Consider the reference string: (NOV/DEC 2017)
1, 2, 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 2, 1, 2, 3, 7, 6, 3, 2, 1, 2, 3, 6.
How many page faults and page fault rate occur for the FIFO, LRU and optimal replacement
algorithms, assuming one, two, three, four page frames?

FIFO:

Frames 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6

1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 6

2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 7 7 7 7 1 1 1 1

3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 1 1 1 1 6 6 6 6 6 3 3

Page Hit=4

Total 14 page faults (Hit Time)

page fault rate (Miss rate) = 14 / 20 = 0.7

Frames 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 5 5 5 5 5 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 3

3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 6 6 6

4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

Page Hit=6

Total page faults=14

Page fault rate = 14 / 20 = 0.7

No. of page faults does not increase / Decrease when more frames are allocated to the process.

LRU:

Frame=3

Frames 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6

0 1 1 1 4 4 4 5 5 5 1 1 1 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3

2 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 1 1 1 6

No. of pages = 20

Page fault= 15

Page Hit = 5

Page fault rate = Page fault / No. of pages

=15 / 20 = 0.75
OPTIMAL:

Frame=3

Frames 1 2 3 4 2 1 5 6 2 1 2 3 7 6 3 2 1 2 3 6

0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 6

1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 7 7 7 2 2 2 2 2

2 3 4 4 4 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 1 1 1 1

Page fault= 11

Page Hit = 9

17. Explain the concept of demand paging in detail with neat diagram (MAY/JUNE 2014)
(NOV/DEC 2013)

Demand Paging

A demand paging system is quite similar to a paging system with swapping. When we want to
execute a process, we swap it into memory. Rather than swapping the entire process into
memory, however, we use a lazy swapper called pager. Lazy Swapper - Never swaps a page
into memory unless that page will be needed

When a process is to be swapped in, the pager guesses which pages will be used before the
process is swapped out again. Instead of swapping in a whole process, the pager brings only
those necessary pages into memory. Thus, it avoids reading into memory pages that will not be
used in anyway, decreasing the swap time and the amount of physical memory needed.

Transfer of a paged memory to contiguous disk space

Hardware support is required to distinguish between those pages that are in memory and those
pages that are on the disk using the valid-invalid bit scheme. Where valid and invalid pages can
be checked by checking the bit. Marking a page will have no effect if the process never attempts
to access the page. While the process executes and accesses pages that are memory resident,
execution proceeds normally.
Valid-Invalid bit
A valid – invalid bit is associated with each page table entry. Valid
bit represents the associated page is in memory.
In-Valid bit represents
(x) invalid page or
(y) valid page but is currently on the disk
Page table when some pages are not in main memory

Advantages

(a) Programs could be written for a much larger address space (virtual memory space) than
physically exists on the computer.

(b) Because each process is only using a fraction of their total address space, there is more
memory left for other programs, improving CPU utilization and system throughput.
(c) Less I/O is needed for swapping processes in and out of RAM, speeding things up.

Handling Page Fault

If a page is needed that was not originally loaded up, then a page fault trap is generated, which
must be handled in a series of steps:
1. Determine whether the reference is a valid or invalid memory access
2. a)If the reference is invalid then terminate the process.
b)If the reference is valid then the page has not been yet brought into main memory.
3. Find a free frame.
4. Read the desired page into the newly allocated frame.
5. Reset the page table to indicate that the page is now in memory.
6. Restart the instruction that was interrupted.
Pure demand paging
 Never bring a page into memory until it is required.
 We could start a process with no pages in memory.
 When the OS sets the instruction pointer to the 1st instruction of the process, whichis on the non-
memory resident page, then the process immediately faults for the page.
 After this page is bought into the memory, the process continue to execute, faulting as necessary until
every page that it needs is in memory

Performance of demand paging

Let p be the probability of a page fault (0≤ p ≤ 1)
 Effective Access Time (EAT)
EAT = (1 – p) x ma + p x page fault time.
Where ma  memory access, p Probability of page fault (0≤ p ≤ 1)

 The memory access time denoted ma is in the range 10 to 200 ns.

 If there are no page faults then EAT = ma.
To compute effective access time, we must know how much time is needed to service a page fault.

18. Why are translation look-aside buffers important? Explain the details stored in a TLB table
entry? (APRIL/MAY 2017, MAY/JUNE 2014) Refer notes ..Page No.364-377

19. Write short notes on Memory Mapped Files. (APR/MAY 2015)

(i) Consider the following page reference string: 1,2,3,2,5,6,3,4,6,3,7,3,1,5,3,6,3,4,2,4,3,4,5,1
Indicate page faults and calculate total number of page faults and successful ratio for FIFO,
optimal and LRU algorithms. Assume there are four frames and initially all the frames are
empty. Refer notes ..Page No.409-420
(ii) Explain the effect of thrashing. (NOV/DEC 2015)
Discuss the given memory management techniques with diagrams
  Partition Allocation Methods
 Paging and Translation Look-aside Buffer. (NOV/DEC 2015)

Effect of thrashing
If any process that does not have ''enough" frames, it will quickly page-fault. At this point, it
must replace some page. However, since all its pages are in active use, it must replace a page that
will be needed again right away. Consequently, it quickly faults again, and again, and again,
replacing pages that it must bring back inimmediately.
High paging activity is called thrashing. A process is thrashing if it is spending more time paging
than executing.
 If a process does not have ―enough pages, the page-fault rate is very high. This leads to:
- low CPU utilization operating system thinks that it needs to increase the degree of
multiprogramming
 another process is added to the system When the CPU utilization is low, the
OS increases the degree of multiprogramming.
 If global replacement is used then as processes enter the main memory they tend to steal
frames belonging to other processes.
 Eventually all processes will not have enough frames and hence the page fault rate becomes
very high.
 Thus swapping in and swapping out of pages only takes place.
 This is the cause of thrashing.

To limit thrashing, we can use a local replacement algorithm. To

prevent thrashing, there are two methods namely,

1. Working Set Strategy

2. Page Fault Frequency
Contiguous Allocation
 Main memory usually into two partitions:
o Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector.
o User processes then held in high memory.
 Single-partition allocation
o Relocation-register scheme used to protect user processes from each other, and from
changing operating-system code and data.
o Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address; limit register contains
range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit register.
 Memory Protection
 It should consider;
 Protecting the OS from user process.
 Protecting user processes from one another.
 The above protection is done by “Relocation-register & Limit-register scheme ―
 Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address i.e base value.
 Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the

limit register

A base and a limit register define a logical address space

HW address protection with base and limit registers

Each process is contained in a single contiguous section of memory. There are

two methods namely:
3. Fixed – Partition Method
4. Variable – Partition Method

Fixed – Partition Method

 Divide memory into fixed size partitions, where each partition has exactly one process.
 The drawback is memory space unused within a partition is wasted.(eg.when process size <
partition size)
Variable-partition method:
 Divide memory into variable size partitions, depending upon the size of the incoming process.
 When a process terminates, the partition becomes available for another process.
 As processes complete and leave they create holes in the main memory.
 Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory.

Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem:

How to satisfy a request of size “n” from a list of free holes?

Solution:
 First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough.
 Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by
size. Produces the smallest leftover hole.
 Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list. Produces the largest leftover
hole
First-fit and best-fit are better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization

Fragmentation
External Fragmentation – This takes place when enough total memory space exists to satisfy a
request, but it is not contiguous i.e., storage is fragmented into a large number of small holes scattered
throughout the main memory.
Internal Fragmentation – Allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory.

Example: hole = 184 bytes Process

size = 182 bytes.
We are left with a hole of 2 bytes.
Solutions
1. Coalescing: Merge the adjacent holes together.
2. Compaction: Move all processes towards one end of memory, hole towards other end of memory,
producing one large hole of available memory. This scheme is expensive as it can be done if relocation
is dynamic and done at execution time.
3. Permit the logical address space of a process to be non-contiguous. This is achieved through two
memory management schemes namely paging and segmentation.
 UNIT IV - FILE SYSTEMS AND I/O SYSTEMS
PART – A

1. What is a file? (APRIL/MAY 2017, Nov/Dec2010)

A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage. A
file contains either programs or data. A file has certain "structure" based on its type.
2. List the various file attributes. (Nov/Dec2011)(May/June 2011,15)
A file has certain other attributes, which vary from one operating system to another, but
typically consist of these:
 Identifier
 Name
 Type
 Location
 Size
 Protection
 Time
 Date
 user identification
3. What are the various fileoperations?(May/June2013,15)
The six basic file operations are:
 Creating a file
 Writing a file
 Reading a file
 Repositioning within a file
 Deleting a file
 Truncating a file
4. What are all the information’s associated with an open file?
Several pieces of information are associated with an open file which may be:
 File pointer
 File open count
 Disk location of the file
 Access rights
5. What are the different accessing methods of a file?(Nov/Dec2010)
The different types of accessing a file are:
Sequential access: Information in the file is accessed sequentially
Direct access: Information in the file can be accessed without any particular order.
Other access methods: Creating index for the file, indexed sequential access method (ISAM) etc.
6. What is Directory (APRIL/MAY 2017)?
The device directory or simply known as directory records information-such as name,
location, size, and type for all files on that particular partition. The directory can be viewed
as a symbol table that translates file names into their directory entries.

7. What are the operations that can be performed on a directory?

The operations that can be performed on a
directory are
 Search for a file
 Create a file
 Delete file
 Rename a file
 List directory
 Traverse the file system
8. What are the most common schemes for defining the logical structure of a directory?(May/June
2012)(Nov/Dec 2017)
 The most common schemes for defining the logical structure of directory
 Single-Level Directory
 Two-level Directory
 Tree-Structured Directories
 Acyclic-Graph Directories
 General Graph Directory
9. Define UFD and MFD.
In the two-level directory structure, each user has her own user file directory (UFD). Each
UFD has a similar structure, but lists only the files of a single user. When a job starts the
system's master file directory (MFD) is searched. The MFD is indexed by the user name or
account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.
10. What is a path name?
A pathname is the path from the root through all subdirectories to a specified file. In
a two-level directory structure a user name and a file name define a path name.
11. What are the various layers of a file system?
The file system is composed of many different levels. Each level in the design uses the feature
of the lower levels to create new features for use by higher levels.
i. Application programs
ii. Logical file system
iii. File-organization module
iv. Basic file system
v. I/O control
vi. Devices
12. What are the structures used in file-system implementation?
Several on-disk and in-memory structures are used to implement a file system
On-disk structure include
Boot control block
Partition block
Directory structure used to organize the files File control block (FCB)
In-memory structure include
In-memory partition table
In-memory directory structure
System-wide open file table
Per-process open table

13. What are the functions of virtual file system (VFS)?

1. It separates file-system-generic operations from their implementation defining a
clean VFS interface. It allows transparent access to different types of file systems
mounted locally.
VFS is based on a file representation structure, called a vnode. It contains a numerical value for a network-
wide unique file .The kernel maintains one vnode structure for each active file or directory.
14. Define seek time and latency time.
The time taken by the head to move to the appropriate cylinder or track is called seek time.
Once the head is at right track, it must wait until the desired block rotates under the read-
write head. This delay is latency time.
15. What are the allocation methods of a disk space?
Methods of allocating disk space which are widely in use are
 Contiguous allocation
 Linked allocation
 Indexed allocation
16. What are the advantages of Contiguous allocation?
The advantages are
 Supports direct access
 Supports sequential access
  Number of disk seeks is minimal.
17. What are the drawbacks of contiguous allocation of disk space?
The disadvantages are
 Suffers from external fragmentation.
 Suffers from internal fragmentation.
 Difficulty in finding space for a new file.
 File cannot be extended.
 Size of the file is to be declared in advance.
18. What are the disadvantages of linked allocation?
The disadvantages are
 Used only for sequential access of files.
 Direct access is not supported.
 Memory space required for the pointers.
 Reliability is compromised if the pointers are lost or damaged
19. What are the advantages of Indexed allocation?
The advantages are
 No external-fragmentation problems.
 Solves the size-declaration problems.
 Supports direct access.
20. How can the index blocks be implemented in the indexed allocation scheme?
The index block can be implemented as follows
 Linked scheme
 Multilevel scheme
 Combined scheme
21. What is garbage collection? (May/June2012)
Garbage Collection (GC) is a form of automatic memory management. The garbage
collector, or just collector, attempts to reclaim garbage, or memory occupied by objects that
are no longer in use by the program.
22. Mention the objectives of File Management System.
The system that an operating system or program uses to organize and keep track of files. For
example, a hierarchical file system is one that uses directories to organize files into a tree
structure.
23. What is the content of a typical file control block?
File Control Block (FCB) is a file system structure in which the state of an open file is maintained.

File permissions
File dates (create, access,
write)
File owner, group, ACL
File size
File data blocks

24. What are the two types of system directories?

Device directory, describing physical properties of files.
File directory, giving logical properties of the files.
25. What is meant by polling?
Polling is the process where the computer waits for an external device to check for its
readiness. The computer does not do anything else than checking the status of the device
.Polling is often used with low-level hardware. Example: when a printer connected via a
 parallel port the computer waits until the next character has been received by the printer.
These processes can be as minute as only reading 1 Byte. Polling is the continuous (or
frequent) checking by a controlling device or process of other devices, processes, queues,
etc.
26. State any three disadvantages of placing functionality in a device controller, rather than in the kernel.

Three advantages:-
a. Bugs are less likely to cause an operating system crash.
b. Performance can be improved by utilizing dedicated hardware and hard-coded
algorithms. The kernel is simplified by moving algorithms out of it.
Three disadvantages:
a. Bugs are harder to fix - a new firmware version or new hardware is needed
b. Improving algorithms likewise require a hardware update rather than just kernel or
device driver update
c. Embedded algorithms could conflict with application’s use of the device, causing
decreased performance.
27. How free-space is managed using bit vector implementation? (May/June 2018)
The free-space list is implemented as a bit map or bit vector. Each block is represented by 1
bit. If the block is free, the bit is 1; if the block is allocated, the bit is 0.

28. List the attributes of a file (may/June 2011)

Name, Identifier, Type, Location, Size, Protection, Time, Date and User authentication.
29. What are the information contained in a boot control block and partition control block?
Boot control block:
Contain information needed by the system to boot an operating from that partition. If the disk
does not contain an operating system, this block can be empty. It is typically the first block of
a partition. In UFS, this is called the boot block.
Partition Control block:
Contains partition details, such as number of blocks in the partition, size of the blocks, free
block count and free block pointers, and free FCB count and FCB pointers.
30. Define buffering.
A buffer is a memory area that stores data while they are transferred between two devices or
between a device and an application. Buffering is done for three reasons,
a. To cope with a speed mismatch between the producer and consumer of a datastream
b. To adapt between devices that have different data transfer sizes
c. To support copy semantics for application I/O
31. Define caching.
A cache is a region of fast memory that holds copies of data. Access to the cached copy is
more efficient than access to the original. Caching and buffering are distinct functions, but
sometimes a region of memory can be used for both purposes.
32. Define spooling.
A spool is a buffer that holds output for a device, such as printer, that cannot accept
interleaved data streams. When an application finishes printing, the spooling system queues
the corresponding spool file for output to the printer. The spooling system copies the queued
spool files to the printer one at a time.
33. Define rotational latency and disk bandwidth.(Nov/Dec2011)(may/June 2013)
Rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired sector to the
disk head. Disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the time
between the first request for service and the completion of the last transfer.
34. What are the various disk-scheduling algorithms?
The various disk-scheduling
algorithms are
 First Come First Served Scheduling
  Shortest Seek Time First Scheduling
 SCAN Scheduling
 C-SCAN Scheduling
35. What is the need for disk scheduling? (Nov/Dec2012)
In operating systems, seek time is very important. Since all device requests are linked in
queues, the seek time is increased causing the system to slow down.
Disk Scheduling Algorithms are used to reduce the total seek time of any request.
36. What is low-level formatting?
Before a disk can store data, it must be divided into sectors that the disk controller can read
and write. This process is called low-level formatting or physical formatting. Low-level
formatting fills the disk with a special data structure for each sector. The data structure for a
sector consists of a header, a data area, and a trailer.

37. What is the use of boot block?

For a computer to start running when powered up or rebooted it needs to have an initial program to
run. This bootstrap program tends to be simple. It finds the operating system on the disk loads that
kernel into memory and jumps to an initial address to begin the operating system execution. The
full bootstrap program is stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at fixed location on the disk. A
disk that has boot partition is called boot disk or system disk.
38. What is sector sparing?
Low-level formatting also sets aside spare sectors not visible to the operating system. The
controller can be told to replace each bad sector logically with one of the spare sectors. This
scheme is known as sector sparing or forwarding.
39. What is seek time? (Nov/Dec 2011)
Seek time: the time to position heads over a cylinder (~8 msec on average).
What are storage area networks? (April/May 2011)
A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated,
block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape
libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like locally attached
devices to the operating system.
40. Write a brief note on RAID.
RAID (redundant array of independent disks; originally redundant array of inexpensive disks) is
a way of storing the same data in different places (thus, redundantly) on multiple hard disks. By
placing data on multiple disks, I/O (input/output) operations can overlap in a balanced way,
improving performance. Since multiple disks increase the mean time between failures (MTBF),
storing data redundantly also increases fault tolerance.
41. What Characteristics determine the disk access speed?
 Seek time
 Rotational latency
 Command processing time
 Settle time
42. Give the importance of Swap space Management.
Swap-space management: Swap-space management is low- level task of the operating
system. The main goal for the design and implementation of swap space is to provide the
best throughput for the virtual memory system.
Swap-space use: The operating system needs to release sufficient main memory to bring in
a process that is ready to execute. Operating system uses this swap space in various ways.
Paging systems may simply store pages that have been pushed out of main memory. UNIX
operating system allows the use of multiple swap spaces. These swap space are usually put
on separate disks, so the load placed on the I/O system by paging and swapping can be
spread over the systems I/O devices.
Swap-space location: Swap space can reside in two places:
1. Separate disk partition
2. Normal file system
43. Write three basic functions which are provided by the hardware clocks and timers.
 OSTickInit()
 OSTimeSet()
 OSTimeGet()

44. What are the advantages of Linked allocation?

The advantages are
No external fragmentation.
Size of the file does not need to be declared.
45. Define FAT
FAT is a much older file-system format that is understood by many systems besides Windows,
such as the software running on cameras. A disadvantage is that the FAT file system does not
restrict file access to authorized users. The only solution for securing data with FAT is to run an
application to encrypt the data before storing it on the file system.
46. What is Relative blocknumber?
Relative block number is an index relative to the beginning of a file. Thus the 1st
relative block of the file is 0, the next is 1, and so on.
47. What is double buffering?
OS can use various kinds of buffering:
1. Single buffering — OS assigns a system buffer to the user request
2. double buffering — process consumes from one buffer while system fills the next
3. circular buffers — most useful for bursty I/O

48. What is HSM? Where it is used? (May/June2015)

Hierarchical storage management (HSM) is a data storage technique, which automatically
moves data between high-cost and low-cost storage media. HSM systems exist because
high-speed storage devices, such as hard disk drive arrays, are more expensive (per byte
stored) than slower devices, such asoptical discs and magnetic tape drives.
49. Identify the two important functions of Virtual File System(VFS) layer in the concept of file system
implementation.
Linux VFS provides a set of common functionalities for each files system, using function pointers
accessed through a table. The same functionality is accessed through the same table position for all
file system types, though the actual functions pointed to by the pointers may be files system-
specific. Common operations provided include open ( ), read ( ), write ( ), and map ( ).

50. How does DMA increase system concurrency? (May/June 2016)

DMA increases system concurrency by allowing the CPU to perform tasks while the DMA system
transfers data via the system and memory buses. Hardware design is complicated because the
DMA controller must be integrated into the system and the system must allow the DMA controller
to be a bus master.
51. Why rotational latency is usually not considered in disk scheduling? (May/June2016)
Most disks do not export their rotational position information to the host. Even if they did, the time for
this information to reach the scheduler would be subject to imprecision and the time consumed by the
scheduler is variable, so the rotational position information would become incorrect. Further, the disk
requests are usually given in terms of logical block numbers, and the mapping between logical blocks
and physical locations is very complex
52. Do FAT file system is advantageous? Why? ((May/June 2015)
FAT File System is best for cross-compatibility with other platforms. There are NTFS file system
drivers for Linux, but not really for Windows. FAT, however, can be read more or less
transparently by both operating systems. There is also a slight speed gain in FAT.
53. Suppose that the disk rotates at 7200 rpm. What is the average rotational latency of the disk
drive (NOV/DEC 2017, APR/MAY 2017).

7200 rpm gives 120 rotations per second. Thus a full rotation takes 8.33 ms and the average
rotational latency (a half rotation) takes 4.167 ms.

PART-B

1. Explain the different disk scheduling algorithms with examples. (APRIL/MAY 2018,
NOV/DEC 2019, APRIL/MAY 2010, MAY/JUNE 2012, APRIL/MAY 2011, MAY/JUNE 2013,
MAY/JUNE 2014)

Disk Scheduling and Management

One of the responsibilities of the operating system is to use the hardware efficiently. For the disk
drives,
1. A fast access time and

2. High disk bandwidth.

• The access time has two major components;

□ The seek time is the time for the disk arm to move the heads to the cylinder containing
the desired sector.
□ The rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired sector to
the disk head.
• The disk bandwidths the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total time
between the first request for service and the completion of the last transfer.

One of the responsibilities of the operating system is to use the hardware efficiently.
For the disk drives,
1. A fast access time and
2. High disk bandwidth.
□ The access time has two major components;
✓ The seek time is the time for the disk arm to move the heads to the cylinder containing
the desired sector.
✓ The rotational latency is the additional time waiting for the disk to rotate the desired
sector to the disk head.
□ The disk bandwidth is the total number of bytes transferred, divided by the total time between the
first request for service and the completion of the last transfer.

1. FCFS Scheduling:

The simplest form of disk scheduling is, of course, the first-come, first-served (FCFS)
algorithm. This algorithm is intrinsically fair, but it generally does not provide the fastest service.
Consider, for example, a disk queue with requests for I/O to blocks on cylinders
I/O to blocks on cylinders
98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67,
 If the disk head is initially at cylinder 53, it will first move from 53 to 98, then to 183, 37,
122, 14, 124, 65, and finally to 67, for a total head movement of 640 cylinders. The wild swing
from 122 to 14 and then back to 124 illustrates the problem with this schedule. If the requests for
cylinders 37 and 14 could be serviced together, before or after the requests for 122 and 124, the total
head movement could be decreased substantially, and performance could be thereby improved.
2. SSTF (shortest-seek-time-first)Scheduling
Service all the requests close to the current head position, before moving the head far
away to service other requests. That is selects the request with the minimum seek time from
the current head position.

Total head movement = 236 cylinders

3. SCAN Scheduling

The disk head starts at one end of the disk, and moves toward the other end, servicing requests
as it reaches each cylinder, until it gets to the other end of the disk. At the other end, the direction of
head movement is reversed, and servicing continues. The head continuously scans back and forth
across the disk
 .

4. C-SCAN Scheduling
Variant of SCAN designed to provide a more uniform wait time. It moves the head from one
end of the disk to the other, servicing requests along the way. When the head reaches the other end,
however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the
return trip.

5. LOOK Scheduling
Both SCAN and C-SCAN move the disk arm across the full width of the disk. In
this, the arm goes only as far as the final request in each direction. Then, it reverses direction
immediately, without going all the way to the end of the disk.
2. Explain and compare FCFS, SSTF, C-SCAN and C-LOOK disk scheduling
algorithms with examples. (NOV/DEC 2012)

1. FCFS Scheduling:

The simplest form of disk scheduling is, of course, the first-come, first-served (FCFS)
algorithm. This algorithm is intrinsically fair, but it generally does not provide the fastest service.
Consider, for example, a disk queue with requests for I/O to blocks on cylinders
I/O to blocks on cylinders
98, 183, 37, 122, 14, 124, 65, 67,

If the disk head is initially at cylinder 53, it will first move from 53 to 98, then to 183, 37,
122, 14, 124, 65, and finally to 67, for a total head movement of 640 cylinders. The wild swing
from 122 to 14 and then back to 124 illustrates the problem with this schedule. If the requests for
cylinders 37 and 14 could be serviced together, before or after the requests for 122 and 124, the total
head movement could be decreased substantially, and performance could be thereby improved.
2. SSTF (shortest-seek-time-first)Scheduling
Service all the requests close to the current head position, before moving the head far
 away to service other requests. That is selects the request with the minimum seek time from
the current head position.

Total head movement = 236 cylinders

3. C-SCAN Scheduling
Variant of SCAN designed to provide a more uniform wait time. It moves the head from one
end of the disk to the other, servicing requests along the way. When the head reaches the other end,
however, it immediately returns to the beginning of the disk, without servicing any requests on the
return trip.

4. LOOK Scheduling
Both SCAN and C-SCAN move the disk arm across the full width of the disk. In
this, the arm goes only as far as the final request in each direction. Then, it reverses direction
immediately, without going all the way to the end of the disk.
3. Write short notes on disk management. (APRIL/MAY 2019, NOV/DEC 2009) (April/May
2019)

Disk Management

1. Disk Formatting:

Before a disk can store data, the sector is divided into various partitions. This process is
called low- level formatting or physical formatting. It fills the disk with a special data
structure for each sector. The data structure for a sector consists of
✓ Header,
✓ Data area (usually 512 bytes in size), and
✓ Trailer.
The header and trailer contain information used by the disk controller, such as a sector number and
an

Error-correcting code (ECC).

This formatting enables the manufacturer to

1. Test the disk and

2. To initialize the mapping from logical block numbers

To use a disk to hold files, the operating system still needs to record its own data structures
on thedisk. It does so in two steps.
(a) The first step is Partition the disk into one or more groups of cylinders. Among the
partitions, one partition can hold a copy of the OS‘s executable code, while another holds
user files.
(b) The second step is logical formatting .The operating system stores the initial file-system
data structures onto the disk. These data structures may include maps of free and allocated
space and aninitial empty directory.
 2. Boot Block:

For a computer to start running-for instance, when it is powered up or rebooted-it needs to

have an initial program to run. This initial program is called bootstrap program & it should be
simple. It initializes all aspects of the system, from CPU registers to device controllers and the
contents of main memory, and then starts the operating system.
To do its job, the bootstrap program
1. Finds the operating system kernel on disk,

2. Loads that kernel into memory, and

3. Jumps to an initial address to begin the operating-system

execution. The bootstrap is stored in read-only memory (ROM).
Advantages:
1. ROM needs no initialization.

2. It is at a fixed location that the processor can start executing when powered up or reset.

3. It cannot be infected by a computer virus. Since, ROM is read only.

The full bootstrap program is stored in a partition called the boot blocks, at a fixed location
on the disk. A disk that has a boot partition is called a boot disk or system disk.
The code in the boot ROM instructs the disk controller to read the boot blocks into memory
and then starts executing that code.
Bootstrap loader: load the entire operating system from a non-fixed location on disk, and to
start the operating system running.

3. Bad Blocks:

The disk with defected sector is called as bad block.

Depending on the disk and controller in use, these blocks are handled in a variety of ways;

Method 1: “Handled manuallyǁ

If blocks go bad during normal operation, a special program must be run manually to
search for the bad blocks and to lock them away as before. Data that resided on the bad blocks
usually are lost.

Method 2: “sector sparing or forwarding”

The controller maintains a list of bad blocks on the disk. Then the controller can be told
to replace each bad sector logically with one of the spare sectors. This scheme is known as sector
sparing or forwarding.
A typical bad-sector transaction might be as follows:
1. The operating system tries to read logical block 87.

2. The controller calculates the ECC and finds that the sector is bad.

3. It reports this finding to the operating system.

4. The next time that the system is rebooted, a special command is run to tell the controller to
 replace the bad sector with a spare.
5. After that, whenever the system requests logical block 87, the request is translated into the
replacement sector's address by the controller.

Method 3: “sector slipping”

For an example, suppose that logical block 17 becomes defective, and the first available
spare follows sector 202. Then, sector slipping would remap all the sectors from 17 to 202,
moving them all down one spot. That is, sector 202 would be copied into the spare, then sector
201 into 202, and then 200 into 201, and so on, until sector 18 is copied into sector 19. Slipping
the sectors in this way frees up the space of sector 18, so sector 17 can be mapped to it.

4. Write short notes on file system in Linux. (NOV/DEC 2009) (NOV/DEC 2014)

File System Storage-File Concepts

File Concept

 A file is a named collection of related information that is recorded on secondary storage.

 From a user’s perspective, a file is the smallest allotment of logical secondary storage;
that is, data cannot be written to secondary storage unless they are within a file.

Examples of files:

• A text file is a sequence of characters organized into lines (and possibly pages). A source file
is a sequence of subroutines and functions, each of which is further organized as declarations
followed by executable statements. An object file is a sequence of bytes organized into blocks
understandable by the system’s linker.
An executable file is a series of code sections that the loader can bring into memory and execute.

File Attributes

• Name: The symbolic file name is the only information kept in human readable form.
• Identifier: This unique tag, usually a number identifies the file within the file system. It is the
non-human readable name for the file.
• Type: This information is needed for those systems that support different types.
• Location: This information is a pointer to a device and to the location of the file on that device.
• Size: The current size of the file (in bytes, words or blocks)and possibly the maximum
allowed sizeare included in this attribute.
• Protection: Access-control information determines who can do reading, writing, executing and so on.
• Time, date and user identification: This information may be kept for creation, last
modification and last use. These data can be useful for protection, security and usage monitoring.

File Operations

• Creating a file
• Writing a file
• Reading a file
• Repositioning within a file
 • Deleting a file
• Truncating a file

Access Methods

1. Sequential Access
a. The simplest access method is sequential access. Information in the file is
processed in order, one record after the other. This mode of access is by far
the most common; for example, editors and compilers usually access files in
this fashion.

The bulk of the operations on a file is reads and writes. A read operation reads the next portion of the
file and automatically advances a file pointer, which tracks the I/O location. Similarly, a write appends to
the end of the file and advances to the end of the newly written material (the new end of file). Such a file
can be reset to the beginning and, on some systems, a program may be able to skip forward or back ward n
records, for some integer n-perhaps only for n=1. Sequential access is based on a tape model of a file, and
works as well on sequential-access devices as it does on random – access ones.

2. Direct Access

Another method is direct access (or relative access). A file is made up of fixed length logical
records that allow programs to read and write records rapidly in no particular order. The direct-
access methods is based on a disk model of a file, since disks allow random access to any file block.
For direct access, the file is viewed as a numbered sequence of blocks or records. A direct-
access file allows arbitrary blocks to be read or written. Thus, we may read block 14, then read
block 53, and then write block7. There are no restrictions on the order of reading or writing for a
direct-access file.
Direct – access files are of great use for immediate access to large amounts of information.
Database is often of this type. When a query concerning a particular subject arrives, we compute
which block contains the answer, and then read that block directly to provide the desired
information.

5. Write an elaborate note on RAID and RAID Levels. (APRIL/MAY 2010, MAY/JUNE
2012, NOV/DEC 2012, MAY/JUNE 2013)
RAID (Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks)

RAID, or “Redundant Arrays of Independent Disks” is a technique which makes use of a combination of
multiple disks instead of using a single disk for increased performance, data redundancy or both.
Key evaluation points for a RAID System
 Reliability: How many disk faults can the system tolerate?
  Availability: What fraction of the total session time is a system in uptime mode, i.e. how available is
the system for actual use?
 Performance: How good is the response time? How high is the throughput (rate of processing
work)? Note that performance contains a lot of parameters and not just the two.
 Capacity: Given a set of N disks each with B blocks, how much useful capacity is available to the
user?
RAID is very transparent to the underlying system. This means, to the host system, it appears as a single
big disk presenting itself as a linear array of blocks. This allows older technologies to be replaced by
RAID without making too many changes in the existing code.
Different RAID levels
RAID-0 (Striping)
 Blocks are “striped” across disks.

In the figure, blocks “0,1,2,3” form a stripe.

Instead of placing just one block into a disk at a time, we can work with two (or more) blocks placed into
a disk before moving on to the next one.

Evaluation:
 Reliability: 0
There is no duplication of data. Hence, a block once lost cannot be recovered.
 Capacity: N*B
The entire space is being used to store data. Since there is no duplication, N disks each having B
blocks are fully utilized.
RAID-1 (Mirroring)
 More than one copy of each block is stored in a separate disk. Thus, every block has two (or
more)copies,lyingondifferentdisks.

The above figure shows a RAID-1 system with mirroring level 2.

 RAID 0 was unable to tolerate any disk failure. But RAID 1 is capable of reliability.
Evaluation:
Assume a RAID system with mirroring level 2.
Reliability:1toN/2
 1 disk failure can be handled for certain, because blocks of that disk would have duplicates on some
other disk. If we are lucky enough and disks 0 and 2 fail, then again this can be handled as the blocks
of these disks have duplicates on disks 1 and 3. So, in the best case, N/2 disk failures can be handled.
 Capacity:N*B/2
Only half the space is being used to store data. The other half is just a mirror to the already stored
data.
RAID-4 (Block-Level Striping with Dedicated Parity)
 Instead of duplicating data, this adopts a parity-based approach.

In the figure, we can observe one column (disk) dedicated to parity.

 Parity is calculated using a simple XOR function. If the data bits are 0,0,0,1 the parity bit is
XOR(0,0,0,1) = 1. If the data bits are 0,1,1,0 the parity bit is XOR(0,1,1,0) = 0. A simple approach is
that even number of ones results in parity 0, and an odd number of ones results in parity 1.
 Assume that in the above figure, C3 is lost due to some disk failure. Then, we can recompute the
data bit stored in C3 by looking at the values of all the other columns and the parity bit. This allows
us to recover lost data.

Evaluation:
 Reliability:1
RAID-4 allows recovery of at most 1 disk failure (because of the way parity works). If more than
one disk fails, there is no way to recover the data.
 Capacity:(N-1)*B
One disk in the system is reserved for storing the parity. Hence, (N-1) disks are made available for
data storage, each disk having B blocks.
RAID-5 (Block-Level Striping with Distributed Parity)
 This is a slight modification of the RAID-4 system where the only difference is that the parity rotates
among the drives.

In the figure, we can notice how the parity bit “rotates”.

 This was introduced to make the random write performance better.
Evaluation:
 Reliability:1
RAID-5 allows recovery of at most 1 disk failure (because of the way parity works). If more than
one disk fails, there is no way to recover the data. This is identical to RAID-4.
 Capacity:(N-1)*B
Overall, space equivalent to one disk is utilized in storing the parity. Hence, (N-1) disks are made
available for data storage, each disk having B blocks.

6. Explain the services provided by Kernel I/O subsystem. (APRIL/MAY 2017, APRIL/MAY
2010, APRIL/MAY 2011, NOV/DEC2012, MAY/JUNE 2013)
Kernel I/O Subsystem

Kernels provide many services related to I/O.

□ Oneway that the I/O subsystem improves the efficiency of the computer is by
scheduling I/O operations.
□ Another way is by using storage space in main memory or on disk, via techniques called buffering,
caching, and spooling.

I/O Scheduling:

To determine a good order in which to execute the set of I/O requests.

Uses:
a) It can improve overall system performance,

b) It can share device access fairly among processes, and

c) It can reduce the average waiting time for 1/0 to complete.

Implementation: OS developers implement scheduling by maintaining a queue of requests for each
device.
1. When an application issues a blocking I/O system call,

2. The request is placed on the queue for that device.

3. The I/O scheduler rearranges the order of the queue to improve the overall system
efficiency andthe average response time experienced by applications.

Buffering:

Buffer: A memory area that stores data while they are transferred between two devices or
between a device and an application.
Reasons for buffering:
a) To cope with a speed mismatch between the producer and consumer of a data stream.

b) To adapt between devices that have different data-transfer sizes.

c) To support copy semantics for application I/O.

Copy semantics: Suppose that an application has a buffer of data that it wishes to write to
disk. It calls the write () system call, providing a pointer to the buffer and an integer specifying the
number of bytes to write.
After the system call returns, what happens if the application changes the contents of the buffer?
With copy semantics, the version of the data written to disk is guaranteed to be the version at the
time of the application system call, independent of any subsequent changes in the application's
buffer.
A simple way that the operating system can guarantee copy semantics is for the write()
system call to copy the application data into a kernel buffer before returning control to the
application. The disk write is performed from the kernel buffer, so that subsequent changes to the
application buffer have no effect.
Caching

A cache is a region of fast memory that holds copies of data. Access to the cached copy is
more efficient than access to the original
Cache vs buffer: A buffer may hold the only existing copy of a data item, whereas a cache
just holds a copy on faster storage of an item that resides elsewhere.
When the kernel receives a file I/O request,
1. The kernel first accesses the buffer cache to see whether that region of the file is already
available in main memory.

2. If so, a physical disk I/O can be avoided or deferred. Also, disk writes are accumulated in
the buffer cache for several seconds, so that large transfers are gathered to allow efficient
write schedules.

Spooling and Device Reservation:

Spool: A buffer that holds output for a device, such as a printer, that cannot accept
interleaved data streams. A printer can serve only one job at a time, several applications may wish
to print their output concurrently, without having their output mixed together
The os provides a control interface that enables users and system administrators ;
a) To display the queue,

b) To remove unwanted jobs before those jobs print,

c) To suspend printing while the printer is serviced, and

so on. Device reservation - provides exclusive access to a device
□ System calls for allocation and de-allocation
□ Watch out fordeadlock

Error Handling:

• An operating system that uses protected memory can guard against many kinds of hardware and
application errors.
• OS can recover from disk read, device unavailable, transient write failures
• Most return an error number or code when I/O request fails
System error logs hold problem reports

7. Explain the file allocation methods. (APRIL/MAY 2018, April/May 2019, APRIL/MAY 2010)

Allocation Methods

• The main problem is how to allocate space to these files so that disk space is utilized effectively and
files can be accessed quickly.
• There are three major methods of allocating disk space:
1. Contiguous Allocation
2. Linked Allocation
3. Indexed Allocation
1. Contiguous Allocation

• The contiguous – allocation method requires each file to occupy a set of contiguous blocks on the

disk.

• Contiguous allocation of a file is defined by the disk address and length (in block units) of the
first block. If the file is n blocks long and starts at location b, then it occupies blocks b,. b+1,
b+2,…., b+n-1.
• The directory entry for each file indicates the address of the starting block and the length
of thearea allocated for this file.

Disadvantages:

1. Finding space for a new file.

• The contiguous disk space-allocation problem suffer from the problem of external
fragmentation. As file are allocated and deleted, the free disk space is broken into chunks. It
becomes a problem when the largest contiguous chunk is insufficient for a request; storage is
fragmented into a number of holes, no one of which is large enough to store the data.

2. Determining how much space is needed for a file.

• When the file is created, the total amount of space it will need must be found an allocated how does the
creator know the size of the file to be created?
• If we allocate too little space to a file, we may find that file cannot be extended. The other
possibility is to find a larger hole, copy the contents of the file to the new space, and release the
previous space. This series of actions may be repeated as long as space exists, although it can be
time – consuming. However, in this case, the user never needs to be informed explicitly about what
is happening; the system continues despite the problem, although more and more slowly.
• Even if the total amount of space needed for a file is known in advance pre-allocation may be
inefficient.
• A file that grows slowly over a long period (months or years) must be allocated enough space for
its final size, even though much of that space may be unused for a long time the file, therefore has a
large amount of internal fragmentation.
To overcome these disadvantages:

• Use a modified contiguous allocation scheme, in which a contiguous chunk of space called as an
extent is allocated initially and then, when that amount is not large enough another chunk of
contiguous space an extent is added to the initial allocation.
• Internal fragmentation can still be a problem if the extents are too large, and external
fragmentation can be a problem as extents of varying sizes are allocated and deallocated.

2. Linked Allocation

• Linked allocation solves all problems of contiguous allocation.

• With linked allocation, each file is a linked list of disk blocks, the disk blocks may be scattered
anywhere on the disk.
• The directory contains a pointer to the first and last blocks of the file. For example, a file of five
blocks might start at block 9, continue at block 16, then block 1, block 10, and finally bock 25.
• Each block contains a pointer to the next block. These pointers are not made available to the user.
• There is no external fragmentation with linked allocation, and any free block on the free space list can
be used to satisfy a request.
• The size of a file does not need to the declared when that file is created. A file can continue to

grow as long as free blocks are available consequently, it is never necessary to compacts disk space.
Disadvantages:

 Used effectively only for sequential access files.

• To find the ith block of a file, we must start at the beginning of that file, and follow the pointers
until we get to the ith block. Each aces to a pointer requires a disk read, and sometimes a disk seek
consequently, it is inefficient to support a direct- access capability for linked allocation files.

 Space required for the pointers

• If a pointer requires 4 bytes out of a 512-byte block, then 0.78 percent of the disk is being used
for pointers, rather than for information.
• Solution to this problem is to collect blocks into multiples, called clusters, and to allocate the
clusters rather than blocks. For instance, the file system may define a clusters as 4 blocks, and
operate on the disk in only cluster units.

 Reliability
• Since the files are linked together by pointers scattered all over the disk hardware failure might
result in picking up the wrong pointer. This error could result in linking into the free- space list or
 into another file. Partial solution are to use doubly linked lists or to store the file names in a relative
block number in each block; however, these schemes require even more over head for each file.

File Allocation Table (FAT)

• An important variation on the linked allocation method is the use of a file allocation table(FAT).
• This simple but efficient method of disk- space allocation is used by the MS-DOS and OS/2
operating systems.
• A section of disk at beginning of each partition is set aside to contain the table.
• The table has entry for each disk block, and is indexed by block number.
• The FAT is much as is a linked list.
• The directory entry contains the block number the first block of the file.
• The table entry indexed by that block number contains the block number of the next block in the file.
• This chain continues until the last block which has a special end – of – file value as the table entry.
• Unused blocks are indicated by a 0 table value.
• Allocating a new block file is a simple matter of finding the first 0 – valued table entry, and
replacing the previous end of file value with the address of the new block.
• The 0 is replaced with the end – of – file value, an illustrative example is the FAT structure
for a file consisting of disk blocks 217,618, and 339.

3. Indexed Allocation

• Linked allocation solves the external – fragmentation and size- declaration problems of
contiguous allocation.
• Linked allocation cannot support efficient direct access, since the pointers to the blocks are scattered
with
the blocks themselves all over the disk and need to be retrieved in order.
• Indexed allocation solves this problem by bringing all the pointers together into one location:
the index block.
• Each file has its own index block, which is an array of disk – block addresses.
• The ith entry in the index block points to the ith block of the file.
• The directory contains the address of the index block.
• To read the ith block, we use the pointer in the ith index – block entry to find and read the
desired block this scheme is similar to the paging scheme.
 • When the file is created, all pointers in the pointers in the index block are set to nil. when the
ith block is first written, a block is obtained from the free space manager, and its address is put in
the ith index – block entry.
• Indexed allocation supports direct access, without suffering from external fragmentation, because any
free block on the disk may satisfy a request for more space.

Disadvantages

1. Pointer Overhead

• Indexed allocation does suffer from wasted space. The pointer over head of the index block is generally
greater than the pointer over head of linked allocation.

2. Size of Index block

If the index block is too small, however, it will not be able to hold enough pointers for a large
file, and a mechanism will have to be available to deal with this issue:
• Linked Scheme: An index block is normally one disk block. Thus, it can be read and written
directlyby itself. To allow for large files, we may link together several index blocks.
• Multilevel index: A variant of the linked representation is to use a first level index block to
point to aset of second – level index blocks.
• Combined scheme:
o Another alternative, used in the UFS, is to keep the first, say, 15 pointers of the index block in the file’s
in node.
o The first 12 of these pointers point to direct blocks; that is for small ( no more than 12 blocks)
files donot need a separate index block
o The next pointer is the address of a single indirect block.
□ The single indirect block is an index block, containing not data, but rather the addresses of blocks that do
contain data.
o Then there is a double indirect block pointer, which contains the address of a block that contain
pointers to the actual data blocks. The last pointer would contain pointers to the actual data blocks.
o The last pointer would contain the address of a triple indirect block.
 8. Explain the role of Access Matrix for protection in files. (APRIL/MAY 2010)

File Protection

(i) Need for file protection.

• When information is kept in a computer system, we want to keep it safe from physical damage
(reliability) and improper access (protection).
• Reliability is generally provided by duplicate copies of files. Many computers have systems
programs that automatically (or though computer-operator intervention) copy disk files to tape at
regular intervals (once per day or week or month) to maintain a copy should a file system be
accidentally destroyed.
• File systems can be damaged by hardware problems (such as errors in reading or writing), power
surges or failures, head crashes, dirt, temperature extremes, and vandalism. Files may be deleted
accidentally. Bugs in the file-system software can also cause file contents to be lost.
• Protection can be provided in many ways. For a small single-user system, we might provide
protection by physically removing the floppy disks and locking them in a desk drawer or file
cabinet. In a multi-user system, however, other mechanisms are needed.

(ii) Types of Access

• Complete protection is provided by prohibiting access.
• Free access is provided with no protection.
• Both approaches are too extreme for general use.
• What is needed is controlled access.
• Protection mechanisms provide controlled access by limiting the types of file access that can
be made. Access is permitted or denied depending on several factors, one of which is the type
of access requested. Several different types of operations may be controlled:
1. Read: Read from the file.
2. Write: Write or rewrite the file.
3. Execute: Load the file into memory and execute it.
4. Append: Write new information at the end of the file.
5. Delete: Delete the file and free its space for possible reuse.
6. List: List the name and attributes of the file.
 9. Explain directory subsystem (APRIL/MAY 2011)

A directory is a container that is used to contain folders and file. It organizes files and folders into a
hierarchical manner.

There are several logical structures of a directory, these are given below.
Single-level directory –
Single level directory is simplest directory structure.In it all files are contained in same directory which
make it easy to support and understand.
A single level directory has a significant limitation, however, when the number of files increases or when
the system has more than one user. Since all the files are in the same directory, they must have the unique
name . if two users call their dataset test, then the unique name rule violated.

1. Advantages:
 Since it is a single directory, so its implementation is very easy.
 If files are smaller in size, searching will faster.
 The operations like file creation, searching, deletion, updating are very easy in such a directory
structure.
Disadvantages:
 There may change of name collision because two files can not have the same name.
 Searching will become time taking if directory will large.
 In this cannot group the same type of files together.
 2. Two-level directory –
As we have seen, a single level directory often leads to confusion of files names among different
users. the solution to this problem is to create a separate directory for each user.
In the two-level directory structure, each user has there own user files directory (UFD). The UFDs
has similar structures, but each lists only the files of a single user. system’s master file directory
(MFD) is searches whenever a new user id=s logged in. The MFD is indexed by username or
account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.

Advantages:
 We can give full path like /User-name/directory-name/.
 Different users can have same directory as well as file name.
 Searching of files become more easy due to path name and user-grouping.
Disadvantages:
1.
 A user is not allowed to share files with other users.
 Still it not very scalable, two files of the same type cannot be grouped together in the same
user.
2. Tree-structured directory –
Once we have seen a two-level directory as a tree of height 2, the natural generalization is to extend
the directory structure to a tree of arbitrary height.
This generalization allows the user to create there own subdirectories and to organize on their files
accordingly.
A tree structure is the most common directory structure. The tree has a root directory, and every file in the
system have a unique path.
Advantages:
 Very generalize, since full path name can be given.
 Very scalable, the probability of name collision is less.
 Searching becomes very easy, we can use both absolute path as well as relative.
Disadvantages:
 Every file does not fit into the hierarchical model, files may be saved into multiple directories.
 We can not share files.
 It is inefficient, because accessing a file may go under multiple directories.
Acyclic graph directory –
An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycle and allows to share subdirectories and files. The same file or
subdirectories may be in two different directories. It is a natural generalization of the tree-structured
directory.
 It is used in the situation like when two programmers are working on a joint project and they need
to access files. The associated files are stored in a subdirectory, separating them from other
projects and files of other programmers, since they are working on a joint project so they want the
subdirectories to be into their own directories. The common subdirectories should be shared. So
here we use Acyclic directories.
 It is the point to note that shared file is not the same as copy file . If any programmer makes some
changes in the subdirectory it will reflect in both subdirectories.
 Advantages:
1.
 We can share files.
 Searching is easy due to different-different paths.
Disadvantages:
 We share the files via linking, in case of deleting it may create the problem,
 If the link is softlink then after deleting the file we left with a dangling pointer.
 In case of hardlink, to delete a file we have to delete all the reference associated with it.
2. General graph directory structure –
In general graph directory structure, cycles are allowed within a directory structure where multiple
directories can be derived from more than one parent directory.
The main problem with this kind of directory structure is to calculate total size or space that has been
taken by the files and directories.

Advantages:
 It allows cycles.
 It is more flexible than other directories structure.
Disadvantages:
 It is more costly than others.
 It needs garbage collection.
 10. Explain the various file directory structures. (NOV/DEC 2012)

Directory and Disk Structure

There are five directory structures. They are

1. Single-level directory
2. Two-level directory
3. Tree-Structured directory
4. Acyclic Graph directory
5. General Graph directory

1. Single – Level Directory

• The simplest directory structure is the single- level directory.
• All files are contained in the same directory.
• Disadvantage:
➢ When the number of files increases or when the system has more than one user, since
all files are in the same directory, they must have unique names.

2. Two – Level Directory

• In the two level directory structures, each user has her own user file directory (UFD).
• When a user job starts or a user logs in, the system’s master file directory (MFD) is searched. The
MFDis
indexed by user name or account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.
• When a user refers to a particular file, only his own UFD is searched.
• Thus, different users may have files with the same name.
• Although the two – level directory structure solves the name-collision problem

Disadvantage:

➢ Users cannot create their own sub-directories.

3. Tree – Structured Directory

• A tree is the most common directory structure.
• The tree has a root directory. Every file in the system has a unique path name.
• A path name is the path from the root, through all the subdirectories to a specified file.
• A directory (or sub directory) contains a set of files or sub directories.
• A directory is simply another file. But it is treated in a special way.
 All directories have the same internal format
• One bit in each directory entry defines the entry as a file (0) or as a subdirectory (1).
• Special system calls are used to create and delete directories.
• Path names can be of two types: absolute path names or relative path names.
• An absolute path name begins at the root and follows a path down to the specified file, giving the
directory
names on the path.
• A relative path name defines a path from the current directory.

4. Acyclic Graph Directory.

• An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycles.

• To implement shared files and subdirectories this directory structure is used.
• An acyclic – graph directory structure is more flexible than is a simple tree structure, but it is also
more complex. In a system where sharing is implemented by symbolic link, this situation is
somewhat easier to handle. The deletion of a link does not need to affect the original file; only the
link is removed.
• Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file until all references to it are deleted. To implement
this
approach, we must have some mechanism for determining that the last reference to the file has been
deleted.
 11. (i) Explain the different file access methods in detail. (MAY/JUNE 2014)

(iii) Types of Access

• Complete protection is provided by prohibiting access.
• Free access is provided with no protection.
• Both approaches are too extreme for general use.
• What is needed is controlled access.
• Protection mechanisms provide controlled access by limiting the types of file access that can
be made. Access is permitted or denied depending on several factors, one of which is the type
of access requested. Several different types of operations may be controlled:
7. Read: Read from the file.
8. Write: Write or rewrite the file.
9. Execute: Load the file into memory and execute it.
10. Append: Write new information at the end of the file.
11. Delete: Delete the file and free its space for possible reuse.
12. List: List the name and attributes of the file.

(iv) Access Control

• Associate with each file and directory an access-control list (ACL) specifying the user name and
thetypes of access allowed for each user.
• When a user requests access to a particular file, the operating system checks the access list
associated with that file. If that user is listed for the requested access, the access is allowed.
Otherwise, a protection violation occurs and the user job is denied access to the file.
• This technique has two undesirable consequences:
□ Constructing such a list may be a tedious and unrewarding task, especially if we do not know in advance
the list of users in the system.
□ The directory entry, previously of fixed size, now needs to be of variable size, resulting in more
complicated space management.

• To condense the length of the access control list, many systems recognize three classifications of users
in connection with each file:

➢ Owner: The user who created the file is the owner.

➢ Group: A set of users who are sharing the file and need similar access is a group,
or work group.
➢ Universe: All other users in the system constitute the universe.

12. Describe the two level and acyclic graph schemes for defining the logical structure of a
directory. (MAY/JUNE 2013)

Two – Level Directory

• In the two level directory structures, each user has her own user file directory (UFD).
• When a user job starts or a user logs in, the system’s master file directory (MFD) is searched. The
MFDis
indexed by user name or account number, and each entry points to the UFD for that user.
• When a user refers to a particular file, only his own UFD is searched.
 • Thus, different users may have files with the same name.
• Although the two – level directory structure solves the name-collision problem

Disadvantage:

➢ Users cannot create their own sub-directories.

Acyclic Graph Directory.

• An acyclic graph is a graph with no cycles.

• To implement shared files and subdirectories this directory structure is used.
• An acyclic – graph directory structure is more flexible than is a simple tree structure, but it is also
more complex. In a system where sharing is implemented by symbolic link, this situation is
somewhat easier to handle. The deletion of a link does not need to affect the original file; only the
link is removed.
• Another approach to deletion is to preserve the file until all references to it are deleted. To implement
this
approach, we must have some mechanism for determining that the last reference to the file has been
deleted.

13. Explain the Linked list and indexed file allocation methods with neat diagram. Mention their
advantages and disadvantages. (MAY/JUNE 2013)(April/May 2019)

Linked Allocation

• Linked allocation solves all problems of contiguous allocation.

• With linked allocation, each file is a linked list of disk blocks, the disk blocks may be scattered
 anywhere on the disk.
• The directory contains a pointer to the first and last blocks of the file. For example, a file of five
blocks might start at block 9, continue at block 16, then block 1, block 10, and finally bock 25.
• Each block contains a pointer to the next block. These pointers are not made available to the user.
• There is no external fragmentation with linked allocation, and any free block on the free space list can
be used to satisfy a request.
• The size of a file does not need to the declared when that file is created. A file can continue to

grow as long as free blocks are available consequently, it is never necessary to compacts disk space.
Disadvantages:

1. Used effectively only for sequential access files.

• To find the ith block of a file, we must start at the beginning of that file, and follow the pointers
until we get to the ith block. Each aces to a pointer requires a disk read, and sometimes a disk seek
consequently, it is inefficient to support a direct- access capability for linked allocation files.

2. Space required for the pointers

• If a pointer requires 4 bytes out of a 512-byte block, then 0.78 percent of the disk is being used
for pointers, rather than for information.
• Solution to this problem is to collect blocks into multiples, called clusters, and to allocate the
clusters rather than blocks. For instance, the file system may define a clusters as 4 blocks, and
operate on the disk in only cluster units.

3. Reliability
• Since the files are linked together by pointers scattered all over the disk hardware failure might
result in picking up the wrong pointer. This error could result in linking into the free- space list or
into another file. Partial solution are to use doubly linked lists or to store the file names in a relative
block number in each block; however, these schemes require even more over head for each file.

File Allocation Table(FAT)

• An important variation on the linked allocation method is the use of a file allocation table(FAT).
• This simple but efficient method of disk- space allocation is used by the MS-DOS and OS/2
operating systems.
• A section of disk at beginning of each partition is set aside to contain the table.
• The table has entry for each disk block, and is indexed by block number.
• The FAT is much as is a linked list.
 • The directory entry contains the block number the first block of the file.
• The table entry indexed by that block number contains the block number of the next block in the file.
• This chain continues until the last block which has a special end – of – file value as the table entry.
• Unused blocks are indicated by a 0 table value.
• Allocating a new block file is a simple matter of finding the first 0 – valued table entry, and
replacing the previous end of file value with the address of the new block.
• The 0 is replaced with the end – of – file value, an illustrative example is the FAT structure
for a file consisting of disk blocks 217,618, and 339.

Indexed Allocation

• Linked allocation solves the external – fragmentation and size- declaration problems of
contiguous allocation.
• Linked allocation cannot support efficient direct access, since the pointers to the blocks are scattered
with the blocks themselves all over the disk and need to be retrieved in order.
• Indexed allocation solves this problem by bringing all the pointers together into one location:
the index block.
• Each file has its own index block, which is an array of disk – block addresses.
• The ith entry in the index block points to the ith block of the file.
• The directory contains the address of the index block .
• To read the ith block, we use the pointer in the ith index – block entry to find and read the
desired block this scheme is similar to the paging scheme .

• When the file is created, all pointers in the pointers in the index block are set to nil. when the
ith block is first written, a block is obtained from the free space manager, and its address is put in
the ith index – block entry.
• Indexed allocation supports direct access, without suffering from external fragmentation, because any
free block on the disk may satisfy a request for more space.
Disadvantages

1. Pointer Overhead

• Indexed allocation does suffer from wasted space. The pointer over head of the index block is generally
greater than the pointer over head of linked allocation.

2. Size of Index block

If the index block is too small, however, it will not be able to hold enough pointers for a large
file, and a mechanism will have to be available to deal with this issue:
• Linked Scheme: An index block is normally one disk block. Thus, it can be read and written
directlyby itself. To allow for large files, we may link together several index blocks.
• Multilevel index: A variant of the linked representation is to use a first level index block to
point to aset of second – level index blocks.
• Combined scheme:
o Another alternative, used in the UFS, is to keep the first, say, 15 pointers of the index block in the file’s
in node.
o The first 12 of these pointers point to direct blocks; that is for small ( no more than 12 blocks)
files do not need a separate index block The next pointer is the address of a single indirect
block.
o The single indirect block is an index block, containing not data, but rather the addresses of blocks that do
contain data.
o Then there is a double indirect block pointer, which contains the address of a block that contain
pointers to the actual data blocks. The last pointer would contain pointers to the actual data blocks.
o The last pointer would contain the address of a triple indirect block.
 UNIT V - CASE STUDY
PART – A

1. What is Linux distribution?

A Linux distribution includes all the standard components of the Linux system, plus a set of
administrative tools to simplify the initial installation and subsequent upgrading of Linux and
manage installation and removal of other packages on the system.
2. What is the use of User mode? (April/may2019)
Under Linux, no user code is built into the kernel. Any operating-system-support code that does
not need to run in kernel mode is placed into the system libraries and runs in user mode.
3. What are the components of LINUX System. (NOV/DEC 2019)
The module support under Linux has four components:
1. The module-management system allows modules to be loaded into memory and to
communicate with the rest of the kernel.
2. The module loader and unloaded, which are user-mode utilities, work with the module-
management system to load a module into memory.
3. The driver-registration system allows modules to tell the rest of the kernel that a new
driver has become available.
4. A conflict-resolution mechanism allows different device drivers to reserve hardware
resources and to protect those resources from accidental use by another driver.
4. What is process Identity?
Each process has a unique identifier. The PID is used to specify the process to the operating
system when an application makes a system call to signal, modify, or wait for the process.
Additional identifiers associate the process with a process group (typically, a tree of processes
forked by a single user command and login session.
5. Define DNS
The domain name system (DNS) provides host-name-to-network-address translations for the
entire Internet. Before DNS became widespread, files containing the same information were sent
via e-mail or ftp between all networked hosts.
6. What is virtualization? (Nov/Dec2016)
Virtualization, in computing, refers to the act of creating a virtual (rather than actual) version of
something, including but not limited to a virtual computer hardware platform, operating system
(OS), storage device, or computer network resources.
7. What is pluggable authentication modules
The pluggable authentication modules(PAM) system is based on a shared library that can be used
by any system component that needs to authenticate users. An implementation of this system is
available under Linux. PAM allows authentication modules to be loaded on demand as specified in
a system-wide configuration file. If a new authentication mechanism is added at a later date, it can
be added to the configuration file, and all system components will immediately be able to take
advantage of it. PAM modules can specify authentication methods, account restrictions,
sessionsetup functions, and password-changing functions (so that, when users change their
passwords, all the necessary authentication mechanisms can be updated at once).

8. What is the use of firewall manager

The firewall manager maintains a number of separate firewall chains and allows a skbuff to be
matched against any chain. Chains are reserved for separate purposes: one is used for forwarded
packets, one for packets being input to this host, and one for data generated at this host. Each
chain is held as an ordered list of rules, where a rule specifies one of a number of possible
firewall-decision functions plus some arbitrary data for matching purposes.
10. What is the responsibility of kernel in Linux operating system? (May/June 2015)
Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating system. It
is consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel
provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application
 programs.
11. Why Virtualization is required? (Nov/Dec 2015,17)
Virtualization reduces the number of physical servers, reducing the energy required to power and
cool them. Save time. With fewer servers, you can spend less time on the manual tasks required
for server maintenance. It's also much faster to deploy a virtual machine than it is to deploy a new
physical server.
12. Enumerate the requirements for Linux system administrator. Brief any one.
1. While specific knowledge is a boon, most hiring managers require that you possess basic
knowledge about all aspects of Linux. For example, a little knowledge about Solaris,
BSD, nginx or various flavors of Linux never hurt anyone!
2. Knowledge in at least one of the upper tier scripting language is a must. You have options
before you, for instance, Python, Perl, Ruby or more, but you need to make yourself
proficient in at least one of them.
3. Experience is welcome, but you at least need to have some hands-on experience of system
management, system setup and managing Linux or Solaris based servers as well as
configuringthem.
4. Knowledge in shell programming and architecture is valued very much in the job market. If
you know Buorne or Korn well, you can even score a high-paying salary with minimal
experience.
5. Storage technologies like FC, NFS or iSCSI is great, while knowledge regarding backup
technologies is a must for a system administrator.
13. State the components of a Linux System? (NOV/DEC 2019, May/June 2016)
1. Kernel: The kernel is responsible for maintaining all the important abstractions of the
operating system, including such things as virtual memory and processes.
2. System libraries: The system libraries define a standard set of functions through which
applications can interact with the kernel. These functions implement much of the
operating- system functionality that does not need the full privileges of kernel code.
3. System utilities: The system utilities are programs that perform individual, specialized
management tasks. Some system utilities are invoked just once to initialize and configure
some aspect of the system.

14. Define the function of Caching-only servers. (May/June 2016)

All DNS servers cache answers to queries they receive from outside their own zone of authority.
A cache- only DNS server is not authoritative for any zone. Related Topics: DNS root servers:
Root servers are critical to the function of a DNS server that is directly connected to the Internet.
15. Point out the purpose of using virtualization. (Nov/Dec 2017)
It involves CPUs that provide support for virtualization in hardware, and other hardware
components that help improve the performance of a guest environment. ... The usual goal of
virtualization is to centralize administrative tasks while improving scalability and overall
hardware-resource utilization.
16. Prepare the advantages of Linux OS.(Nov/Dec 2017)
Linux was one of the first open-source technologies, but many programmers have contributed and
added software that’s completely open-source for any user.
One main advantage of open-source technologies such as Linux is the wide range of options
available to users and the increased security. With Linux being open-source, several distributions
are available to the end-user. Debian, Fedora, Ubuntu and Mint are just a few of the distributions
available to end users, and these distributions are completely free to download.
17. Mention any two feature of Linux file systems(May/June2017)

The Linux file system is a hierarchically structured tree. Linux distinguishes between uppercase
and lowercase letters in the file system.
 18. Write short notes on driver registration in Linux (April/May 2019)

driver_register () is the low-level function used to register a device driver with the bus. It adds the driver to
the bus's list of drivers. When a device driver is registered with the bus, the core walks through the bus's
list of devices and calls the bus's match callback for each device that does not have a driver associated
with it in order to find out if there are any devices that the driver can handle.
When a match occurs, the device and the device driver are bound together. The process of associating a
device with a device driver is called binding.
Back to the registration of drivers with our packt bus; one has to use packt_register_driver(struct packt_driver
*driver), which is a wrapper around driver_register()

PART-B
1. Explain in detail about the concepts of Linux system.

The Linux System

 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer hardware
and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. The Linux open source operating system, or Linux
OS, is a freely distributable, cross-platform operating system based on UNIX.
 The Linux consist of a kernel and some system programs. There are also some application programs for
doing work. The kernel is the heart of the operating system which provides a set of tools that are used
by system calls.
 The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on 5
October 1991 by Linus Torvalds.

 A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic design from
principles established in UNIX. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel which handles process control,
networking, and peripheral and file system access.

Important features of Linux Operating System

Portable - Portability means software can work on different types of hardware in same way.
 Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any kind of hardware
platform.
Open Source - Linux source code is freely available and it is community based development
project.
Multi-User & Multiprogramming - Linux is a multiuser system where multiple users can
access system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same time. Linux is a
multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at same time.
 Hierarchical File System - Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/ user file are
arranged.

 Shell - Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands of the
operating system.
 Security - Linux provides user security using authentication features like password protection/
controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components

 Kernel - Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this operating
system. It is consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the underlying hardware. Kernel
provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware details to system or application programs.
 System Library - System libraries are special functions or programs using which application programs
or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implements most of the functionalities of
the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access rights.
System Utility - System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level tasks

Installed components of a Linux system include the following:

  A bootloader is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer's main memory, by being
executed by the computerwhen it is turned on and after the firmware initialization is performed.
 An init program is the first process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the process tree.
 Software libraries, which contain code that can be used by running processes. The most commonly
used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), C standard library and Widget
toolkits.
User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments. The user interface, also
known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user interface (GUI), or through
controls attached the associated hardware.

Architecture

Linux System Architecture is consists of following layers

1. Hardware layer - Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).
2. Kernel - Core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware, provides
low level services to upper layer components.
3. Shell - An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users. Takes
commands from user and executes kernel's functions.
4. Utilities - Utility programs giving user most of the functionalities of an operatingsystems.

2. Explain in detail about virtualization.

Virtualization
Virtualization refers to the act of creating a virtual (rather than actual) version of
something, including a virtual computer hardware platform, operating system (OS),
storage device, or computer network resources.

Virtual Machine Server – A Layered Approach

Hardware virtualization or platform virtualization refers to the creation of a virtual

machine that acts like a real computer with an operating system. Software executed on
these virtual machines is separated from the underlying hardware resources.
Hardware virtualization hides the physical characteristics of a computing platform from
users,
 For example, a computer that is running Microsoft Windows may host a virtual
machine that looks like a computer with the Ubuntu Linux operating system;
Ubuntu-based software can be run on the virtual machine.

Hardware Virtualization

Benefits of Virtualization

1. Instead of deploying several physical servers for each service, only one
server can be used. Virtualization let multiple OSs and applications to run
on a server at a time. Consolidate hardware to get vastly higher
productivity from fewer servers.
2. If the preferred operating system is deployed as an image, so we needed to
go through the installation process only once for the entire infrastructure.
3. Improve business continuity: Virtual operating system images allow us
for instant recovery in case of a system failure. The crashed system can be
restored back by coping the virtual image.
4. Increased uptime: Most server virtualization platforms offer a number of
advanced features that just aren't found on physical servers which
increases servers’ uptime. Some of features are live migration, storage
migration, fault tolerance, high availability, and distributed resource
scheduling.
5. Reduce capital and operating costs: Server consolidation can be done
by running multiple virtual machines (VM) on a single physical server.
Fewer servers means lower capital and operating costs.
Architecture - Virtualization

The heart of virtualization is the “virtual machine” (VM), a tightly isolated

software container with an operating system and application inside. Because each
virtual machine is completely separate and independent, many of them can run
simultaneously on a single computer. A thin layer of software called a hypervisor
decouples the virtual machines from the host and dynamically allocates computing
resources to each virtual machine as needed.
This architecture redefines your computing equation and delivers:
Many applications on each server: As each virtual machine encapsulates an
entire machine, many applications and operating systems can run on a single
host at the same time.
Maximum server utilization, minimum server count: Every physical
machine is used to its full capacity, allowing you to significantly reduce costs
by deploying fewer servers overall.
 Faster, easier application and resource provisioning: As self-contained
software files, virtual machines can be manipulated with copy-and-paste ease.
Virtual machines can even be transferred from one physical server to another
while running, via a process known as live migration.

3. Write about LINUX architecture and LINUX kernel with neat sketch. (Nov/Dec
2015)

The Linux System

 An operating system is a program that acts as an interface between the user and the computer
hardware and controls the execution of all kinds of programs. The Linux open source
operating system, or Linux OS, is a freely distributable, cross-platform operating system
based on UNIX.
 The Linux consist of a kernel and some system programs. There are also some application
programs for doing work. The kernel is the heart of the operating system which provides a set
of tools that are used by system calls.
 The defining component of Linux is the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first
released on 5 October 1991 by Linus Torvalds.
  A Linux-based system is a modular Unix-like operating system. It derives much of its basic
design from principles established in UNIX. Such a system uses a monolithic kernel which
handles process control, networking, and peripheral and file system access.

Important features of Linux Operating System

Portable - Portability means software can work on different types of hardware in
same way. Linux kernel and application programs supports their installation on any
kind ofhardware platform.
Open Source - Linux source code is freely available and it is community based
development project.
Multi-User & Multiprogramming - Linux is a multiuser system where multiple
users can access system resources like memory/ ram/ application programs at same
time. Linux is a multiprogramming system means multiple applications can run at
same time.
 Hierarchical File System - Linux provides a standard file structure in which system files/
user file are arranged.

 Shell - Linux provides a special interpreter program which can be used to execute commands
of the operating system.
 Security - Linux provides user security using authentication features like password
protection/ controlled access to specific files/ encryption of data.

Components of Linux System

Linux Operating System has primarily three components
  Kernel - Kernel is the core part of Linux. It is responsible for all major activities of this
operating system. It is consists of various modules and it interacts directly with the
underlying hardware. Kernel provides the required abstraction to hide low level hardware
details to system or application programs.
 System Library - System libraries are special functions or programs using which application
programs or system utilities accesses Kernel's features. These libraries implements most of
the functionalities of the operating system and do not requires kernel module's code access
rights.
System Utility - System Utility programs are responsible to do specialized, individual level

tasks
Installed components of a Linux system include the following:

 A bootloader is a program that loads the Linux kernel into the computer's main memory, by
being executed by the computerwhen it is turned on and after the firmware initialization is
performed.
 An init program is the first process launched by the Linux kernel, and is at the root of the
process tree.
 Software libraries, which contain code that can be used by running processes. The most
commonly used software library on Linux systems, the GNU C Library (glibc), C standard
library and Widget toolkits.
User interface programs such as command shells or windowing environments. The user
interface, also known as the shell, is either a command-line interface (CLI), a graphical user
interface (GUI), or through controls attached the associated hardware.
Architecture

Linux System Architecture is consists of following layers

5. Hardware layer - Hardware consists of all peripheral devices (RAM/ HDD/ CPU etc).
6. Kernel - Core component of Operating System, interacts directly with hardware,
provides low level services to upper layer components.
7. Shell - An interface to kernel, hiding complexity of kernel's functions from users.
Takes commands from user and executes kernel's functions.
8. Utilities - Utility programs giving user most of the functionalities of an operating
systems.

4. Discuss the process and Memory Management in Linux .(April/May 2019)

PROCESS MANAGEMENT

A Program does nothing unless its instructions are executed by a CPU. A program in execution
is called a process. In order to accomplish its task, process needs the computer resources.

There may exist more than one process in the system which may require the same resource at the
same time. Therefore, the operating system has to manage all the processes and the resources in a
convenient and efficient way.

Some resources may need to be executed by one process at one time to maintain the consistency
otherwise the system can become inconsistent and deadlock may occur.
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with Process
Management

1. Scheduling processes and threads on the CPUs.

2. Creating and deleting both user and system processes.
3. Suspending and resuming processes.
4. Providing mechanisms for process synchronization.
5. Providing mechanisms for process communication.

Attributes of a process

The Attributes of the process are used by the Operating System to create the process control
block (PCB) for each of them. This is also called context of the process. Attributes which are
stored in the PCB are described below.

1. Process ID

When a process is created, a unique id is assigned to the process which is used for unique
identification of the process in the system.

2. Program counter

A program counter stores the address of the last instruction of the process on which the process
was suspended. The CPU uses this address when the execution of this process is resumed.

3. Process State

The Process, from its creation to the completion, goes through various states which are new,
ready, running and waiting. We will discuss about them later in detail.

4. Priority

Every process has its own priority. The process with the highest priority among the processes
gets the CPU first. This is also stored on the process control block.

5. General Purpose Registers

Every process has its own set of registers which are used to hold the data which is generated
during the execution of the process.

6. List of open files

During the Execution, Every process uses some files which need to be present in the main
memory. OS also maintains a list of open files in the PCB.
7. List of open devices

OS also maintain the list of all open devices which are used during the execution of the process.

Operations on the Process

1. Creation

Once the process is created, it will be ready and come into the ready queue (main memory) and
will be ready for the execution.

2. Scheduling

Out of the many processes present in the ready queue, the Operating system chooses one process
and start executing it. Selecting the process which is to be executed next, is known as scheduling.

3. Execution

Once the process is scheduled for the execution, the processor starts executing it. Process may
come to the blocked or wait state during the execution then in that case the processor starts
executing the other processes.

4. Deletion/killing

Once the purpose of the process gets over then the OS will kill the process. The Context of the
process (PCB) will be deleted and the process gets terminated by the Operating system.
Process Schedulers

Operating system uses various schedulers for the process scheduling described below.

1. Long term scheduler

Long term scheduler is also known as job scheduler. It chooses the processes from the pool
(secondary memory) and keeps them in the ready queue maintained in the primary memory.

Long Term scheduler mainly controls the degree of Multiprogramming. The purpose of long
term scheduler is to choose a perfect mix of IO bound and CPU bound processes among the jobs
present in the pool.

If the job scheduler chooses more IO bound processes then all of the jobs may reside in the
blocked state all the time and the CPU will remain idle most of the time. This will reduce the
degree of Multiprogramming. Therefore, the Job of long term scheduler is very critical and may
affect the system for a very long time.

2. Short term scheduler

Short term scheduler is also known as CPU scheduler. It selects one of the Jobs from the ready
queue and dispatch to the CPU for the execution.

A scheduling algorithm is used to select which job is going to be dispatched for the execution.
The Job of the short term scheduler can be very critical in the sense that if it selects job whose
CPU burst time is very high then all the jobs after that, will have to wait in the ready queue for a
very long time.

This problem is called starvation which may arise if the short term scheduler makes some
mistakes while selecting the job.

3. Medium term scheduler

Medium term scheduler takes care of the swapped out processes. If the running state processes
needs some IO time for the completion then there is a need to change its state from running to
waiting.

Medium term scheduler is used for this purpose. It removes the process from the running state to
make room for the other processes. Such processes are the swapped out processes and this
procedure is called swapping. The medium term scheduler is responsible for suspending and
resuming the processes.

It reduces the degree of multiprogramming. The swapping is necessary to have a perfect mix of
processes in the ready queue.
Process Queues

The Operating system manages various types of queues for each of the process states. The PCB
related to the process is also stored in the queue of the same state. If the Process is moved from
one state to another state then its PCB is also unlinked from the corresponding queue and added
to the other state queue in which the transition is made.

There are the following queues maintained by the Operating system.

1. Job Queue

In starting, all the processes get stored in the job queue. It is maintained in the secondary
memory. The long term scheduler (Job scheduler) picks some of the jobs and put them in the
primary memory.

2. Ready Queue

Ready queue is maintained in primary memory. The short term scheduler picks the job from the
ready queue and dispatch to the CPU for the execution.

3. Waiting Queue

When the process needs some IO operation in order to complete its execution, OS changes the
state of the process from running to waiting. The context (PCB) associated with the process gets
stored on the waiting queue which will be used by the Processor when the process finishes the
IO.
MEMORY MANAGEMENT

Memory management is the functionality of an operating system which handles or

manages primary memory and moves processes back and forth between main memory and disk
during execution. Memory management keeps track of each and every memory location,
regardless of either it is allocated to some process or it is free. It checks how much memory is to
be allocated to processes. It decides which process will get memory at what time. It tracks
whenever some memory gets freed or unallocated and correspondingly it updates the status.
Virtual and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding
schemes. Virtual and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme.
The set of all logical addresses generated by a program is referred to as a logical address space.
The set of all physical addresses corresponding to these logical addresses is referred to as
a physical address space.
The runtime mapping from virtual to physical address is done by the memory management unit
(MMU) which is a hardware device. MMU uses following mechanism to convert virtual
address to physical address.
 The value in the base register is added to every address generated by a user process,
which is treated as offset at the time it is sent to memory. For example, if the base
register value is 10000, then an attempt by the user to use address location 100 will be
dynamically reallocated to location 10100.
 The user program deals with virtual addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses

Static vs Dynamic Loading

The choice between Static or Dynamic Loading is to be made at the time of computer
program being developed. If you have to load your program statically, then at the time of
compilation, the complete programs will be compiled and linked without leaving any external
program or module dependency. The linker combines the object program with other necessary
object modules into an absolute program, which also includes logical addresses.
If you are writing a dynamically loaded program, then your compiler will compile the program
and for all the modules which you want to include dynamically, only references will be
provided and rest of the work will be done at the time of execution.
At the time of loading, with static loading, the absolute program (and data) is loaded into
memory in order for execution to start.
If you are using dynamic loading, dynamic routines of the library are stored on a disk in
relocatable form and are loaded into memory only when they are needed by the program.

Static vs Dynamic Linking

 As explained above, when static linking is used, the linker combines all other modules
needed by a program into a single executable program to avoid any runtime dependency.
When dynamic linking is used, it is not required to link the actual module or library with the
program, rather a reference to the dynamic module is provided at the time of compilation and
linking. Dynamic Link Libraries (DLL) in Windows and Shared Objects in Unix are good
examples of dynamic libraries.

Swapping

Swapping is a mechanism in which a process can be swapped temporarily out of main

memory (or move) to secondary storage (disk) and make that memory available to other
processes. At some later time, the system swaps back the process from the secondary storage to
main memory.
Though performance is usually affected by swapping process but it helps in running multiple
and big processes in parallel and that's the reason Swapping is also known as a technique for
memory compaction.
Memory Allocation

Main memory usually has two partitions −

 Low Memory − Operating system resides in this memory.
 High Memory − User processes are held in high memory.
Operating system uses the following memory allocation mechanism.

S.N. Memory Allocation & Description

1
Single-partition allocation
In this type of allocation, relocation-register scheme is used to protect user
processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data.
Relocation register contains value of smallest physical address whereas limit
register contains range of logical addresses. Each logical address must be less than
the limit register.

2
Multiple-partition allocation
In this type of allocation, main memory is divided into a number of fixed-sized
partitions where each partition should contain only one process. When a partition is
free, a process is selected from the input queue and is loaded into the free partition.
When the process terminates, the partition becomes available for another process.

Fragmentation

As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken
into little pieces. It happens after sometimes that processes cannot be allocated to memory
blocks considering their small size and memory blocks remains unused. This problem is known
as Fragmentation.
Fragmentation is of two types −

S.N. Fragmentation & Description

1
External fragmentation
Total memory space is enough to satisfy a request or to reside a process in it, but it
is not contiguous, so it cannot be used.
2
Internal fragmentation
Memory block assigned to process is bigger. Some portion of memory is left
unused, as it cannot be used by another process.

External fragmentation can be reduced by compaction or shuffle memory contents to place all
free memory together in one large block. To make compaction feasible, relocation should be
dynamic.
The internal fragmentation can be reduced by effectively assigning the smallest partition but
large enough for the process.

7.Explain the architecture of iOS. Discuss the media and service layers clearly.(April/May2019)

Architecture of IOS
Architecture of IOS is a layered architecture. At the uppermost level iOS works as an
intermediary between the underlying hardware and the apps you make. Apps do not
communicate to the underlying hardware directly.
Apps talk with the hardware through a collection of well defined system interfaces. These
interfaces make it simple to write apps that work constantly on devices having various hardware
abilities.
Lower layers gives the basic services which all application relies on and higher level layer gives
sophisticated graphics and interface related services.
Apple provides most of its system interfaces in special packages called frameworks. A
framework is a directory that holds a dynamic shared library that is .a files, related resources like
as header files, images, and helper apps required to support that library. Every layer have a set of
Framework which the developer use to construct the applications.

1. Core OS Layer:
The Core OS layer holds the low level features that most other technologies are built upon.

 Core Bluetooth Framework.

 Accelerate Framework.
 External Accessory Framework.
 Security Services framework.
 Local Authentication framework.

64-Bit support from IOS7 supports the 64 bit app development and enables the application to run
faster.
2. Core Services Layer
some of the Important Frameworks available in the core services layers are detailed:

 Address book framework – Gives programmatic access to a contacts database of user.

 Cloud Kit framework – Gives a medium for moving data between your app and iCloud.

 Core data Framework – Technology for managing the data model of a Model View
Controller app.

 Core Foundation framework – Interfaces that gives fundamental data management and
service features for iOS apps.

 Core Location framework – Gives location and heading information to apps.

 Core Motion Framework – Access all motion based data available on a device. Using this
core motion framework Accelerometer based information can be accessed.
 Foundation Framework – Objective C covering too many of the features found in the Core
Foundation framework

 Healthkit framework – New framework for handling health-related information of user

 Homekit framework – New framework for talking with and controlling connected devices
in a user’s home.

 Social framework – Simple interface for accessing the user’s social media accounts.

 StoreKit framework – Gives support for the buying of content and services from inside
your iOS apps, a feature known asIn-App Purchase.

3. Media Layer: Graphics, Audio and Video technology is enabled using the Media Layer.
Graphics Framework:

 UIKit Graphics – It describes high level support for designing images and also used for
animating the content of your views.

 Core Graphics framework – It is the native drawing engine for iOS apps and gives support
for custom 2D vector and image based rendering.

 Core Animation – It is an initial technology that optimizes the animation experience of your
apps.

 Core Images – gives advanced support for controlling video and motionless images in a
nondestructive way

 OpenGl ES and GLKit – manages advanced 2D and 3D rendering by hardware accelerated

interfaces

 Metal – It permits very high performance for your sophisticated graphics rendering and
computation works. It offers very low overhead access to the A7 GPU.

Audio Framework:

 Media Player Framework – It is a high level framework which gives simple use to a user’s
iTunes library and support for playing playlists.

 AV Foundation – It is an Objective C interface for handling the recording and playback of

audio and video.

 OpenAL – is an industry standard technology for providing audio.

Video Framework

 AV Kit – framework gives a collection of easy to use interfaces for presenting video.

 AV Foundation – gives advanced video playback and recording capability.

 Core Media – framework describes the low level interfaces and data types for operating
media.

Cocoa Touch Layer

 EventKit framework – gives view controllers for showing the standard system interfaces
for seeing and altering calendar related events

 GameKit Framework – implements support for Game Center which allows users share
their game related information online

 iAd Framework – allows you deliver banner-based advertisements from your app.

 MapKit Framework – gives a scrollable map that you can include into your user interface
of app.

 PushKitFramework – provides registration support for VoIP apps.

 Twitter Framework – supports a UI for generating tweets and support for creating URLs to
access the Twitter service.

 UIKit Framework – gives vital infrastructure for applying graphical, event-driven apps in
iOS. Some of the Important functions of UI Kit framework: