ROUTLEDGE

ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
TRANSLATION STUDIES
Page intentionally left blank
 ROUTLEDGE
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF TRANSLATION
STUDIES
Edited by

MONA BAKER

assisted by

KIRSTEN MALMKJlER

London and New York

 First published 1998
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada

by Routledge
270 Madison Ave, New York NY 10016

Reprinted 2000

Transferred to Digital Printing 2005

First published in paperback 2001

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group

© 1998,2001 Mona Baker

Typeset in 9 I 11 pt Times by Mathematical Composition Setters Ltd, Salisbury, Wilts.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter
invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the
British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Routledge encyclopedia of translation studies I edited by Mona Baker.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Translating and interpreting-Encyclopedias.!. Baker, Mona.
P306.E57
418'.02'03-dc21 96-44586
CIP

ISBN 0-415-09380-5 (hbk)

ISBN 0-415-25517-1 (pbk)
 Contents

List offigures and tables viii

List of consultant editors lX

List of contributors X

Introduction Xlll

Permissions acknowledgements xix

Part 1: General
Action (theory of 'translatorial action') Christina Schiiffner 3
Adaptation Georges L Bastin 5
Analytical philosophy and translation Kirsten Malmkjrer 8
Anthologies of translation Armin Paul Frank 13
Association intemationale des interpretes de
conference (AIIC) Janet Altman 16
Auto-translation Rainier Grutman 17
Babel, tower of Douglas Robinson 21
Bible translation Eugene A. Nida 22
Communicative/ functional approaches Jan Mason 29
Community interpreting Cecilia Wadensj6 33
Compensation Keith Harvey 37
Conference and simultaneous interpreting Daniel Gile 40
Contrastive analysis and translation Michael Hoey and Diane Houghton 45
Corpora in translation studies Dorothy Kenny 50
Court interpreting Muhammad Gamal 53
Decision making in translation Wolfram Wilss 57
Didactics of translation Hans J. Vermeer 60
Direction of translation (directionality) Allison Beeby Lonsdale 63
Discourse analysis and translation Basil Hatim 67
Drama translation Gunilla Anderman 71
Dubbing Mona Baker and Brano Hochel 74
Equivalence Dorothy Kenny 77

Federation intemationale des traducteurs (FIT)

Explicitation Kinga Klaudy 80
Jean-Fran�ois Joly 85
Free translation Douglas Robinson 87
Game theory and translation Michael Cronin 91
Gender metaphorics in translation Lori Chamberlain 93
Hermeneutic motion Douglas Robinson 97
vi Contents

History of translation Judith Woodsworth 100

Ideology and translation Peter Fawcett 106
Imitation Douglas Robinson 111
Interpretive approach Myriam Salama-Carr 112
Intertemporal translation Douglas Robinson 114
Language teaching, use of translation in Guy Cook 117
Linguistic approaches Peter Fawcett 120
Literal approaches Douglas Robinson 125
Literary translation, practices Peter Bush 127
Literary translation, research issues Jose Lambert 130
Machine-aided translation Karl-Heinz Freigang 134
Machine translation, applications Harold L. Somers 136
Machine translation, history Harold L. Somers 140
Machine translation, methodology Harold L. Somers 143
Metaphor of translation Ruth Evans 149
Metaphrase Douglas Robinson 153
Models of translation Thea Hermans 154
Multilingualism and translation Rainier Grutman 157
Normative model Douglas Robinson 161
Norms Mona Baker 163
Paraphrase Douglas Robinson 166
Poetics of translation Edwin Gentzler 167
Poetry translation DavidConnolly 170
Polysystem theory Mark Shuttleworth 176
Pragmatics and translation Basil Hatim 179
Pseudotranslation Douglas Robinson 183
Psycholinguistic/ cognitive approaches Roger T. Bell 185
Publishing strategies Terry Hale 190
Pure language Peter Bush 194
Quality of translation Juliane House 197
Qur'lin (Koran) translation lfassan Mustapha 200
Reviewing and criticism Carol Maier 205

Umberto Eco and Siri Nergaard

Script in translation Gordon Brotherston 211
Semiotic approaches 218
Shakespeare translation Dirk Delabastita 222

and Kitty van Leuven-Zwart

Shifts of translation Matthijs Bakker, Cees Koster
226
Signed language interpreting William P.Isham 231
Skopos theory Christina Schaffner 235

Lawrence Venuti
Speculative approaches Marilyn Gaddis Rose 238
Strategies of translation 240
Subtitling Henrik Gottlieb 244
Term banks Blaise Nkwenti-Azeh 249
Terminology, applications JuanC. Sager 251
Terminology, standardization JuanC. Sager 255
Terminology, theory JuanC. Sager 258

Riitta Jiiiiskeliiinen
Text linguistics and translation BasilHatim 262
Think-aloud protocols 265

Translatability Anthony Pym and Horst Turk

Torah translation MichaelAlpert 269
273
277
Translator-training institutions Monique Caminade and Anthony Pym
Translation studies Mona Baker
280
Contents vii

Unit of translation Kirsten MalmkjtZr 286

Universals of translation Sara Laviosa- Braithwaite 288

Part II: History and Traditions

African tradition Paul Bandia 295
American tradition Lawrence Venuti 305
Arabic tradition Mona Baker 3 16
Brazilian tradition Heloisa Gon{alves Barbosa
and Lia Wyler 326
British tradition Roger Ellis and Liz Oakley- Brown 333
Bulgarian tradition Anna Lilova 347
Canadian tradition Jean Delisle 356
Chinese tradition EvaHung and David Pollard 365
Czech tradition Zlata Kufnerova and Ewald Osers 376
Danish and Norwegian traditions ViggoHjf)rnager Pedersen
and Per Qvale 384
Dutch tradition TheoHermans 392
Finnish tradition AndrewChesterman 401
French tradition Myriam Salama-Carr 409
Gennan tradition Harald Kittel andAndreas Poltermann 418
Greek tradition DavidConnolly
andAliki Bacopoulou-Halls 428
Hebrew tradition Gideon Toury 439
Hungarian tradition Gyorgy Rad6 448
Icelandic tradition Keneva Kunz 456
Indian tradition Ramesh Krishnamurthy 464
Italian tradition Riccardo Duranti 474
Japanese tradition Masaomi Kondo
and Judy Wakabayashi 485
Latin tradition Louis G. Kelly 495
Latin American tradition Georges L. Bastin 505
Persian tradition Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak 5 13
Polish tradition Elibieta Tabakowska 523
Romanian tradition Janos Kohn 533
Russian tradition Vilen N. Komissarov 54 1
Slovak tradition Zlata Kufnerovt:l, Ewald Osers
and BrafwHochel 550
Spanish tradition Anthony Pym 552
Swedish tradition Lars Wollin 563
Turkish tradition Saliha Paker 57 1

Bibliography 583
Index 639
 List of figures and tables

Figures

Figure 1 : Informal graph showing the history of machine translation 143

Figure 2: The pyramid diagram, probably first used by Vauquois ( 1968) 145

Figure 3: 'A framework for mechanical translation' from Yngve (1957) 146

Figure 4: Two possible linguistic representations for the sentence The machine should
be turned on 146

Figure 5: Hieroglyphic forms of humans and animals on Stela D at Copan , Honduras 2 14

Figure 6: 'La Colombe poignardee et le jet d'eau' by Guillaume Apollinaire 2 16

Figure 7: ' ll pleut' by Guillaume Apollinaire 2 17

Figure 8: Terminology 259

Figure 9: Holmes' map of translation studies 278

Figure 10: Toury's map of the relation between translation studies and its applied
extensions 278

Figure 11 : Translator-training institutions: frequency of creation over five-year periods 284

Tables

Table 1: Typology of translation 246

Table 2: Translated works published in Iceland 461

 Consultant editors

Eugene A. Nida
Consultant to American Bible Society, Pennsylvania, USA

Marilyn Gaddis Rose

Distinguished Service Professor, Centre for Research in Translation,
State University of New York at Binghamton, USA

Douglas Robinson
University of Mississippi, USA

Peter Fawcett
Department of Modern Languages, University of Bradford, UK

Michael Hoey
Professor of English, University of Liverpool, UK

Gideon Toury
M. Bernstein Chair of Translation Theory, Tel Aviv University, Israel

Susan Bassnett
Professor, Graduate School of Comparative Literary Theory and Literary Translation,
University of Warwick, UK
 Contributors

Michael Alpert Lori Chamberlain

University of Westminster, London, UK California, USA

Janet Altman Andrew Chesterman

Conference interpreter; UK University of Helsinki, Finland

Gunilla Anderman David Connolly

University of Surrey, UK Ionian University, Corfu, Greece

Aliki Bacopoulou-Halls Guy Cook

University of Athens, Greece Institute of Education,
University of London, UK
Mona Baker
UMIST, Manchester, UK Michael Cronin
Dublin City University, Ireland
Matthijs Bakker
Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands Dirk Delabastita
Facultes Universitaires Notre-Dame de Ia Paix,
PauiBandia
Namur, Belgium
Martinique

Jean Delisle
Heloisa Gon��tlves Barbosa
Universite d'Ottawa, Canada
Federal University of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Riccardo Duranti
Georges L. Bastin
Universita di Roma 'La Sapienza', Italy
Universite de Montreal, Quebec, Canada

Umberto Eco
Allison Beeby Lonsdale
University of Bologna, Italy
Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona

Roger I. Bell Roger Ellis

University of Lancaster, UK University of Wales Cardiff, UK

Ruth Evans
University of Wales Cardiff, UK
Gordon Brotherston
University of Essex, UK, and
Indiana University, Bloomington, USA
Peter Fawcett
Peter Bush University of Bradford, UK
Middlesex University, UK

Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen,
Armin Paul Frank
Monique Caminade
Calaceite, Spain Germany
Contributors xi

Karl-Heinz Freigang Riitta JWiskeUiinen

Universitat des Saarlandes, Saarbriicken, University of Joensuu, Finland
Germany
Jean-Fran�is Joly
Marilyn Gaddis Rose Quebec, Canada
State University of New York
at Binghamton, USA Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak
University of Washington, USA
Muhammad Gamal
CLTR, University of Queensland, Australia Louis G. Kelly
Darwin College, Cambridge
Edwin Gentzler
University of Massachusetts, Amherst, USA Dorothy Kenny
Dublin City University, Dublin
Daniel Gile
Universite Lurniere Lyon II, France Harald Kittel
Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany
Henrik Gottlieb
University of Copenhagen, Denmark Kinga Klaudy
University of Budapest, Hungary
Rainier Grutman
University of Ottawa, Canada Janos Kohn
Teacher Training College,
Terry Hale
Szombathely, Hungary
British Centre for Literary Translation at the
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Vilen N. Komissarov
Moscow State Linguistic University,
Keith Harvey
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
Russia

Basil Hatim Masaomi Kondo

Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Daito Bunka University, Japan

Theo Hermans Cees Koster

University College London, UK Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands

Brailo Hochel Ramesh Krishnamurthy

Comenius University Bratislava, Slovakia COBUILD, University of Birmingham, UK

Michael Hoey
University of Liverpool, UK
Zlata Kufnerova
Literary translator, Prague, Czech Republic

Diane Houghton
University of Birmingham, UK
Keneva Kunz
University of Iceland, Reykjavik, Iceland

Juliane House
Jose Lambert
Universitiit Hamburg, Germany
Katholieke Universiteit, Leuven, Belgium
Eva Hung
Sara Laviosa-Braithwaite
University of Birmingham and UMIST, UK
The Chinese University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong

William P. Isham Anna Lilova

University of New Mexico, USA Literary translator, Bulgaria
xii Contributors

Carol Maier Juan C. Sager

Kent State University, USA UMIST, Manchester, UK

Kirsten Malmkjrer Myriam Salama-Carr

University of Cambridge, UK University of Salford, UK

Ian Mason Christina Schaffner

Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh, UK Aston University, UK

l:lassan Mustapha Mark Shuttleworth

Sultan Qaboos University, Oman University of Leeds, UK
and University of Salford, UK
Harold L. Somers
Siri Nergaard UMIST, Manchester, UK
Bologna, Italy
Elzbieta Tabakowska
Eugene A. Nida Krakow, Poland
American Bible Society, Pennsylvania, USA
Gideon Toury
Blaise Nkwenti-Azeh Tel Aviv University, Israel
UMIST, Manchester, UK
Horst Turk
Liz Oakley-Brown Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany
University of Wales Cardiff, UK
Kitty van Leuven-Zwart
Ewald Osers Universiteit van Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Literary translator, Reading, UK
Lawrence Venuti
Saliba Paker Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
Bogazi�i University, Istanbul, Turkey
Hans J. Vermeer
Viggo Hjf.lrnager Pedersen Institut fur Dbersetzen und Dolmetschen,
University of Copenhagen, Denmark Heidelberg, Germany

David Pollard Cecilia Wadensjo

The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Linkoping University, Sweden
Hong Kong
Judy Wakabayashi
Andreas Poltermann The University of Queensland, Australia
Georg-August-Universitiit Gottingen, Germany
Wolfram Wilss
AnthonyPym Universitiit des Saarlandes, Saarbrilcken,
Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona, Spain Germany

PerQvale Lars Wollin

Literary translator, Norway Institutionen fOr nordiska spnik, Uppsala, Sweden

tGyorgy Rad6 Judith Woodsworth

Hungary Concordia University, Montreal, Canada

Douglas Robinson Lia Wyler

University of Mississippi, USA Universidade de Sio Paulo, Brazil
 Introduction

In May 1991, I received a phone call from The vivacity and diversity that we fmd so
Simon Bell, former Language Reference attractive in new disciplines are a consequence
Editor at Routledge, who wanted to know if I of the fact that their potential is as yet unreal­
had any suggestions for a reference work on ized, or is in the process of being realized. And
translation studies, possibly a dictionary. this is precisely why the 'state of the art' of an
Simon, among many others, had begun to see emerging discipline such as translation studies
translation studies as an exciting new discip­ is notoriously difficult to capture in a work
line, perhaps the discipline of the 1990s. And of reference. All encyclopedias, this one
indeed translation studies has not only fulftlled included, are inevitably out of date before they
our expectations but greatly exceeded them. hit the press - such is the nature and speed of
We need only think of one area in which intellectual progress in any field of study. A
translation studies has flourished beyond pioneering work of reference which sets out to
anyone's expectations, namely the academiciz­ chart a territory that has hitherto not been
ation of translator and interpreter training, to charted, to capture the core concerns of a
appreciate the phenomenal speed with which discipline in a state of flux, cannot hope to be
the discipline as a whole has established itself totally comprehensive. But it can and should
in the 1990s. The entry on Translator-training aim to offer a balanced, non-partisan view of
institutions by Caminade and Pym (this the discipline.
volume) documents the dramatic rise in the Translation studies is at a stage of its
number of university-level institutions which development when the plurality of approaches
offer degrees in translation and/or interpret­ that inform it or are capable of informing it can
ing: 'From 49 in 1960 then 108 in 1980, the be overwhelming, and the temptation for many
global number had risen to at least 250 in has been to promote one approach with which
1994'. they feel particularly comfortable and dismiss
New disciplines, disciplines 'in the making' the rest. Throughout the editing of this Ency­

research potential they hold and the sheer

as it were, are particularly exciting for the rich clopedia, I have tried to keep an open mind on
what constitutes a viable perspective on the
intellectual energy they are capable of generat­ study of translation and what might legiti­
ing. This intellectual energy can attract - as it mately be seen as a relevant area of concern or
has done in the case of translation studies - the method of research in translation studies. An
interest of scholars working within more encyclopedia of a scholarly subject has a duty
to open up rather than unduly restrict the scope
of the discipline it sets out to describe. Thus,
traditional disciplines, because it can revitalize
a staid framework with new challenges, new
avenues of enquiry, and new perspectives on in addition to traditional issues such as
pursuing such enquiry. Hence the current EQUIVALENCE, SHIFI'S OF TRANSLATION and
TRANSLATABll.ITY, the reader will also
ciplines, from linguistics to ethnography and
interest in translation across a variety of dis­
find substantial entries which discuss less
from cultural studies to psychology, to name traditional but increasingly popular issues,
only a few. including translation as a metaphor for
xiv Introduction

language (METAPHOR OF TRANSLATION) , the

relations which exist between objects outside not impossible to draw from a small number of
more detailed histories. A brief outline of a

sions of translation (GENDER METAPHORICS IN

metaphorics of gender and sexuality in discus­ number of these global patterns may be useful
at this point.
TRANSLATION) , the application of model
theory to the study of translation (MODELS OF Profile of translators and
TRANSLATION) , the process by which book s interpreters
other languages (PUBUSHING STRATEGIES) ,
are chosen to be translated and published in
One of the most interesting and potentially

ing universals of translation (CORPORA IN

and the use of computerized corpora in study­ productive areas of research to emerge from
the historical section of this encyclopedia
TRANSLATION STUDIES ) . concerns the kind of social or ethnic groups
So much for Part I. Part II of this Encyclo­ that translators and interpreters have typically
pedia offers a very brief overview of national belonged to during various periods.
histories of translation and interpreting in some Translators and interpreters, on the whole,
thirty linguistic and cultural communities. seem to have historically belonged to minority
These entries are inevitably restricted in terms groups of one type or another. For example,
of space and can only offer a glimpse of what a many interpreters in the New World, during the
full-scale history of each tradition might have early expeditions, were native indians, often
to offer. When the plan for the Encyclopedia servants and the like: a minority group not in
was first drawn in 1991, no significant initia­ terms of numbers at this stage but in terms of
tives had been announced in terms of a general political and economic power. In fact, the first
history of translation; nothing had then generation of interpreters in the New World
appeared on the FIT History of Translation were largely natives who were captured and
(Delisle and Woodsworth 1995) nor on the trained as interpreters by explorers such as

Columbus in Latin America. In the United

forthcoming de Gruyter Encyclopedia, and I Jacques Cartier in Canada and Christopher
was not aware at that stage that these projects
were being planned. The rationale for includ­ States, Squanto - a prominent indian interpreter
ing a historical section and for covering as - was initially captured by an English captain
many traditions as possible, albeit very briefly, and taken to England. A similar pattern exists
was to stimulate interest in what I then felt was outside the New World, in both European and
a seriously neglected area of translation non-European countries. In Turkey during the
studies. Inevitably for a relatively short section fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, translators and
of this type, not all traditions could be repre­ interpreters were chosen from Greek, Italian,
sented, and the divisions in terms of linguistic German, Hungarian and Polish converts to
and/or geographical communities are inher­ Islam. In Egypt in the early nineteenth century,
ently arbitrary to a large extent. Irrespective the best-known literary translators were
of possible methodological weaknesses and Christians, of one denomination or another

Lebanese or Syrian origin. In the 1940s and

unavoidable brevity of treatment, a reading of (Protestant, Orthodox, Maronite), and often of
these histories can lead to interesting insights
on such issues as the overall profile of transla­ 1950s in Czechoslovakia, simultaneous inter­
tors and interpreters during different historical preting was provided by wartime emigres (in
periods, the role of the translator and/or inter­ the case of English), by Jewish survivors of
preter as it has been conceived by different concentration camps (in the case of German),
communities, the range of incentives that have and by second-generation Russian emigres (in
led to periods of intensive translation activity the case of Russian). These are all minority

similar profile exists for community and court

across the ages, the amazing variety of activi­ groups and migrants. It is quite possible that a
ties that have been subsumed at different times
under the general heading of 'translation', and interpreters today in countries such as Britain,
the kinds of contexts in which translators and Sweden, the US and Australia: the majority may
interpreters have sometimes had to operate. well prove to be second-generation immigrants
These 'global' insights would be difficult if belonging to ethnic minority groups.
Introduction XV

The pattern is not totally consistent of often not allowed to work as translators; for
course, but then patterns never are. In Africa, example, the profession of sworn translator in
for instance, in very early times, interpreting Brazil was regulated by Royal Decree in 1851,
was a hereditary and highly revered profession, and women were explicitly barred from the
performed by 'wise men' born to other 'wise profession.
men'. In China, the most active and prominent
translators in early times were mainly Buddhist
Role and status of translators and
monks. These groups cannot be thought of as
minorities in the political or economic sense, i nterpreters
nor in terms of power. And of course being
members of minority groups does not neces­ In the colonial context, we ftnd translators and
sarily mean that translators and interpreters did interpreters, but particularly interpreters,
not achieve a high status. In Turkey, for taking on an amazing range of responsibilities
instance, 'dragomans' were held in high esteem which go far beyond linguistic mediation.
and earned very high incomes between the Interpreters in the colonial context acted as
fifteenth and nineteeth centuries; there was even guides, explorers, brokers, diplomats, ambas­
a Translators' Mosque built in Istanbul in the sadors and advisers on indian or local affairs·
sixteenth century, which is surely a sign of that is why they were sometimes branded �
respect for the profession. Also, translators and traitors, because they were indispensable to the
interpreters who belonged to religious minori­ colonial authorities. In other contexts, too,
ties enjoyed great privileges: they were exempt translators and interpreters were expected to
from the capitation tax levied on non-Muslims perform a wide variety of tasks. Translators, or
in the Islamic world in general and were more specifically interpreters, in oral traditions
allowed a wide range of privileges that could such as the African tradition were expected to
normally only be enjoyed by Muslims; for act as spokesmen for their communities, not
example a non-Muslim translator was allowed just as linguistic mediators. In the eighteenth
to grow a beard and ride a horse. century in Turkey, the duty of the Naval
There are also patterns within patterns. As Dragoman included the supervision of the
far as interpreters in the colonial context are collection of taxes from non-Muslim subjects,
concerned for instance, the profile is mixed: though later on the 1839 Tanzimat limited his
there are essentially two groups. One group responsibility to interpreting again, i.e. strictly
consists of native interpreters and another linguistic mediation.
consists of members of the colonial culture - In terms of status, the highest status
in Latin America, Canada and the United attained by translators and interpreters seems
States, both are prominent. The role of native to have been linked to the profession being
interpreters is of course socially and psy­ hereditary, as in the case of the 'wise men' in
chologically more complex and many were the oral tradition of Africa, who passed on
often branded as traitors by their people. their skills to their sons. Other examples
Malinchista is a term of abuse in Mexico and include the tsujiis in Japan, who exercised
among the Chicano community in America: it family monopolies on interpreting in this area
is used to refer to someone who sells out or from the seventeenth century until the end of
betrays a cause, because Malinche (Dofia Japan's isolation in the second half of the
Marina), who interpreted for Heman Cortes in nineteenth century. There are also the Greek
the early sixteenth century, was heavily impli­ Phanariots in Turkey in the seventeenth and
cated in his colonial schemes, acting as his eighteenth centuries, who similarly had sole
informant and warning him of ambushes by control of the profession. All these groups
her people. The status of native interpreters in were highly regarded by their communities and
these contexts was not particularly high, unlike earned a very respectable living.
their colonial counterparts, and we see in
Africa for instance a distinct deterioration in Working contexts
status with the arrival of colonialism.
Women, an important minority group, were Another interesting area worth investigating
xvi Introduction

concerns the use of interpreters in contexts translation movement, often sponsored by the
where we very rarely see them used today. The government, lasting for some nine centuries.
role of interpreters in educational contexts is of Other incentives include the massive campaigns
particular interest here. This seems to have to translate the Bible in most of Europe, as well
been fairly common at various periods, though as Greek classics and learning in general in the
it is hardly ever discussed in the literature, Islamic World and later in Europe. The Qur'iin,
except perhaps with reference to sign language unlike the Bible, has never supported a serious
interpreting for deaf children. translation movement anywhere in the world,
In the early Byzantine period the Greek because of the belief in its untranslatability
antikinsores (professors of law) used to make (see QUR'AN (KORAN) TRANSLATION), but it
Latin texts accessible to their students in class has supported a tradition of commentary, which
by first providing a detailed introduction in very often included long stretches of word-for­
Greek to the particular Latin section of a given word translation.
law. This was not a word-for-word translation Most of us tend to take such incentives for
but a general explanation of the law. Then the granted, because they are often too close to
students would be asked to attempt a translation home for us to realize that they are culture­
of the Latin text, and if they ran into difficulty and period-specific. So we might not think that
the antikinsores would provide them with the there is anything special about saying that the
translations of particular terms. This was Bible has provided the main impetus for trans­
known as interpreting kata poda (lit. 'on foot'). lation activity in much of Europe since the
In China in the early centuries AD, inter­ birth of Christianity. It is only by comparison
preters played an important role in Buddhist with what was happening in other parts of the
translation forums, which were both intensive world, and at different periods of time, that we
seminars on Buddhist sutras and also meant to can see what is specific about this pattern. For
produce Buddhist texts in Chinese translation. instance, when we come to look at the history
Interpreters acted as intermediaries between a of translation in Greece, we fmd that there is
'Chief Translator', who often knew no Chinese an almost total lack of interest in translation
but who was a Buddhist monk and provided from the early days until fairly recent times,
explanations of the Buddhist texts, and a and this is precisely because the two main
Chinese 'Recorder', who was the person incentives to early thinking about translation in
responsible for producing a translation on the other countries - namely, the translation of
basis of the monk's explanation. ancient Greek texts and of the New Testament
In Turkey, dragomans were used in institu­ - were not present in Greece, since the orig­
tions such as the School of Military Engineer­ inal texts remained relatively accessible to
ing in the eighteenth century to interpret for Greek readers for a long time.
foreign instructors who did not speak Turkish. Another major incentive for massive trans­
And the same happened in Egypt around the lation activity, more typical of the nineteenth
mid-nineteenth century, when the various and twentieth centuries, is the establishment of
schools set up by Muhammed Ali relied on official bilingualism in countries such as
foreign instructors who had to have interpre­ Canada, Finland and Belgium, which tends to
ters in the classroom to communicate with support large-scale programmes of administra­
their students. tive and legal translation (rather than
translation of religious or academic texts), and
Incentives for translation activity of course simultaneous interpreting in such
contexts as parliamentary sessions. And linked
The incentives which gave rise to periods of to this type of incentive is the official recogni­
intensive translation activity in different parts tion of the rights of linguistic and ethnic
of the world have varied a great deal over the minorities to be provided with interpreters in
centuries. One such incentive was the spread of courts and similar situations, as well as official
Buddhism in China; the need to translate Bud­ documents in their own languages. Today, it
dhist sutras into Chinese, starting around the would seem, the main impetus for translation
mid-second century, supported a massive is no longer specific religious movements or
Introduction xvii

interest in the classics but rather official lingual translation, and I do not believe we
policies which recognize and support linguistic have any theories that can account for this type
heterogeneity, including official bilingualism, of practice either.
recognition of minority rights, the establish­ What the historical research done for the
ment of political and economic unions (such as Encyclopedia seems to suggest is that we still
the EU), and so on. Again, this kind of state­ know very little about the history of our own
ment seems rather banal until one places it profession, that what we know of it indicates
against the backdrop of other incentives during that its profile has varied tremendously from
different historical periods. one era to another, and - equally important­
that the activities of translation and interpret­
Types of translation/interpreting ing have taken such a wide variety of forms
and have occurred in such a multitude of
One of the most fascinating things about contexts over the years that we are obliged to
exploring the history of translation is that it look at the historical facts before we can even
reveals how narrow and restrictive we have begin to develop theoretical accounts for this
been in defining our object of study, even with complex phenomenon.
the most flexible of definitions. When we read
about how African interpreters regularly Acknowledgements
translated African drum language into actual
words, for instance, we begin to realize that This Encyclopedia has been six years in the
the current literature on translation has hardly making, during which time a great many
started to scratch the surface of this multi­ people have worked hard to ensure that the end
faceted and all-pervasive phenomenon. result is as representative of the discipline and
Similarly, intralingual translation is not such a as error-free as is humanly possible. In addi­
minor issue as the existing literature on trans­ tion to the ninety-four contributors who made
lation might suggest. Intralingual translation it possible to put this substantial volume
figures far more prominently in the Greek together in the first place and the seven con­
tradition than interlingual translation: the sultant editors who patiently checked every
major preoccupation in Greece has been with entry after I edited it to weed out some of the
translating ancient Greek texts into the modem remaining errors and infelicities, I must thank
idiom. I know of no research that looks the staff at Routledge for their support over an
specifically at the phenomena of intralingual extended period of time. Simon Bell and
or intersemiotic translation. We do have clas­ Louisa Semlyen in particular have been excep­
sifications such as Jakobson's, which alert us tionally patient and supportive. Helen Coward,
to the possibility of such things as intersemi­ Alison Foyle, Helen McCurdy, Claire Trocme,
otic and intralingual translation, but we do not Sarah Foulkes and Sarah Hall all helped at
make any genuine use of such classifications various stages of the project and have been a
in our research. pleasure to work with.
An ingenious annotation system was used I am grateful to a number of colleagues
in Japan around the ninth century; this was for valuable advice on some of the less
known as kambun kundoku, or interpretive 'traditional' topics that were eventually
reading of Chinese. The system was used to included in Part I and for putting me in touch
enable the Japanese to read Chinese texts with suitable contributors for entries in both
without 'translation'. Special marks were Part I and Part ll; in particular, I wish to
placed alongside the characters of Chinese acknowledge my debt to Lawrence Venuti,
texts to indicate how they can be read in accor­ Douglas Robinson, Anthony Pym, Dirk Dela­
dance with Japanese word order, and a system bastita, Theo Hermans, Marilyn Gaddis Rose
of grammatical indicators was used to show and Susan Bassnett. Dirk Delabastita kindly
inflections. This directly converted the Chinese spent many hours checking the bibliography
texts into understandable, if unnatural, for missing accents and other errors. Theo
Japanese. But was it translation? It seems to be Hermans, Clive Holes, Myriam Salama-Carr,
something in between intralingual and inter- Maeve Olohan, Peter Fawcett and Paul
xviii I ntroduction

Bennett took o n the difficult task of 'editing entries when I started to run out of energy in
the editor', providing detailed comments on the summer of 1996, and Kirsten Malmkjrer
my own contributions to this volume and stepped in later that summer to give the editing
saving me some potential embarrassment in a final push.
the process. Even with so much good will and generous
Kinga Klaudy revised the final section of assistance from a large number of people, there
the entry on the Hungarian tradition to bring it are bound to be some errors and infelicities left
up to date, following the unfortunate death of in this volume, given the scope of the enterprise.
Dr Gyorgy Rad6 in 1994. Sara Laviosa­ For these I have to take full responsibility.

MONA BAKER
Braithwaite provided invaluable support as my

APRIL 1997
Research Assistant for practically the whole of
1995. Juan Sager helped me edit a number of
 Permissions acknowled gements

Extract on p. 243 from 'A Knight Was with His Lady Fondly Lying', trans. Norman R.
Shapiro, from the Modern Library collection AnAnthology of Medieval Lyrics, ed. A. Flores,
New York Random House, 1962.
©Norman R. Shapiro 1962.

Extract on p. 243 from Paul Blackburn's translation of 'Us cavaliers si jazia', from Proensa:
An Anthology of Troubadour Poetry, ed. and trans. P. Blackburn, Berkeley and Los Angeles:
University of California Press.
©Joan Blackburn 1978.
Page intentionally left blank
PART 1:
GENERAL
Page intentionally left blank
 A
traditionally attached to that term. She argues
Action that because the verb 'translate' ( ubersetzen)
requires a grammatical object, it tends to direct
(theory of 'translatorial action') attention back towards the text that is to be
translated, to the detriment of the text that is to
The theory of 'translatorial action' (trans­ be produced, an orientation which she finds
latorisches Handeln ) , which represents a particularly unhelpful (Holz-Miinttii.ri 1986:
function-oriented approach to the theory 355). In her model, source-text analysis is
and practice of translation, was developed by reduced to an 'analysis of construction and
Justa Holz-Miinttii.ri (1984). Translation is function' (1984: 139ff.), in which the actual
here conceived primarily as a process of part played by the source text is extremely
intercultural communication, whose end prod­ limited. The source text is viewed as a mere
uct is a text which is capable of functioning tool for the realization of communicative func­
appropriately in specific situations and con­ tions; it is totally subordinate to its purpose, is
texts of use. In this conception, neither source­ afforded no intrinsic value, and may undergo
and target-text comparison, nor linguistics, has radical modification in the interest of the target
any significant role to play, and translation is reader. The translator is unilaterally committed
situated within the wider context of cooperat­ to the target situation because it is primarily the
ive interaction between professionals (experts) message and the commission, rather than the
and clients. text itself, that have to be rendered for the
Holz-Miinttii.ri's aim is to provide a theoreti­ client. It is mainly because the source text may
cal basis and conceptual framework from be thus 'dethroned' (Newmark 1991b: 106) that
which guidelines for professional translators Holz-Miinttii.ri's theory has met with objections
may be drawn; and in developing her appro­ or reservations, even by theorists who them­
ach, she draws on communication theory and selves apply a functional approach to
on action theory. Communication theory translation (see for example Nord 199la: 28).
enables her to highlight the components Newmark also finds fault with the 'modernistic
involved in a process of communication across abstract jargon of contemporary Public Rela­
cultural barriers, while action theory provides tions' and the 'businesslike manner of writing'
the basis for a delineation of the specific which, he believes, obscure 'the real issues in
characteristics of translatorial action. translation' (1991b: 106). However, in Holz­
The primary purpose of translatorial action Miinttii.ri's model, translation and other forms
is to enable cooperative, functionally adequate of (foreign language) text production are
communication to take place across cultural conceived as part of, rather than constitutive
barriers. This involves a good deal more than of, translatorial action. One purpose of the
what is traditionally conceived as the transla­ translatorial text operations is to establish
tion of texts, and in order to set her theory apart whether the content and form components of
from more traditional approaches, Holz­ the source text are functionally suitable for the
Miinttii.ri develops, in German, a distinctive and target text. In making this decision, the transla­
highly abstract terminology, at times eschewing tor cannot be guided by the source text alone,
even the term 'translation' (Ubersetzung), in but must research, in addition, the target cul­
order to avoid the connotations and expectations ture's conception of the subject matter, of text
4 Action (theory of 'translatorial action')

classes and of genres. The textual profile of the society organized by a division of labour. The
target text is determined by its function, and main roles in a translation process are played
whether this is or is not similar to the textual by one or more persons or institutions. The
profile of the source text can only be estab­ roles include the initiator, the commissioner,
lished through systematic translatorial analysis. the text producer, the translator, the target-text
The translator, as an expert communicator, is at 'applicator' and the receptor, and each role is
the crucial centre of a long chain of communi­ highly complex.
cation from the original initiator to the ultimate The translator is the expert whose task it is
receiver of a message, and is thus situated to produce message transmitters for use in
within the wider social context. The model transcultural message transfer. To do this, the
takes account of the relationship between trans­ translator must, at a particular place and at a
lator and client as well as the relationship particular time, produce a particular product
between translator and original writer, and for a particular purpose. The translator's
between translator and reader. The ethical actions must be informed by suitable data, and
responsibility of the translator is seen to derive must be carried out according to specifically
from his or her status as an expert in the field negotiated conditions. Finally, the process
of transcultural message transfer, because only must be completed by a deadline. Translatorial
translators with the requisite expertise can action therefore involves not only the transla­
succeed in producing a functionally adequate tor as translation expert, but also the client/
text (professional profiles are discussed in commissioner with whom the translator must
Holz-Manttari 1986: 363ff.). This has clear negotiate cooperatively.
consequences for the training of translators. So, translation is embedded in the purpose­
Holz-Manttiiri's main aim is to specify the ful configuration of actions which is trans­
factors that guide translatorial action, latorial action, and this, in turn, is embedded
conceived as professional text production. An in a hierarchy of complex actions and sub­
action is determined by its function and pur­ ordinate to the global aim of transcultural
pose, and its outcome, too, must be judged by communication. Therefore, a definition of
these criteria. The purpose of the translatorial translation cannot be based purely on a con­
action process is to produce a message trans­ figuration of elements such as UNIT OF
mitter ( Botschaftstriiger) that can be utilized TRANSLATION, source text, or genre. Rather, a
in superordinate configurations of actions theoretically sound definition of translatorial
(Handlungsgefuge) whose function is to guide action must take account of all the elements
and coordinate communicative, cooperative involved in human communicative action
action (Holz-Manttari 1984: 17). across cultures; in particular, it must take into
In the process of translatorial action, texts consideration the client's culture, the process
act as message-transmitter compounds of text production in its widest sense, and the
( Botschaftstriiger im Verbund) of content concept of expert action.
( Tektonik), structured according to function Because cultures may have different con­
and represented by formal elements ( Textur). ventions, transcultural text production may
A source text is a text to which a translation require substitution of elements of the source
initiator, a client, has assigned, primarily or text by elements judged more appropriate to
secondarily, the function of serving as source the function the target text is to serve. This
material for translatorial action. A target text, function is determined by the purpose of the
to be used either by the translation initiator or communicative action in which the text is to
by some other user, is the outcome of a trans­ play a part as a message transmitter.
lation expert's translatorial action. Text production is the purpose of transla­

On the one hand, it forces the transla­

The notion of function is central in two torial action, and the texts produced will be
respects. used by clients as message transmitters in

On the
tor to embed the product of translatorial action combination with others for transcultural
in a complex situation of human needs. message transfer. The purpose of the message
other hand, it forces the translator to embed transfer is the coordination of action-oriented,
translatorial action in the social order, i.e. in a communicative cooperation. The purpose of
References

Contents

Index Kirsten MalmkjtZr Sara LaviosaBraithwaite 286 288

Paul Bandia 295 Lawrence Venuti 305 Mona Baker 3 16
Heloisa Gon{alves Barbosa and Lia Wyler 326 Roger Ellis
and Liz OakleyBrown 333 Anna Lilova 347 Jean Delisle
356 Eva Hung and David Pollard 365 Zlata Kufnerova and
Ewald Osers 376 Viggo Hjf)rnager Pedersen and Per Qvale
384 Theo Hermans 392 AndrewChesterman 401 Myriam
Salama-Carr 409 Harald Kittel and Andreas Poltermann 418
David Connolly and Aliki Bacopoulou-Halls 428 Gideon
Toury 439 Gyorgy Rad6 448 Keneva Kunz 456 Ramesh
Krishnamurthy 464 Riccardo Duranti 474 Masaomi Kondo
and Judy Wakabayashi 485 Louis G. Kelly 495 Georges L.
Bastin 505 Ahmad Karimi-Hakkak 513 Elibieta Tabakowska
523 Janos Kohn 533 Vilen N. Komissarov 541 Zlata
Kufnerovt:l, Ewald Osers and Brafw Hochel 550 Anthony
Pym 552 Lars Wollin 563 Saliha Paker 571 583 639
Adaptation

adapting modes
Linguistic approaches

of accounting for the translation process.

Machine translation, methodology

remains to be seen whether solid theory will

Metaphor of translation

be surfacing in areas of translation studies

Poetics of translation

lation is gaining momentum in the field and is

Shakespeare translation

tives they are usually made out to be: the truth is

Translator-training institutions

MONIQUE CAMINADE AND ANTHONY PYM

American tradition

critic , and translator. Born in Idaho and

Arabic tradition

MONA BAKER
Brazilian tradition

born in Budapest, Hungary, on 13 April 190 7.

British tradition

ford. As Vicar of Berkeley, he produced, for

Canadian tradition

English, Erasmus spoke Cree, Ojibway and

Chinese tradition

618) Xuan Zang travelled through several

Danish and Norwegian traditions

minor Romantic poet. Wilster is best known

Dutch tradition

THEO HERMANS
Finnish tradition

reviser for the Bible translation committee

German tradition

prepared the way for Romanticism in Germany

Icelandic tradition

quently headmaster of the Latin school in

Indian tradition

but led to him being elected to honorary

Italian tradition

RICCARDO DURANTI
Japanese tradition

AND JUDY WAKABAYASH I

Latin tradition

of Rhetoric at the College du Plessis in 1 683

Persian tradition

stoy's biographies, as well as selected essays

Spanish tradition

option might be seen as an advance on

Swedish tradition

LARS WOLliN
Turkish tradition

SALIHA PAKER
 Biblio graphy

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