SW010105 Social Work Practice with Communities

Course Outline

Module 1 Community - meaning - types, structure and dynamics

UNIT 1: Community: Meaning, Definition and types. Characteristics, Structure and

Functions of Community

UNIT 2: Social Analysis of community: Social System, Economic System, Political

System, Cultural System, Legal System, Religious system, Value System, Consciousness,
Social Problems, Dominations, Dynamism, Functions of community.

UNIT 3: Deconstructing concept of communities: Dalit, Feminist and Racial

connotations of communities, community and identity. The process of community
integration and disintegration.

Module 2 Leadership and Community Organization

UNIT 4: Leadership: Concept - types of community leaders and power structure

(Catalyst, connectors, civic leaders, elite, officials) of the community, Significance of
leadership in the process of community development.

UNIT 5: Theories of leadership.

UNIT 6: Community Organisation as a Para-Political Processes Community organization

as a para-political process, Leadership, Concept of power, sources of power,
Understanding community power structure, Powerlessness and empowerment, Cycle of
empowerment, Challenges in participation.
Module 3 Community Organization

UNIT 7: Community organization - definition, objectives and a brief historical

development of community organization in India, Community Organization as a method
of social work.

UNIT 8: Principles of Community Organization

UNIT 9: Phases of Community Organisation: Study, analysis, assessment,discussion,

organization, action, Evaluation, modification and continuation.

UNIT 10. Methods of Community Organisation: Methods (Arthur Dunham’s

classification of CO methods- method of planning and related activities, group decision
making and co-operative action, communication, promotion and social action, financing
and fund raising, method of administration)

UNIT 11. Characteristics of a Good Community Organiser, Skills needed for community
organization, Role of Community organizer

Module 4 Approaches, Models and Strategies of Community

Organization

UNIT 12: Approaches - The social work approach, the political activist approach,
neighbourhood maintenance approach/community development approach, system change
approach, structural change approach.

UNIT 13: Models of Community Organisation – Locality Development Model, Social

Planning Model, Social Action Model.

UNIT 14: Strategies and techniques in community organization: formation and capacity
building of CBOs, capacity building of community level institutions (PRI, SHG),
strategies for capacity building of the marginalized groups, committee formations,
Organising conferences, training programmes, consultation, negotiation, leadership and
cadre building and networking.
Module 5 Application of Community Organization in the various
fields of Social Work

UNIT 15: Social Audit, Social Impact assessment studies, PRA /PLA techniques

UNIT 16: Ongoing community programmes at the grass root level

Module 6 Social action

UNIT 17: Concept of social action, objectives - principles, methods of social action.
Means of Social Action: Research and Collection of Data – Survey, Analysis and
Assessment, Planning Solution, Meeting Key Persons, Groups and Agencies, Public
Meetings, Discussions, Create Public Opinion, Awareness, education, Use of Mass
Media and Press Meeting for Propaganda, Use of Legislation and Enforcement of
Legislation, Representation to the Authorities, Proposal to the Authorities, Coordinating
the work of different groups and agencies, Implementing the Action and Reflection,
Modification and Continuation.

UNIT 18: Strategies of Social Action: Campaign / Promotional Strategy, Collaborative

Strategy, Pressure / Advocacy Strategy, Negotiate Strategy, Legal Suasion / Litigation
Strategy, Conscientization Strategy, Human Relation Strategy, Political Organisation
Strategy, Economic Organisation Strategy, Conflict Management Strategy, Situation
Modification Strategy

UNIT 19: Social Problems and Social Action, Role of Social Worker in Social Action,
Social Activists and Social Action Groups in India.

UNIT 20: Social action for social reform and social development - scope of social action
in India.

UNIT 21: Social Legislation through social action - Role of social worker In social
action. Social Action Groups.
UNIT 22: Paulo Freire and Saul Alinsky in working with community, Approaches by
Paulo Fraire, Saul Alinsky, Mahatma Gandhi, Ambedkar, Medha Patkar and Other
National and Regional Social Activists.

Reference

1. Ross Murray, G., (1985). Community Organization: Theory and Principles. New
York: Ha and Row Pub.

2. Siddhiqui, H.Y. (1997). Working with community. New Delhi: Hira Publications.

3. Cox M. F. & Erlich L, J. (1987). Strategies of Community Organisation. Illinois: F.E.

Peacock Publishers.

4. Jack Rothman, etal. (2001). Strategies of community interventions & Macro

practices – Peacock Publications, 6th Edition

5. Banmala, Community Organisation. Indian Institute of Youth Welfare, 134, Shivaji

Ma

6. Freire, Paulo. Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Adult Education & Liberation.

7. Freire, Paulo, Education as Practice of Freedom.

8. Freire, Paulo, Cultural Action for Freedom.

9. Gandhi M.K., Social Service. Work & Reform ( 3 vols.)

10. Ramachandran P., (1996). Towards an understanding of People's Movements:

History from below. Institute for Community Organization Research.

11. Adams, Robert, Oominelli, Lena & Payne, Malcom (ed.l, Social Work: Themes,
Issues & Critical Debates. Ch. 17, Radical Social Work.

12. D'Abreo, Desmond, A., From Development Worker to Activist.

13. Haynes, Karen S. & Mickelson, James S., Affecting Change, Social Movements Pub.
107 ff.

14. Kramer, R.M. & Spechit,H. (1974). Community Organisation Practice. Strategies.

15. Fink, Arthur,E .(1978). The fields of Social Work. New York : Holt Rinchest and
Winston

16. Anne Hope & Sally Timmet (1985). A handbook for community workers. 3
volumes,Gwera Mambo Press
 Community - Meaning - Types, Structure and Dynamics

Community:

Man cannot live in isolation. He cannot live alone. He keeps contact with
his fellow beings for his survival. It is not possible for him to keep contact with all the
people or to belong as a member of all the groups existing in the world.

He establishes contact with a few people who live in close proximity or

presence to him in a particular area or locality. It is quite natural for people living in a
particular locality for a longer period of time to develop a sort of likeness or similarity
among themselves. They develop common ideas, common customs, common feelings,
common traditions etc.

They also develop a sense of belonging together or a sense of we-feeling.

This kind of common social living in a specific locality gives rise to the community.
The examples of community include a village, a tribe, a city or town. For example in
a village community, all the villagers lend each other hand in the event of need in
agriculture and in other occupations.

They take part in all important occasions which occur in a neighbour’s

home. They are present when marriages, deaths, births take place in any family. They
celebrate the festivals together, worship common deities and jointly face all calamities.
In this way the sense of belongingness in generated among the villagers which creates
village community.

Meaning of Community:

The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely
‘com’ and munis. In English ‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus,
community means to serve together. It means, the community is an organisation of
human beings framed for the purpose of serving together.

6
 Community is a people living within a geographical area in common inter-
dependence. It exists within the society. It is bound by the territorial units. It is a
specific group while society is abstract. “Community living is natural to man.

He is born in it and grows in the community ways. It is his small world. Men,
we have seen began with group life. Over the time, they occupied a habitat and while
in permanent occupation of it; they developed likeness, common habits, folkways and
mores, interdependence and acquired a name.

They developed amongst themselves a sense of togetherness and an

attachment to their habitat. A community thus has a habitat, strong community sense,
and a manner of acting in an agreed and organized manner. There are various
definitions of community.

Osborne and Neumeyer write, “Community is a group of people living in a

contiguous geographic area, having common centres of interests and activities, and
functioning together in the chief concerns of life.”

According to Kingsley Davis, “Community is the smallest territorial group that

can embrace all aspects of social life.”

As Sutherland points out, “It is a local area over which people are using
the same language, conforming to same mores, feeling more or less the same
sentiments and acting upon the same attitudes.”

Maclver defines community as “an area of social living, marked by some degree
of social coherence

For Bogardus it is a social group with some degree of “we feeling” and
“living in a given area.

Mannheim describes community as “any circle of people who live together and
belong together in such a way that they do not share this or that particular interest
only but a whole set of interest.

7
Basic Elements of Community:

According to Maclver and Page, there are two main bases or essential elements on the
basis of which community is formed.

(i) Locality:

Locality implies a particular or territorial area unless a group of people live in a

particular locality; they cannot establish relations and generate the we-feeling among
themselves. Living together facilities people to develop social contacts, give
protection, safety and security. Locality continues to be a basic factor of community
life. Maclver says, though due to the extending facilities of communication in the
modern world the territorial bond has been broken, yet “the basic character of locality
as a social classifier has never been transcended.

(ii) Community Sentiment:

Community can be formed on the basis of community sentiment. It is extremely

essential. It implies ‘a feeling of belonging together.” It is a ‘we-feeling’ among the
members of a community. People living in a community lead a common life, speak
the same language, conform to the same mores, feel almost the same sentiment and
therefore, they develop a feeling of unity among themselves.

In other words, it can be said that community feeling has the four important aspects
such as we-feeling, interdependence, participation and community control. The
community sentiments are developed by we-feeling. The members of community
develop we-feeling by their mutual interdependence. They contribute to the progress
of the community by participating in its activities. Community controls the behaviour
of its members. The obedience to community rules brings uniformity among the
members.

8
Other Elements of Community:

Some other elements of community are as follows:

(i) Group of people:

Fundamentally, a community consists of a group of people. A solitary individual

cannot form a community when a group of people share the basic conditions a
common life, they form community.

(ii) Naturality:

A community is not deliberately or purposively created. It is a spontaneous or natural

growth. An individual is born in a community. It is my virtue of community that he
develops.

(iii) Permanence:

A community is generally not temporary or short-lived like a crowd or a revolutionary

mob. It is a permanent organisation or durable social group. This durability is evident
from the age-old communities existing in modern times. A community continues as
long as members are there.

(iv) Likeness:

In a community there is a likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions

etc. among the members. So A. W. Green has rightly said, “A community is a cluster
of people living within narrow territorial radius who share a common way of life.”

(v) A Particular Name:

Every community is always known with a particular name, their immediate bases of
origin give such community a particular name. For example based on the linguistic
condition people living in Orissa are called Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are
called Kashmiris.

9
(vi) Spontaneity:

Every community grows itself spontaneously. A community is not deliberately or

purposively created. A kind of natural force acts behind the origin and development of
communities. Various factors like customs, conventions, and religious beliefs bind the
individuals together.

(vii) Common Life:

Some sociologists like Elwood says that the life of the people in a community is near
about the same. There is no epochal difference between the way of life of the
individuals. Their eating pattern, dressing style, language etc. are found to be similar.
Due to their inhabitation on a particular geographical area, they develop a kind of
emotional and cultural uniformity. Community is never formed with a particular aim.
But they are the outcome of social uniformity among the individuals.

(viii) Common Interests:

In community, all the members have common and collective interests. People live in
community and work together to fulfill these interests. Thus, Newmeyer says,
community is a group of people living in a delimited geographic area, having
common interests and activities and functioning together in their concern of life.

Distinction between Community and Society:

The constituent elements and behaviour patterns of both community and

society are dis-tinctive. We may describe the distinction between community and
society as follows:

1. Society is a web social relationship. But community consists of a group of

individuals. It is a specific group.

2. Society is abstract. Community is concrete.

3. A definite geographical area is not necessary for society. But a definite

geographical area is essential for a community. It is bound by the territorial units.

10
4. There can be more than one community in a society. Most societies consist of
more than one community, varying in size, physical appearance, organization and
specialized functions. But there cannot be more than one society in a community.

5. Society is an intangible artefact. But community is a natural entity.

6. In the society, the group is merely means to an end. But in the community, the
group has a life of its own, superior to that of its temporary members. The group is an
end in itself.

7. Community sentiment or a sense of unity is not essential in a society. But

community sentiment is indispensable for a community.

8. In a society the common objectives are extensive and coordinated. But in a

community, the common objectives are comparatively less extensive and
coordinated.

9. In a society, the common interests and common objectives are not necessary. But
in a community, a common agreement of interests and objectives necessary.

10. In the society, members have doctrine, public opinion, contractual solidarity and
individual will. But in the community, members have faith, customs, natural solidarity
and a common will. A community may be big or small. A big community, such as a
nation, contains within it a number of small communities and groups with more close,
numerous common qualities. Small communities like village or neighborhood are the
examples of the primitive world. Both the types of communities, big or small, are
essential to the full development of life.

Types of Communities

 Urban Community

‘Urban’ means relating to or located in a city. It represents the

characteristic of the city or city life. It has its roots in the Latin word Urbnus- the root
urb means city.

11
 Urban refers to the city or town. Several criteria such as demographic,
ecological and socio-cultural attributes are used to identify an urban area. It is the size
of the population and degree of complexity of organsiation, which differentiates a
village from a town, a town from a city or from a metropolis. The concentration of
population, predominance of non-agricultural activities and better provision of social
amenities including health and education infrastructure are important characteristics
of urban areas. However there is a stark variation in the distribution and access to
these among the various communities living in urban areas.

 Rural Community

Rural communities reside in rural areas. Rural areas as per census

consider the village as the basic area of habitation. A village is usually considered as
the smallest area of habitation. The village generally follows the limits of a revenue
village that is recognized by the local administration. The revenue village need not
necessarily be a single agglomeration of the habitations. It could comprise of a large
village or a cluster of very small villages. It has a definite boundary and definite name.
But the revenue village has a definite surveyed boundary and each village is a
separate administrative unit with separate village accounts. It may have one or more
hamlets. The entire revenue village is one unit. There may be unsurveyed villages
within forests etc., where the locally recognized boundaries of each habitation area are
followed within the larger unit of say the forest range officer’s jurisdiction.

The other meaning relates to the nature of livelihoods. Rural thus refers
to livelihoods that are based on agriculture and something to do with nature. It would
also refer to the scale and nature of technology used in rural areas. Thus in rural areas
the technology followed is simple with production levels meeting one’s family’s
needs and some surplus that could be sold in the markets nearby.

 Tribal Community

The word tribe is derived from Tribus, a Latin word meaning “a group”.
Dictionary meanings of a tribe range from considering them as:

12
 a) any aggregate of people united by ties of descent from a common
ancestor, community of customs and traditions, adherence to the same leaders, etc.,

b) a local division of an aboriginal people,

c) division of some other people,

d) a class or set of persons, especially one with strong common traits or

interests,

e) a large family.

Historically tribal communities have often been understood as exotic

and indicative of forbidden cultures that are ancient and need to be preserved. This
has led to some of their classifications since the colonial times and their
categorization into nomadic, criminal, vanvasi, adivasi etc. These terms are
overridden by their inclusion in scheduled tribes list- that by itself tries to build a
category of tribes known as the scheduled tribes. And also gives legitimacy to those
listed as being recognized by government as such. The numerous nomenclatures
provided by the sociologists, census officials and the government have only created
confusion as to how should tribes be categorized, understood and treated. All these
have implications for the mainstreaming of tribes that is actively being encouraged by
all those concerned with tribal communities, sometimes with positive outcomes and at
other times, deleterious to the very existence of tribe(s).

Social Analysis of community

Social analysis is the practice of systematically examining a social

problem, issue or trend, often with the aim of prompting changes in the situation
being analyzed.

A social problem is a situation that is viewed by some community

members as being undesirable. In a business context, examples of social problems
include outsourcing jobs to another country, customer data privacy and wasting

13
energy. Social analysis, which is topic-driven, can address such issues through
qualitative research or quantitative multivariate approaches. Multivariate analysis is a
field of statistical analysis and data analytics that deals with variables and their
relationships.

Social analysis frequently involves issues of equality and social justice,

but the insight gained from combining social analysis techniques and CRM
analytics can also help organizations create business strategies and policies that are
sensitive to particular social issues and likely to be perceived by customers as having
a positive social impact. For example, after discovering through analysis of a
customer survey that increased efforts to develop renewable energy would be viewed
in a positive light, an oil company might decide to expand its investments
in biogas, geothermal energy and solar power research.

Social analysis should not be confused with social media analytics,

which studies data collected from social networking sites.

 Social System

In sociology, media social system is the patterned network of

relationships constituting a coherent whole that exist between individuals, groups, and
institutions. It is the formal structure of role and status that can form in a small, stable
group. An individual may belong to multiple social systems at once; examples of
social systems include nuclear family units, communities, cities, nations, college
campuses, corporations, and industries. The organization and definition of groups
within a social system depend on various shared characteristics such as location,
socioeconomic status, race, religion, societal function, or other distinguishable
features.

 Economic System

An economic system or economic order, is

a system of production, resource allocation and distribution of goods and
services within a society or a given geographic area. It includes the combination of

14
the various institutions, agencies, entities, decision-making processes and patterns
of consumption that comprise the economic structure of a given community. As such,
an economic system is a type of social system. The mode of production is a related
concept. All economic systems have three basic questions to ask: what to produce,
how to produce and in what quantities and who receives the output of production.

The study of economic systems includes how these various agencies and
institutions are linked to one another, how information flows between them and the
social relations within the system (including property rights and the structure of
management). The analysis of economic systems traditionally focused on the
dichotomies and comparisons between market economies and planned economies and
on the distinctions between capitalism and socialism. Subsequently, the categorization
of economic systems expanded to include other topics and models that do not
conform to the traditional dichotomy. Today the dominant form of economic
organization at the world level is based on market-oriented mixed economies.

 Political System

Political system, the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a

“government” or a “state.” This is the definition adopted by many studies of the legal
or constitutional arrangements of advanced political orders. More broadly defined,
however, the term comprehends actual as well as prescribed forms of political
behaviour, not only the legal organization of the state but also the reality of how the
state functions. Still more broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of
“processes of interaction” or as a subsystem of the social system interacting with
other nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system. This points to the
importance of informal sociopolitical processes and emphasizes the study of political
development.

Traditional legal or constitutional analysis, using the first definition, has

produced a huge body of literature on governmental structures, many of the
specialized terms that are a part of the traditional vocabulary of political science, and
several instructive classifying schemes. Similarly, empiricalanalysis of political

15
processes and the effort to identify the underlying realities of governmental forms
have yielded a rich store of data and an important body of comparative theory. The
third definition has inspired much scholarly work that employs new kinds of data,
new terms, and some new concepts and categories of analysis. The discussion that
follows draws on all three approaches to the study of political systems.

 Cultural System

Cultures may be understood as systems, where the term system refers to a

set of interrelated elements that form a whole.5 The various parts of sociocultural
systems are interrelated and interdependent; when one part of society changes, other
parts must also change. This means that an institution, such as the family cannot be
looked at in isolation from the political, economic, or religious institutions of a
society. Cultures are likewise more than the sum of their parts and in many ways non-
reducible to them.

A culture is a complex system of many interacting beliefs, conceptual

structures, social arrangements, material processes and rituals that all interact within a
temporal and spatial context.6 Sociocultural systems coevolve over time and as a
consequence specific aspects are adapted to fit together to create in some way a
unifying whole. Different aspects of the culture only really have meaning within that
overall context. We can take artifacts of a culture like, an Italian pizza, a Michael
Jackson song or a specific Chinese character, but it is only in their context within the
broader culture that they really have their proper significance, when you remove them
from that context they become an icon; a symbol of the real thing.

 Legal System

Legal system refers to a procedure or process for interpreting and

enforcing the law. It elaborates the rights and responsibilities in a variety of ways.
Three major legal systems of the world consist of civil law, common law and
religious law. Jury system is a legal system for determining the facts at issue in a law
suit. Tax system is a legal system for assessing and collecting taxes. Electoral system
is a legal system for making democratic choices.

16
 Religious system

Religion is a social-cultural system of designated behaviors and practices,

morals, worldviews, texts, sanctified places, prophecies, ethics, or organizations, that
relates humanity to supernatural, transcendental, or spiritual elements. However, there
is no scholarly consensus over what precisely constitutes a religion.

Different religions may or may not contain various elements ranging from the
divine, sacred things, faith, a supernatural being or supernatural beings or "some sort
of ultimacy and transcendence that will provide norms and power for the rest of life".

Religious practices may include rituals, sermons, commemoration or veneration

(of deities), sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services,
matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public service, or other
aspects of human culture. Religions have sacred histories and narratives, which may
be preserved in sacred scriptures, and symbols and holy places, that aim mostly to
give a meaning to life. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are sometimes
said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life,
the universe, and other things. Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has been
considered a source of religious beliefs.

There are an estimated 10,000 distinct religions worldwide,[9] but about 84%
of the world's population is affiliated with one of the five largest religion groups,
namely Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, Buddhism or forms of folk religion. The
religiously unaffiliated demographic includes those who do not identify with any
particular religion, atheists, and agnostics. While the religiously unaffiliated have
grown globally, many of the religiously unaffiliated still have various religious beliefs.

The study of religion encompasses a wide variety of academic disciplines,

including theology, comparative religion and social scientific studies. Theories of
religion offer various explanations for the origins and workings of religion, including
the ontological foundations of religious being and belief.

17
 Value System

A hierarchy of values that all moral agents possess, demonstrated by their

choices. Most people's value systems differ, making the imposition of a singular value
system by the state a source of constant social warfare. This is an individualistic
concept. One's value system is molded by one's virtues or vices.

A person's standards and self-discipline set, based on the common sense and
wisdom of knowing what the proper moral rules and discipline are, and the amount of
willingness to see themselves and others abide by them.

 Consciousness

Consciousness is the state or quality of sentience or awareness of internal

or external existence. It has been defined variously in terms of qualia, subjectivity, the
ability to experience or to feel, wakefulness, having a sense of selfhood or soul, the
claim that "there is something that it is like" to 'have' or 'be' it, and the executive
control system of the mind. Despite the difficulty in definition, many philosophers
believe that there is a broadly shared underlying intuition about what consciousness is.
According to Max Velmans and Susan Schneider, "Anything that we are aware
of at a given moment forms part of our consciousness, making conscious
experience at once the most familiar and most mysterious aspect of our lives."

Western philosophers since the time of Descartes and Locke have

struggled to comprehend the nature of consciousness and how it fits into a larger
picture of the world. These issues remain central to both continental and analytic
philosophy, in phenomenology and the philosophy of mind, respectively. Some basic
questions include: whether consciousness is the same kind of thing as matter; whether
it may ever be possible for computing machines like computers or robots to be
conscious; how consciousness relates to language; how consciousness as Being relates
to the world of experience; the role of the self in experience; whether individual
thought is possible at all; and whether the concept is fundamentally coherent.

18
 Social problems

Social problems are the general factors that affect and damage society. A
social problem is normally a term used to describe problems with a particular area or
group of people in the world. Social problems often involve problems that affect the
real world. It also affects how people react to certain situations. Examples can include:

1. Anti social behavior

2. Poverty

3. Drug abuse

4. Prostitution

5. Alcohol abuse

6. Economic Deprivation

7. Unemployment

8. Sexual abuse

9. Rape

10. Early pregnancy

11. Female genital mutilation

12. Animal abuse

13. The shortage of schools

14. The lack of infrastructure social Problems

 Dominations

The exercise of power or influence over someone or something, or the

state of being so controlled."the imperial domination of India

19
 Dynamism

The quality of being characterized by vigorous activity and progress."the

dynamism and strength of the economy" The theory that phenomena of matter or
mind are due to the action of forces rather than to motion or matter.

 Functions of community

A community cannot exist unless members demonstrate a concern for one

another, which results in a maturing of both the individual and the community as a
whole. Asbury University promotes a community which is characterized by three
interdependent functions: Caring, Collaborating and Challenging.

 Caring: As we follow in the steps of Jesus Christ and His teachings, we will
demonstrate a love for those around us which is evident in our caring, “carrying”
and comforting of one another. Practically speaking, our concern for others will
go beyond the obvious spiritual and physical realms into the emotional, mental
and social realms. This concern for the development of the whole person
emphasizes our commitment to develop whole people who are wholly prepared to
be wholly used of God.

 Collaborating: Any effective organization is distinguished by the way in which

its component parts work together to achieve the ultimate mission. Asbury’s
mission is to provide students with the opportunity to learn in a Christian, liberal
arts environment and to prepare them to make a significant contribution in their
world for Jesus Christ. A team approach where there is a collegial and
collaborative effort between administration, faculty, students and staff results in a
cooperating community where the whole is greater than and more important than
any of its component parts.

 Challenging: The heritage of the University has always held high expectations
for its members and expected them to maintain both their own character and the
University’s character. Our love for one another motivates us to encourage and,
when appropriate, challenge each other as we strive together to achieve God’s

20
purpose for our lives. Redemptive accountability brings one to repentance,
forgiveness, accountability and growth.

Deconstructing concept of communities

 Dalit.

Dalit, meaning "broken/scattered" in Sanskrit and Hindiis a term mostly

used for the ethnic groups in India and Nepal that have been kept depressed (often
termed backward castes) Dalits were excluded from the four-fold varna system of
Hinduism and were seen as forming a fifth varna, also known by the name of
Panchama. Dalits now profess various religious beliefs, including Hinduism,
Buddhism, Sikhism, Christianity and various folk religions. The 2011 Census of India
recorded their numbers at over 200 million people, representing 16 percent of India's
population.

The term dalits was in use as a translation for the British Raj census
classification of Depressed Classes prior to 1935. It was popularised by the economist
and reformer B. R. Ambedkar (1891–1956), who included all depressed people
irrespective of their caste into the definition of dalits.[3] Hence the first group he
made was called the "Labour Party" and included as its members all people of the
society who were kept depressed, including women, small scale farmers and people
from backward castes. New leaders like Kanhaiya Kumar subscribe to this definition
of "dalits", thus a Brahmin marginal farmer trying to eke out a living, but unable to do
so also falls in the "dalit" category.[4][5] Ambedkar himself was a Mahar, and in the
1970s the use of the word "dalit" was invigorated when it was adopted by the Dalit
Panthers activist group. Gradually, political parties used it to gain mileage.

 Feminist

Feminism is a range of social movements, political movements, and

ideologies that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the political,
economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes. Feminism incorporates the
position that societies prioritize the male point of view, and that women are treated
unfairly within those societies. Efforts to change that include fighting gender

21
stereotypes and seeking to establish educational and professional opportunities for
women that are equal to those for men.

Feminist movements have campaigned and continue to campaign for

women's rights, including the right to vote, to hold public office, to work, to earn fair
wages, equal pay and eliminate the gender pay gap, to own property, to receive
education, to enter contracts, to have equal rights within marriage, and to have
maternity leave. Feminists have also worked to ensure access to legal abortions and
social integration, and to protect women and girls from rape, sexual harassment, and
domestic violence. Changes in dress and acceptable physical activity have often been
part of feminist movements.

Some scholars consider feminist campaigns to be a main force behind

major historical societal changes for women's rights, particularly in the West, where
they are near-universally credited with achieving women's suffrage, gender-neutral
language, reproductive rights for women (including access to contraceptives and
abortion), and the right to enter into contracts and own property. Although feminist
advocacy is, and has been, mainly focused on women's rights, some feminists,
including bell hooks, argue for the inclusion of men's liberation within its aims
because they believe that men are also harmed by traditional gender roles. Feminist
theory, which emerged from feminist movements, aims to understand the nature of
gender inequality by examining women's social roles and lived experience; it has
developed theories in a variety of disciplines in order to respond to issues concerning
gender.

 Racial connotations of communities

In sociology, racialization or ethnicization is the process of ascribing

ethnic or racial identities to a relationship, social practice, or group that did not
identify itself as such. Racialization or ethnicization is often borne out of the
interaction of a group with a group that it dominates and ascribes identity for the
purpose of continued domination.

22
 While it is often borne out of domination, the racialized and ethnicized
group often gradually identifies with and even embraces the ascribed identity and thus
becomes a self-ascribed race or ethnicity. These processes have been common across
the history of imperialism, nationalism, and racial and ethnic hierarchies.

 Community and identity.

Community identity means to which community one belongs to, it is based

on birth and belonging and has nothing to do with acquired qualifications and
accomplishments.

 It is based on what we are than what we have become.

 Such identities are called “ascriptive”, which means they are acquired by birth
and can’t be chosen.

 Community identity provides sense of security and satisfaction to people despite

of the fact that it is accidental and not chosen or planned.

 People are very emotionally attached to their community identity and tend to get
violent when there is any perceived threat against it.

 The process of community integration and disintegration.

Community integration, while diversely defined, is a term encompassing

the full participation of all people in community life. It has specifically referred to the
integration of people with disabilities into US society from the local to the national
level and for decades was a defining agenda in countries such as Great Britain.

Social disintegration is the tendency for society to decline or disintegrate

over time, perhaps.due to the lapse or breakdown of traditional social support systems.
In this context, "society" refers to the social order which maintains a society, rather
than the political order that defines its boundaries. Society in the sociological sense is
not the same as a country.

In the US, the Consortium of Citizens for Disabilities advocates for a

national public policy which "ensures the self-determination, independence,

23
empowerment, integration and inclusion of children and adults with disabilities in all
parts of society".

Leadership and Community Organization

Types of Leadership

1. Autocratic Leadership

Autocratic leadership style is centered on the boss. In this leadership the leader holds
all authority and responsibility. In this leadership, leaders make decisions on their
own without consulting subordinates.

They reach decisions, communicate them to subordinates and expect prompt

implementation. An autocratic work environment normally has little or no flexibility.

In this kind of leadership, guidelines, procedures and policies are all natural additions
of an autocratic leader. Statistically, there are very few situations that can actually
support autocratic leadership.

Some of the leaders that display this kind of leadership include: Albert J. Dunlap
(Sunbeam Corporation) and Donald Trump (Trump Organization), among others.

Steve Jobs is another leader who was famous for using fear to inspire people to get
their work done. This leadership style can obviously stifle the leader’s subordinates,
but can also be useful in a crisis when important decisions need to be made without
delay. You can read leadership quotes by Steve Jobs and many other visionary leaders.

2. Democratic Leadership

In this leadership style, subordinates are involved in making decisions. Unlike the
autocratic style, this leadership is centered on subordinates’ contributions. The
democratic leader holds final responsibility, but he or she is known to delegate
authority to other people, who determine work projects.

24
The most unique feature of this leadership is that communication is active upward and
downward. With respect to statistics, democratic leadership is one of the most
preferred styles of leadership, and it entails the following: fairness, competence,
creativity, courage, intelligence and honesty.

George Washington was a leader who was famous for his democratic focus. Medical
and high-tech industries fit well with a democratic leadership style because they
require a high amount of collaboration to function.

3. Strategic Leadership Style

Strategic leadership is one that involves a leader who is essentially the head of an
organization. The strategic leader is not limited to those at the top of the organization.
This style is geared to a wider audience at all levels who want to create a high
performance life, team or organization.

The strategic leader fills the gap between the need for new possibility and the need for
practicality by providing a prescriptive set of habits. Effective strategic leadership
delivers the goods in terms of what an organization naturally expects from its
leadership in times of change. 55% of this leadership normally involves strategic
thinking.

Sports is clearly an area where we can observe many leadership styles, and one in
which strategy is crucial. Hockey player and Coach Wayne Gretzky is well-known for
his skill in strategizing.

Strategic leaders anticipate future needs and make decisions in the present to meet
those needs. Gretzky famously said, “‘I skate to where the puck is going to be, not
where it has been.”

4. Transformational Leadership

Unlike other leadership styles, transformational leadership is all about initiating

change in organizations, groups, oneself and others. Transformational leaders
motivate others to do more than they originally intended and often even more than

25
they thought possible. They set more challenging expectations and typically achieve a
higher performance.

Statistically, transformational leadership tends to have more committed and satisfied

followers. This is mainly so because transformational leaders empower followers.

William Edwards Deming, a statistician and engineer, is a leader who saw the best
way certain systems could operate and taught those under him how to accomplish
these goals.

5. Team Leadership

Team leadership involves the creation of a vivid picture of a team’s future, where it is
heading and what it will stand for. The vision inspires and provides a strong sense of
purpose and direction.

Team leadership is about working with the hearts and minds of all those involved. It
also recognizes that teamwork may not always involve trusting cooperative
relationships.

The most challenging aspect of this leadership is whether or not it will succeed.
According to Harvard Business Review, team leadership may fail because of poor
leadership qualities, as well as other challenges. For example, an airline flight crew
would be much more efficient if the team remained consistent.

Studies have shown that teams that have worked together for a long period of time are
more effective than those that have not. But because keeping a flight crew together
would be expensive, crews change their members all the time. Situations such as this
are just one example of the challenges teams face.

6. Cross-Cultural Leadership

This form of leadership normally exists where there are various cultures in the society.
This leadership has also industrialized as a way to recognize front-runners who work
in the contemporary globalized market. Organizations, particularly international ones,
require leaders who can effectively adjust their leadership to work in different

26
environs. Most of the leadership environments in the United States are cross-cultural
because of the different cultures that live and work there.

One example of a cross-cultural leader in sports is quarterback and Heisman Trophy

winner Mariota Marcus. His Hawaiian background caused him to be an unpretentious
player, in contrast to being a more aggressive one, yet he was still successful.

7. Facilitative Leadership

Facilitative leadership is dependent on measurements and outcomes – not a skill,

although it takes much skill to master. The effectiveness of a group is directly related
to the efficacy of its process. If the group is high functioning, the facilitative leader
uses a light hand on the process.

On the other hand, if the group is low functioning, the facilitative leader will be more
directive in helping the group run its process. An effective facilitative

leadership involves monitoring group dynamics, as well as offering process

suggestions and interventions to help the group stay on track.

8. Laissez-faire Leadership

Laissez-faire leadership gives authority to employees. According to azcentral,

departments or subordinates are allowed to work as they choose with minimal or no
interference. According to research, this kind of leadership has been consistently
found to be the least satisfying and least effective management style.

But to a certain extent, delegating is necessary. Famous historical projects led by

laissez-faire leaders include the building of the Panama Canal and the Hoover Dam.
With both projects, the presidents involved had to delegate many responsibilities in
order to succeed.

Completion of Panama Canal in 1904 was a complicated feat. This was only made
possible when American President of that time Theodore Roosevelt decided to lead
this project. The successful completion of Panama Canal is an engineering marvel,
because of its geographical location it came across several road blocks and incidents,
but all hurdles were overcome as authority was correctly delegated to professionals.

27
9. Transactional Leadership

This is a leadership style that maintains or continues the status quo. It is also the
leadership that involves an exchange process, whereby followers get immediate,
tangible rewards for carrying out the leader’s orders. Transactional leadership can
sound rather basic, with its focus on exchange.

Being clear, focusing on expectations, giving feedback are all important leadership
skills. Transactional leadership behaviors can include: clarifying what is expected of
followers’ performance, explaining how to meet such expectations, and allocating
rewards that are contingent on meeting objectives.

10. Coaching Leadership

Coaching leadership involves teaching and supervising followers. A coaching leader

is highly operational in settings where results/performance requires improvement.

Basically, in this kind of leadership, followers are helped to improve their skills.
Coaching leadership does the following: motivates followers, inspires followers and
encourages followers.

Some examples of people who have led through coaching are tennis coach Nick
Bollettieri and dog behaviorist Cesar Milan.

11. Charismatic Leadership

In this type of leadership, the charismatic leader manifests his or her revolutionary
power. Charisma does not mean sheer behavioral change. It actually involves a
transformation of followers’ values and beliefs.

Therefore, charismatic leaders are not merely simply populist leaders who affect
attitudes towards specific objects. Rather, these leaders transform the underlying
normative orientation that structures specific attitudes.Charismatic leaders tend to
have powerful personalities and attract huge followings. Examples of such leaders are
Barak Obama and Oprah Winfrey.

28
12. Visionary Leadership

This form of leadership involves leaders who recognize that the methods, steps and
processes of leadership are all obtained with and through people.

Most great and successful leaders have some sort of vision for where they are going.
However, there are those who are highly visionary in their leadership.

Examples of leaders who had powerful and inspirational visions include Nelson
Mandela and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Outstanding leaders will always transform
their visions into realities

What is power in a community?

Power in a community is the ability to affect the decision-making process

and the use of resources, both public and private, within a community or watershed
group. Power is simply the capacity to bring about change. It is the energy that gets
things done. All levels of The Conservation Partnership need to know about
community power structures in order to more effectively implement and maintain
locally led conservation initiatives. A community can be defined as a watershed,
region, town, county, or other geographic or geopolitical boundary. Examining the
concept of power involves looking at the sources and structures that influence local
communities and exploring the relationships that shape cooperative efforts. The
conservationist who has a basic understanding of social power and who can identify
the power actors in a community can enhance the opportunity for success in
conservation initiatives.

What Is a Power Structure?

A power structure in a community or watershed group is key leaders

(power actors) acting together to affect what gets done and how it gets done. However,
the nature of the relationships among the individual power actors can vary from one
community to another.

• Some communities have a power structure centered on one person who is

surrounded by “lieutenants.”

29
• Other communities have a small, tightly knit group – the power elite – that controls
policy-making for the community.

• Another structure is the “split community.” Examples include Republican Democrat,

Protestant-Catholic, liberal-conservative, labour-management,rural-urban, and others.

• The “power pool” involves a combination of all three. Essentially, there is a “pool”
of 10 to 25 people who are the top community power actors.

• In some communities, tradition or elders are the powerful members.

• Finally, some culturally diverse communities base their power almost totally on
democratic principles and unanimity.

The “power pool” may be the most common kind of power structure. The other
structures are special cases found in communities with unique characteristics. The
“power pool” has at least the following implications for conservationists and other
change agents:

1. The same power actors may not be relevant to every issue, so each issue needs to
identify appropriate power actors.

2. There are communication networks within the pool. A discussion with one or more
power actors provides an indirect method for communicating a message to several
other power actors. It also provides a means for communicating to other people in the
community.

3. Members of the power pool change over time. In addition, the power of one
individual relative to another may change, so the assessment of power actors cannot
be viewed as a one-time task.

Leaders are important in any form of community development because they are
responsible for shaping a Community focus, listening to the people's needs, make
important decisions for the benefit of the community have foresight, encourage fair
treatment of people, and develop partnerships that will benefit the community.

30
Significance of leadership in the process of community development.

• The primary focus of any community leader is to shape the peoples' needs and direct
all their actions towards it. They are a platform of voice and action whom the people
can talk to, and who will listen, making them instrumental in any progress for the
community.

• Leaders are also chosen because of their capability to make important decisions on
behalf of the community and in order to do this must be good listeners. There may be
small groups within the community that have conflicting issues, and both sides must
be listened to and understood well by the leader.

• A leader's foresight is crucial in anticipating the outcome of their decisions and

community's actions for the rest of the groups. Good foresight means understanding
the past and assessing the present to produce a good future.

• People in communities can be extremely diverse, and a good leader is essential in

promoting fair treatment of everyone no matter what their stand or position is. Each of
their values and heritage plays an important role in shaping the community, which a
leader can take to mould them for development and progress.

• Leaders also play an important role in fostering partnerships beyond their circle that
will contribute to the betterment of their community. These partnerships should allow
for more diverse services and products that the community can enjoy as a whole.

• Leadership in community development is an important role that can make or break

the progress of the people involved. They should be chosen well, and a good leader
will bring paramount success in helping their communities enjoy more services and a
better life

Theories of leadership

1. Great Man Theory

According to the Great Man Theory (which should perhaps be called the
Great Person Theory), leaders are born with just the right traits and abilities for
leading – charisma, intellect, confidence, communication skills, and social skills.
31
The theory suggests that the ability to lead is inherent – that the best leaders are born,
not made. It defines leaders as valiant, mythic, and ordained to rise to leadership when
the situation arises. The term “Great Man” was adopted at the time because leadership
was reserved for males, particularly in military leadership.

2. Trait Theory

The Trait Theory is very similar to the Great Man Theory. It is founded on the
characteristics of different leaders – both the successful and unsuccessful ones. The
theory is used to predict effective leadership. Usually, the identified characteristics are
compared to those of potential leaders to determine their likelihood of leading
effectively.

Scholars researching the trait theory try to identify leadership characteristics from
different perspectives. They focus on the physiological attributes such as appearance,
weight, and height; demographics such as age, education, and familial background;
and intelligence, which encompasses decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge.

3. Contingency Theory

The Contingency Theory emphasizes different variables in a specific setting that

determine the style of leadership best suited for the said situation. It is founded on the
principle that no one leadership style is applicable to all situations.

Renowned leadership researchers Hodgson and White believe that the best form of
leadership is one that finds the perfect balance between behaviors, needs, and context.
Good leaders not only possess the right qualities but they’re also able to evaluate the
needs of their followers and the situation at hand. In summary, the contingency theory
suggests that great leadership is a combination of many key variables.

4. Situational Theory

The Situational Theory is similar to the Contingency Theory as it also proposes that
no one leadership style supersedes others. As its name suggests, the theory implies
that leadership depends on the situation at hand. Put simply, leaders should always

32
correspond their leadership to the respective situation by assessing certain variables
such as the type of task, nature of followers, and more.

As proposed by US professor Paul Hersey and leadership guru Ken Blanchard, the
situational theory blends two key elements: the leadership style and the followers’
maturity levels. Hersey and Blanchard classified maturity into four different degrees:

M1 – Team members do not possess the motivation or tactical skills to complete

necessary jobs.

M2 – Team members are willing and ambitious to achieve something, but they lack
the necessary ability.

M3 – Team members possess the skills and capacity to accomplish tasks, but they’re
not willing to take accountability.

M4 – Team members possess all the right talents and are motivated to complete
projects.

According to situational theory, a leader exercises a particular form of leadership

based on the maturity level of his or her team.

5. Behavioral Theory

In Behavioral Theory, the focus is on the specific behaviors and actions of leaders
rather than their traits or characteristics. The theory suggests that effective leadership
is the result of many learned skills.

Individuals need three primary skills to lead their followers – technical, human, and
conceptual skills. Technical skills refer to a leader’s knowledge of the process or
technique; human skills means that one is able to interact with other individuals;
while conceptual skills enable the leader to come up with ideas for running the
organization or society smoothly.

33
 Concept of power

Power means an ability to influence, in community organization.

That is influencing community members to act up on as directed by the leaders to
achieve the community goals. The community power aspects can be studied. This is
called as power structure of the community. The power structure of the community
varies according to the community.

The Dimensions of Power

According to social workers, power is the ability to influence the

beliefs and behavior of others according to wish or plan. In other words, power is the
ability to make things happen. Floyd hunter explained the nature of power and power
structure. Power appears in numerous forms and in a variety of combinations. Power
flows from many sources. The money, votes, laws, information, expertise, prestige,
group support, contacts, charisma, communication channels, media, social role, access
to rewards, position, titles, ideas, verbal skill, ability to gratify important needs,
monopoly of essential resources, alliances, energy, conviction, courage, interpersonal
skills, moral convictions, etc. are some of the sources of power. The accumulation of
power in a specific area is called as a power center. Power is also distributed. It is not
confined within the power center. It is present at every level of the society. The
powerless people do have power. They have to discover their power. Power may be
ascribed by formal delegation or by title. Power may be achieved by many ways. For
example, through competence, ability, or by personality etc. power can be achieved.
Generally groups of people are at the top of the community. They are called as power
centers at the top of the power pyramid. They influence the community through
formal and informal connections. They influence through sub-ordinate leaders who do
not participate in community decision-making process. The rich people are mostly
powerful. In some communities multiplicity of power structure is noticed. Power
structure is also flexible in nature. The community Organizer has to study the
following ‘ How do some people influence the action of others? Who wields the
power? How? What are the issues? What are the results? These aspects are to be
analyzed by the organizer for effective practice of community organization. This is
34
called as community power structure analysis. It is called as power because some
people are capable of action in spite of the resistance of others who are participating
in the action. Some people are powerful because they knew each other personally and
they interact frequently making them involve in joint efforts in community affairs.
People with power, make major community decision where as others are active in
implementing such decisions. An organizer who is able to study the power structure
well can practice community organization effectively. For example, the village
traditional leader is a powerful person. The leader can influence other people to act.
Many times this leader is motivated to involve in achieving the goals of the
community. The leader is capable of influencing people effectively. When there is
opposition from a few men, it can be tackled by the leader because the leader has
power.

In the community power is distributed. Each power center tries to

expand its influence over the distribution of resources and rewards. The various
power centers enter into an alliance. They share power, enter into a contract and
discharge obligations. Power does not come to the passive, timid, defeated, persons.
Energetic, courageous, persons wield it. The people with power tend to join together
based on issues. The basis for alliance are ideological, personality similarities, needs,
or to achieve the goals. Power possessed is always used. It can be used for achieving
the goals. The power can be intellectual, political, social, and psychological power.
To retain power there is a need for self-awareness and self control. The decision-
making is the source and out come of the power. Some times there is a possibility of
many number of power centers. Each power center may be autonomous. The
organizer needs knowledge, and ability to mobilize the power in the community for
achieving the goals of the community.

There are techniques for mobilization of power.

1. Appealing to the persons with power, who are related with achieving
the goal
2. Relating the power centers directly to the goal

35
 3. Developing interdependence among power centers for fulfilling the
goals.
4. Formation of new groups by including members of power centers to
achieve the goals.
5. Encouraging members of power centers to join with other members of
power centers to achieve the goal
6. By using group work methods, new larger power centers can be
strengthened to achieve the goals.
Saul Alinsky and Richard Cloward used the changing of power
centers. [1960]. The power center change is achieved by institutional changes.
Saul Alinsky gave importance for grass-root approach. In grass-root approach
lower level people should get deciding power. Power and authority are connected.
Authority is the legitimatization of power. These details are used in community
organization to achieve people’s participation and successful achievement of the
goal.

The Relevance of power in Community Organization.

Development is influenced by power structures of the
community. People who are influential can mobilize a major segment of the
community. For example; in fund raising drive some people can move behind other
people and institutions. There are two models of community power structure. The
stratification model and the pluralist mode are the two models of power structures.
Stratification model suggests that social class principally determines the distribution
of community power. According to this model the power structure in community is
composed of stable upper class elite whose interest and out look on community affairs
are relatively homogeneous. According to pluralist model, it rejects the idea that a
small homogeneous group dominates community decision-making. But there are
numerous small special interest groups that cut across class lines, which are
represented in the community decision-making. These are interest groups with
overlapping memberships, widely differing power bases, have influences on decisions.
Community decisions are the result of the interactions of these different interest
groups. This theoretical orientation can help the community organizer in his action.

36
 The organizer has to identify the members of the power
structure for community organization. Floyd Hunter an executive director of a
community welfare council wrote classic volumes on community power structure. His
method of locating community elites is known as the reputation approach. The basic
procedure is to ask a group of informants who are knowledgeable about the
community to list the people they believe to be most influential in the community
affairs. There may be variations on this procedure with regard to how informants are
selected, and how questions are put in. By tallying those people most frequently
named as influential leaders we can identify the core of the community power
structure. Position approach is another method of locating the members of the power
structure based on the assumption of stratification model. This approach assumes that
people holding the highest office in the community are at the top of the power
structure. By scanning the executive lists of the important social political and
economic organizations in the community, one can quickly compile a list of members
of the power structure. This approach requires fewer efforts than the reputation
approach. Community power is directly related with Community Organization.
Participation of people is related with power. In Community Organization community
power holders are involved to induce people’s participation in order to achieve the
organizations objectives. Some times if the existing power centers are not for
Community Organizational objectives, then a new center of power is created to get
people’s commitment and mass participation. The organizer needs to study power
structure and Community Organization process is carried out successfully through
leaders. For example, people are organized to implement family planning. For this the
leader is motivated for people’s participation. In some villages the leader opposes
family planning. In this situation the community organizer has to identify a new
powerful leader to implement family planning. Other wise it is not possible to
implement family planning in the village.

Barriers of empowerment

Generally poor people have the feeling of powerlessness. These

people can be helped to feel powerful to decide their own affairs using community
organization. When they learn to solve their problems they feel powerful. We can

37
develop confidence and capacity building so that they feel that they can solve their
problems by themselves. In community organization, the people carry out decision-
making. This provides them with a sense of empowerment. Empowerment deals with
providing disadvantaged groups with a powerful instrument for articulating their
demands and preferences by awareness, decision-making capacity and to achieve their
goal with freedom.
Community Organization results in empowerment of the people.
But there are some hindrances like fatalism, illiteracy, superstitions, and caste
divisions etc. Some times the vested interested groups may be a hindrance or barriers
for empowerment. The Community dependence, long time effect of poverty, and
wrong beliefs etc., act as barriers to empowerment. When people are organized, they
get the power. There are leaders in the community, they are united, they can work
together, and they can co ordinate with each other. This makes them feel powerful.
Thus community organization results in empowerment of people. The empowerment
helps the community to stand against exploitation, ability to solve problems, and to
achieve the desired goals. Many of the economic problems can be easily solved by
community organization and empowerment of community.

Community Organization

Community organization refers to organizing aimed at making desired

improvements to a community's social health, well-being, and overall functioning.
Community organization occurs in geographically, psychosocially, culturally,
spiritually, and/or digitally bounded communities.

Community organization includes community work, community

projects, community development, community empowerment, community building,
and community mobilization. It is a commonly used model for organizing community
within community projects, neighborhoods, organizations, voluntary associations,
localities, and social networks, which may operate as ways to mobilize around
geography, shared space, shared experience, interest, need, and/or concern.

38
 Community organization is a process by which a community identifies
needs or objectives, takes action, and through this process, develops cooperative and
collaborative attitudes and practices within a community. (Murray G. Ross, 1967).

Community organization is differentiated from conflict-

oriented community organizing which focuses on short-term change through appeals
to authority (i.e., pressuring established power structures for desired change), by
focusing on long-term and short-term change through direct action and the organizing
of community (i.e., the creation of alternative systems outside of established power
structures). This often includes inclusive networking, interpersonal organizing,
listening, reflexivity, non-violent communication, cooperation, mutual aid and social
care, prefiguration, popular education, and direct democracy.

Within organizations, variations exist in terms of size and structure. Some

are formally incorporated, with codified bylaws and Boards of Directors (also known
as a committee), while others are much smaller, more informal, and grassroots.
Community organization may be more effective in addressing need as well as in
achieving short-term and long-term goals than larger, more bureaucratic organizations.

Contemporary community organization, known as "The New Community

Organizing," includes glocalized perspectives and organizing methods. The
multiplicity of institutions, groups, and activities do not necessarily define community
organization. However, factors such as the interaction, integration, and coordination
of, existing groups, assets, activities, as well as the relationships, the evolution of new
structures and communities, are characteristics unique to community organization.

Community organization leads to greater understanding of community

contexts. It is characterized by community building, community planning, direct
action and mobilization, the promotion of community change, and, ultimately,
changes within larger social systems and power structures along with localized ones.

Definitions

The United Nations in 1955 considered community organization as

complementary to community development. The United Nations assumed that

39
community development is operative in marginalized communities and community
organization is operative in areas in where levels of living are relatively high and
social services relatively well developed, but in where a greater degree of integration
and community initiative is recognized as desirable.

In 1955, Murray G. Ross defined community organization as a process

by which a community identifies its needs or objectives, orders (or ranks) these
needs or objectives, develops the confidence and will to work at these needs or
objectives, finds the resources (internal and/or external) to deal with these needs
or objectives, takes action in respect to them, and in so doing, extends and
develops co-operative and collaborative attitudes and practices within the
community.

In 1921, Eduard C. Lindeman defined community organization as "that

phase of social organization which constitutes a conscious effort on the part of a
community to control its affairs democratically and to secure the highest services
from its specialists, organizations, agencies, and institutions by means of recognized
interrelations."

In 1925, Walter W. Pettit stated that "Community organization is

perhaps best defined as assisting a group of people to recognize their common
needs and helping them to meet these needs."

In 1940, Russell H. Kurtz defined community organization as "a process

dealing primarily with program relationships and thus to be distinguished in its social
work setting from those other basic processes, such as casework and group work.
Those relationships of agency to agency, of agency to community and of community
to agency reach in all directions from any focal point in the social work picture.
Community organization may be thought of as the process by which these
relationships are initiated, altered or terminated to meet changing conditions, and it is
thus basic to all social work..."

In 1947, Wayne McMillen defined community organization as "in its

generic sense in deliberately directed effort to assist groups in attaining unity of
purpose and action. It is practiced, though often without recognition of its character,

40
wherever the objective is to achieve or maintain a pooling of the talents and resources
of two or more groups in behalf of either general or specific objectives.”

OBJECTIVES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION

Community organisation is essentially concerned to bring social change in

the community through critically analyzing their social conditions and developing
relations with outside world/resources for their development. It has three main
objectives-

 To involve the people democratically in thinking deciding, planning

 Playing an active part in the development

 Operation of services that affect their daily lives.

Other objectives

 Value for personal fulfilment of belonging to a community.

 Concerned with the need in community planning to think of actual people in

relation to other people and meeting their needs as persons, instead off, on a
series of separate needs and problems.

 To organize the community scientifically.

 To help the community to identify its needs and to work on it.

 To empower the community to identify the resources within and outside the
community for development.

 To facilitate the development of leadership in the community.

 To foster social capital generation in the community.

 To equip the community to plan, implement, monitor and evaluate development

initiatives.

41
 To enhance self-reliance of the community for sustainable development.

While studying the concept of community organization Ross (1955)

identified three approaches and described this method very well.

(1) The ‘specific content’ approach, where by a worker or an agency or organisation

identifies problem and launches a program to meet them.

(2) The ‘general content’ approach whereby a group, association or council, such state
social welfare board, attempts a coordinated and orderly development of service in a
particular area.

(3) The ‘process approach’ where the objective is not the content i.e. facilities or
services of some kind.

History of Community organization

Introduction

In a broad sense we can say wherever people have lived together,

some form of organisations has emerged. These informal associations of people
always tried to do good to the people in need and protect the rights of the society. On
the contrary the history talks about the formal organizations which were set up for the
welfare of the community. The first efforts at community organization for social
welfare were initiated in England to overcome the acute problem of poverty, which
led to beggary.

The first effort of its kind was the Elizabethan poor law (1601) in
England, which was set up to provide services to the needy. Another important
landmark in the history of community organization is the formation of London
Society of organizing charitable relief and repressing mendicancy and the Origin of
the settlement house Movement in England during 1880.

42
 In fact, these movements had a major impact in the United States of
America. In 1880 the Charities organization was set up to put rational order in the
area of charity and relief. The major community organization activities in the United
States could be classified in to three periods:

 The Charity organization period. 1870-1917:

This era is the beginnings in social welfare in USA. The first

citywide (COS) Charity organization Society was established in the Buffalo in 1877
in USA. This movement was started with the influence of London Charity
organization established in 1869. In USA, Rev.S.H.Gurteen, an English priest who
had an association with London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873
gave the leadership to this movement an English priest who had an association with
London Charity association and had moved to Baffalo in 1873. With in a short span of
six years the COS had reached to more than 25 American cities.

Charity organization was concerned about two things:

1. Providing adequate personal services to families and individuals in need

2. Take steps to address the issues/problems in social welfare.

Apart from this services the COS also took initiatives in promoting
co-operation among the various welfare agencies. From this movement of charity
organization emerged many other such service oriented organisations i.e. Social
service exchange, Community welfare councils, councils of social agencies

 The rise of Federation 1917 to 1935

It is period where we can see the growth and development of chests

and councils. It started with the rise of war chests in 1917 and ended with the
enactment of social security act, which set the stage for development of the public
welfare programs in 1935. A large number of chests and councils came up after world
war 1.The American Association for Community Organization was organized in 1918
as the national agency for chests and councils and it later became known as
community chests and councils of (CCC) America. The Cincinnati Public Health
Federation, established in 1917 was the first independent health council in American

43
City. It is in this period that the American Association of social workers organized in
1921, the first general professional organisations, set up its training for the social
workers and others who specialized in community organization.

A community chest is a voluntary welfare agency, co-operative

organization of citizens and welfare agencies, which is the powerful local force for
community welfare origination that handles large funds. It has two functions. It raises
funds through a community -wide appeal and distributes them according to a
systematic budget procedure. Secondly it promotes co-operative planning. co-
ordination and administration of the communities social welfare.

 Period of Expansion and professional Development 1935 to present time.

It is in this period the we see the greater use of the community

organization process in the filed of public welfare. A marked significance of this era
is the establishment of Federal Security Agency where we see the maximized
involvement of the Govt. in welfare programs. In 1946 the agency was strengthened
and re-organized following which in 1953 Department of Health, education and
Welfare was established.

Another important factor of the period is about the

professional development that took place. Some of the important professional
developments are:

1. The National Conference of Social work in 1938-39 undertook a study on

community organization, which later publicized the nature of "Generic
Community welfare organization". Based on this another study took place in
1940, but due to America involvement in World War II an active program could
not take off.

2. In 1946, at the National conference of social work in Buffalo, the Association of

the study of community organization (ASCO) was organized. The main objective
was to improve the professional practice of organization for social welfare. In
1955, ASCO merged with six other professional organisations to form the
National Association of social workers. Community organization has been
recognized as integral and important aspect of social work education in the

44
 American Association of Schools of social work education. At present thee is an
active committee of Council on social work education involved in the production
of teaching materials in community organization.

3. The first contemporary textbook on community organization titled " Community

Organization for social welfare " published in 1945 has been written by Wayne
McMilen's .

4. Another development in the history of community development is seen in the

wake of World War II. Wartime needs were very special and crucial. During this
time many councils and community war services came to the forefront. Among
them (USO) united service organization is of prime importance as it was the
union of many forces that served the needs of the military personnel and defense
communities. The other striking characteristics of the period is the immense
increase in the volunteer service i.e. defense council, American Red Cross and
USO which co-ordinated and recruited the volunteers.

5. Another development that took place at the wartime is the growth of closer
relationship between labor and social work, which is considered as great
significance to community origination.

6. The other developments that took place after the World War II are as follows that
are very specific to community organization area as follows.

 The rehabilitation of the physically and mentally challenged

 Mental health planning, problems of the aging

 Prevention and treatment of juvenile delinquency.

In order to address theses issues separate bodies were set up and we

see the entry of international agencies in the field of community origination. The
present situation in community organization is the emergence of the new community
development programs, which aims at providing, services to the less developed areas
in the international social welfare. Therefore the present agenda is on working with
the whole community and a greater emphasis on self -help.

45
 COMMUNITY ORGANISATION IN U. K

Baldock (1974) has summed up the historical development in U.K. by

diving it in to four phases.

 The first Phase: - 1880-1920: During this period the community work was
mainly seen as a method of social work. It was considered as a process of helping
the individuals to enhance their social adjustments. It acted as major player to co-
ordinate the work of voluntary agencies.

 The second phase: - 1920-1950: This period saw the emergence of new ways of
dealing with social issues and problems. The community organization was closely
associated with central and state Govt.'s program for urban development. The
important development in this period was its association with community
association movement.

 The third phase 1950 onwards: - it emerged as a reaction to the neighborhood

idea, which provided an ideological phase for the second phase. It was period we
see the professional development of social work. Most of the educators and
planners tried to analyze the shortcomings in the existing system. It was also a
period where the social workers sought for a professional identity.

 The forth phase: It is a period that has marked the involvement of the
community action. It questioned the very relationship of the community work and
social work. It was thus seen as period of radical social movement and we could
see the conflicts of community with authority. The association of social workers
and the community were de-professionalised during this period. Thus it was
during this period the conflictual strategies that were introduced in the
community work, although even now there is no consensus on this issue (Baldock
1974).

HISTORY OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION IN INDIA

A historical account of the community organization is not

available in India, as there has been only a rare documentation on social work
literature in general and community organization in particular.

46
 Community organization has its roots in the Charity organizations in
the United States. They realized the need of the people and tied to organize the people
to coordinate their work. The main activities were social welfare, raising funds,
seeking enactment for the social legislation and co-ordination of welfare activities.
The spirit behind all these activities was charity. In India, the very concept of charity
is deep rooted in the religious philosophy. Even before the commencement of the
social work education in India in 1937, the community work was in place. But in the
first phase from 1937 t0 1952 the community work was in a dormant stage. During
this period the social work was in its infancy and not many were employed in the
community settings because. There were hardly any jobs that provided an opening for
community organization. Professionals preferred to work in casework settings.

It was in 1952 the community development project was launched in

India and with this we find the emergence of a new era of community work. The basic
objective of community development in India was to awaken the rural people of their
needs, instilling in them a sense of ambition for better life and making them aware of
their right and power to find a solution for their problems. According to Mukerji
(1961) Community development is a movement designed to promote better living for
the whole community with the active participation and if possible with the initiative
of community" According to him community development can be divided in to two
process. 1.Extension education 2.Community organization. Extension education was
expected to improve the quality of human beings by improving his/her knowledge and
skills. By community organization Mukerji had in mind the setting up of three
institutions in the village.

 Village Panchayat

 The village co-operative

 The village school

During this period the thrust of the community work remained rural
where as social work remained urban in character.

From 1970 onwards we could see a new trend in the community work
practice. The social workers expanded their scope and operational area from their

47
traditional approach of casework. to other developments fields. For example people
working with school children started working with the community. The Ngo's and
voluntary organization adopted a community approach. This shift has in-fact led to
the use of process of community work. By and large the community work has
remained welfare -oriented.

The current phase of community work in India is experiencing a

growing dissatisfaction with its own practice or rather the out come of its practice. So
efforts are on to create alternate ways of working with communities. In-spite of these,
the professionals is involved in a variety of projects in both rural and urban areas to
promote better living for the community.

Another trend in the community work is the involvement of the

Business houses in promoting welfare in their neighborhood. This is commonly
known as CSR. (Corporate social responsibilities) The business houses i.e. Tats,
Escorts, and some of the multinational companies too have joined in this venture. This
trend has attracted many professionals in this field

The main objective of community development is to develop village

communities by methods, which will stimulate, encourage and aid villagers
themselves to do much of the work necessary to accomplish the desired goals. The
changes conceived and promoted should have the involvement of the people and
should be acceptable to them and put in to practice by them.

Models of Community Organization

WHAT IS A MODEL?

Before we proceed to understand the different methods and models of

community organization it is wise to understand the terminology. What is a model?

Model:

It is a medium through which a person looks at the complex realities.

Model is a simplistic version of a complex situation. Models serve as a reference for
the work and give us a clear understanding of what would happen. They describe

48
strategies for accomplishing a vision, the appropriate steps to be taken to get there.
Some models grow out of the specific ideologies of change and some in response to
concrete situations.

MODEL OF COMMUNITY ORGANISATION BY ROTHMAN:

Since 100 years people in various situations, countries have been trying to
address the issues of social welfare .The study of the history helps us to know the
drastic changes that took place. A major shift from the charity approach to the
professional delivery of services.

Jack Rothman has introduced three basic models of community organization.

They are:

 Locality development

 Social planning

 Social Action

1. LOCALITY DEVELOPMENT:

Locality development model is a method of working with

community groups .It was earlier used by the settlement houses. Here the important
focus is about the process of community building. Leadership development and the
education of the participants are the essential elements in the process.

According to Murray Ross the "process of self help and communal

action is valuable in its own right". The model of locality development is based on
this particular thought process. It originated from the traditional community
organization practice. The main focus of this model is whole community or a part of it.
The basic belief is that communities have some common needs and interests and once
the people realize this need and work together democratically they can take
appropriate steps to improve the quality of life.

Here the role of the community organizer is to enhance the

involvement of the people in the community and help the community to plan and help

49
them find a solution to the problem. It is similar to work of community development,
which is done in the underdevelopment world.

It refers to the community organization practice when a worker or an

agency attempts to develop various schemes and programs to meet the needs of the
target population in a defined area. It also includes coordination of various agencies
providing a variety of services in the area.

2. SOCIAL PLANNING:

It refers to the type of community work where a worker or agency

undertakes an exercise of evaluating welfare needs and existing services in the area
and suggests a possible blue print for a more efficient delivery of services, it is termed
as social planning. It is concerned with social problems For example. Housing,
education, health, childcare and so on. Its aim is to affect a large population. The
community planner works in greater capacity with the government and is often
identified with power structure of the community but interested in the needs and
attitudes of the community.

3. SOCIAL ACTION:

According to Friedlander,W.A. ( 1963) " Social Action is an

individual, group or community effort within the framework of the social work
philosophy and practice that aims to achieve social progress, to modify social policies
and to improve social legislation and health and welfare services". Another model of
community organization suggested by Rothman is that of social action. According to
him social action is a strategy used by groups or sub communities or even national
organisations that feel that they have inadequate power and resources to meet their
needs. So they confront with the power structure using conflict as a method to solve
their issues related to inequalities and deprivation.

In this type of community organisations the community organizer

uses all means to pressure the power structure to give in to demands. The role of

50
organizers may differ depending the issues they get involved in. The role may be of
advocate, activist, agitator, broker or negotiator. It is a process. This organizing
process goes through different stage .So the role of the organizer will also change as
per the roles of the organisor at each stage.

This model was commonly used during the 1960's. This has been
used as a means to redress the social problems of the nation, redistribute the resources
and power to the poor and powerless. Social action as model has an important role in
community organization.

APPROACHES TO COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION:

The History has witnessed diversity of efforts in the community

organization and the emergence of new initiatives in the field. Most often these of
community organizing efforts are centered on identity communities and issue-specific
communities. History gives us a list of different kind of community organizing
methods. One such community organizing which the twentieth century has witnessed
is the growth of neighborhood organizing.

 Neighborhood organizing:

Neighborhood organizing is one form of community organizing. This

nothing but an effort by the community to solve the day to day problems and help
those in need.

There are three type approaches to neighborhood organizing.

1. The social work Approach

2. Political Activists Approach

3. Neighborhood maintenance/Community development Approach

1. The social work Approach:

In this approach, the society is viewed as a social organism and

therefore the efforts are oriented towards building a sense of community. The
community organizer whose role is of an "enabler or an advocate " helps the

51
community identify a problem in the neighborhood and strives to achieve the needed
social resources by gathering the existing the social services and by lobbying with
some in power to meet the needs of the neighborhood. This method is more
consensual and the neighborhood is seen as a collective client. One example of this
approach is the social settlement movement USA and war on poverty program of the
Johnson administration in the 1960s.

2. The political Activists Approach:

Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community organizing is the founder

of this approach .He emerged as a community organizer in the 1930s.The basic
philosophy of this approach is based on his thinking that " more representative the
organization the stronger the organization."

In this approach the community is seen as a political entity and not as

a social organism. Here, the neighborhood is viewed as a potential power base
capable of getting power. The role of the community organizer is to help the
community understand the problem in terms of power and necessary steps are taken to
mobilize the community. The problem of the neighborhood is always identified as
absence of power and in the interest of gaining power for the neighborhood the
organizers are faced with conflicts with groups, interests and elities. Since most of the
community organizers come from out side the community, it has faced the problems
of equality of power relations and leadership in the community.

Unlike the social work approach to community organization this

approach has the potential to create stable, democratic and effective organisations of
neighborhood residents by seeing its role as " meeting power with power"

3. Neighborhood maintenance/Community development Approach:

This approach has emerged out of both the previous approaches

namely within the same neighborhood movements. It is seen in the form of civic
associations. This association uses peer group pressure to provide services in the

52
community. They use this strategy to pressurize the officials to deliver services to the
community but sometimes this approach takes the form of political activists approach
as they realize that their goals can be only achieved only through confrontations.

In this approach we see the characteristics of de-emphasis on

dissent and confrontation and these organisations view themselves as more proactive
and development minded.

MODELS OF ROTHMAN:

It is important to have a theoretical frame work to work in the

community. This theoretical framework facilitates the worker to adopt strategies and
helps him choose the type of focus he/she wants to maintain in the professional
practice. Rothman has given three models of practice, which are as follows:

 Neighborhood development model

 System Change model

 Structural change model

1. Neighbourhood development Model:

Neighborhood Model is the oldest model of community organization.

This model has been practiced in India and in some of the underdeveloped countries.
It has been used in the developmental activities. In general it is believed that people
living in a neighborhood have the capacity to meet the problems they come across in
their day to day life through their own efforts and resources. The main aspect here is
that the community realizes its needs and takes appropriate steps to meet the needs of
the community, which will bring greater satisfaction to all its members both
individually and collectively. The role of the worker in this model is to induce a
process that will sensitize the community and make the community realize its needs.

Based on the value of self-sustenance the worker energizes the

community and makes the community self-reliant, and not merely depending on the
help form out side. So rather than providing services in the community, the

53
communities are energized to meet its own needs. This model encourages the people
to think for themselves rather than doing things for them.

Some of the steps in this model are:

1. Identifying the geographical area for your intervention

2. Making your way to the community

3. Understand the community and identify the felt needs

4. Making an appropriate program

5. Planning for resource mobilization

6. Developing a strong net-work in the community

7. Planning for withdrawal from the community

2. SYSTEM CHANGE MODEL:

As the name suggests, the system change model aims at

developing strategies to either restructure or modify the system. Thus it is termed as
"System Change approach to community work. Although we find glimpses of this
model gaining more acceptance, this has not become very popular. We know of
various mechanisms that cater to the needs of the society. Such as education, health
services housing, women empowerment, and employment. All these services are
rooted through various systems and all these systems do have sub-systems. The
fundamental aspect in this model is that the due to various reasons the systems
become dysfunctional. For example the system of education as we have it today,
reveals that the cities have better educational faculties as compared to the rural areas.

This system (education policy) of education has generated

disparities in the society. I.e. access to education, lack of basic facilities, trained staff,
etc. The system instead of becoming a tool of empowering mechanism brings
disparities between people of different socio-economic condition. So the system has
failed to achieve its objectives. Thus the worker on observing this disfunction in the
community finds it important to develop strategies to restructure or modify the system.

54
Some of the tasks in this model are:

1. Understanding the deficiencies in the system.

2. Communicating the findings with the community

3. Making strategies to influence the decision making bodies.

4. Mobilizing peoples participation and seeking out-side support to translate the

plan in to concrete action.

5. Making alliances and partnerships with other NGOS and comminutes to demand
a change.

3. STRUCTURAL CHANGE MODEL:

One of the most difficult and rarely practiced models of community

work is structural change model. The society consists of small communities and it is
nothing but "a web of relationships". These relationships of the people are formally
structured by the respective countries' state policies, law and constitutions and
informally by its customs, traditions etc. that determines the social rights of the
individuals. The social structure in some of the societies is controlled by the state.

Understanding the macro- structure of social relationship and its

impact on the micro realities, the worker tries to mobilize the public opinion to
radically change the macro-structure. Thus the structural change model aims to bring
a new social order, an alternative form of society which will transform the existing
conditions at the micro-level. This can happen only if an alternative form of political
ideology is adopted. This form of community work may originate from a community
itself but it has a wider coverage coverage i.e. the entire society or nation. Sometimes
this takes the shape of social action, which is an another method of social work
profession. Since the general situation in the developing countries is very peculiar, it
is very difficult for the community worker to actually practice this model.

A social worker may initiate this model. But it is very difficult to

predict the success. However, he s makes attempt to saw the seeds of social change by
adopting a political ideology .It might take decades to actually perceive any

55
transformation in the society nevertheless one can be proud of being the agent of
social change.

The special tasks involved these models are:

1. Understanding the relation ships between macro- and micro social realities.

2. Adopting an alternative political ideology.

3. Sharing with the family members/faculty members

4. Helping the communities

5. Helping the communities to identify a course of action.

6. To prepare the community to sustain its interests, enthusiasm and capacity to met
the strains that may arise out of the conflict with the existing power structure.

We are trying to interpret some of the principles from the

available sets of principles for guiding our practice community organisation in
Indian context.

1) Community Organisation is means and not an end: As discussed earlier the

community organisation is a process by which the capacity of the community to
function as an integrated unit is being enhanced. In this sense it is a method or a
means to enable people to live a happy and fully developed life. It refers to a method
of intervention whereby a community consisting of individuals, groups or
organisations are helped to engage in planned collective action in order to deal with
their needs and problems.

2) Community Organisation is to promote community solidarity and the

practice of democracy: It should seek to overcome disruptive influences, which
threaten the wellbeing of the community and the vitality of democratic institutions. In
community organisation discrimination and segregation or exclusion should be
avoided and integration and mutual acceptance should be promoted.

56
3) The clear identification of the Community: Since the community is the client of
the community organisation worker, it must be clearly identified. It is likely that there
are several communities with which he/she deals at the same time. Further it is
important that once the community is identified the entire community must be the
concern of the practitioner. No programme can be isolated from the social welfare
needs and resources of the community as a whole. The welfare of the whole
community is always more important than the interest or the wellbeing of any one
agency/group in the community.

4) Fact-finding and needs assessment: Community organisation programmes

should have its roots in the community. Proper fact-finding and assessment of the
community needs is the prerequisite for starting any programme in the It is generally
desirable for local community services to be indigenous, grass-roots developments
rather than imported from outside. Whenever possible, then, community organisation
should have its origin in a need felt by the community or by substantial number of
persons in the community. There should be vital community participation, and
essential community control, of its development. While facilitating the process of
community organisation, the programmes should be initiated, developed, modified,
and terminated on the basis of the needs of the community and on the basis of the
availability of other comparable services. When the particular need for a service is
met, the programme should be modified or terminated.

5) Identification, mobilization and utilization of the available resources: The

fullest possible use should be made of existing social welfare resources, before
creating new resources or services. In the absence of resources/services the worker
has to mobilize the resources from various sources such as community, government,
non-government agencies, etc. While utilizing the indigenous resources it must be
recognised that these resources may sometimes need extensive overhauling before
they will meet certain needs. Apart from mobilizing physical resources, indigenous
human resources should be put to optimum use.

6) Participatory planning: The community organisation worker must accept the

need for participatory planning throughout the process of community organisation. It
is important that the practitioner prepares a blue print in the beginning of what he/she

57
intends to do with the community. This is done with the community taking into
consideration the needs of the community, available resources, agency objectives, etc.
Planning in community organisation is a continuous process as it follows the cycle of
implementation and evaluation.

7) Active and vital participation: The concept of self-help is the core of community
organisation. The community members’ participation throughout the process of
community organisation should be encouraged from the standpoint both of democratic
principle and of feasibility— that is, the direct involvement in the programme of those
who have the primary stake in it’s results. “Selfhelp” by citizen or clientele groups
should be encouraged and fostered.

8) Community right of self-determination should be respected: The Role of the

community organisation worker is to provide professional skill, assistance, and
creative leadership in enabling people’s groups and organisations to achieve social
welfare objectives. The community members should make basic decisions regarding
programme and policy. While the community organisation worker plays a variety of
roles in different situations, he is basically concerned with enabling people’s
expression and leadership to achieve community organisation goals, and not try to
have control, domination, or manipulation.

9) Voluntary cooperation: Community organisation must be based upon mutual

understanding, voluntary acceptance, and mutual agreement. Community organisation,
if it is to be in harmony with democratic principles, cannot be through regimentation.
It should not be imposed from above or outside, but must be derived from the inner
freedom and will to unite all those who practice it.

10) The spirit of cooperation rather than competition, and the practice of
coordination of effort: Community organisation practice should be based on the
spirit of cooperation rather than competition. The community organisation practice
has proved that the most effective advances are made through cooperative effort. It is
by the coordinated and sustained programmes attacking major problems rather than
through sporadic efforts by different groups. The emphasis on collaborative and

58
cooperative attitudes and practices does not imply elimination of differences, of
tension, or of conflict.

11) Recognition and involvement of indigenous leadership: Community

organisation as it has been described requires the participation of the people belonging
to the community. However everyone in the community cannot be involved in face-
to-face contact with all others in the community; therefore it is important to identify
and recognize the leaders (both formal and informal) accepted by various groups and
subgroups in the community. Inclusion of the respected and accepted leaders with
whom the major subgroups identify provides a major step in integrating the
community. This further makes possible initiation of a process of communication
which, if it becomes effective, will nourish and sustain the process of community
organisation.

12) Limited use of authority or compulsion: Invoking the application of authority

or compulsion may sometimes be necessary in community organisation. But it should
be used as little as possible, for as short a time as possible and only as a last resort.
When compulsion must be applied, it should be followed as soon as possible, by
resumption of the cooperative process.

13) The dynamic and flexible nature of programmes and services: This principle
is basic to sound Concept and Principles of community organisation. Social welfare
agencies and programmes must be responsive to the changing conditions, problems,
and needs of community life. Community is a dynamic phenomenon, which
constantly changes and thus the needs and problems also keep changing. Therefore it
is necessary that the programmes and services are flexible enough.

14) Continuing participatory evaluation: As programmes are developed to meet

community needs, sometime must be set aside for evaluation of the process. Regular
feedback from the community is important. Criteria must be set up for evaluation of
the programmes, to see how effective the action has been and what has been
accomplished.

59
 Community Organisation as a Method of Social Work

Introduction

Community Organisation is one of the primary methods of social work.

It deals with intervention in the communities to solve the community problems. As a
method of social work community organisation can solve the problems of many
people in the community through their collective involvement. Community
organisation and community development are inter-related as two sides of same coin.

The community organisation includes other methods of social work, that

is, group work, and casework. The power structure plays a role in community
organisation. The social workers need to know the community power structure to
practice community organisation method, which is used for empowering people for
their development. The details are provided for social work students to understand
and practice community organisation effectively.

Community Organisation as Macro Method

Community organisation is considered as a Macro method of practice in

social work. (Arthur E. Fink) It is used for solving community problems. The term
Macro is used because of its ability to involve a large number of people in solving the
social problems. Community organisation is a macro method because this method can
be successfully implemented at local level of community or at state level and at
regional levels of the community or even at the international level.

For example, community organisation can help in pollution control at

local, state, regional, national and international levels. It is a macro method because
unlike casework which deals with only one person at a time or group work which
deals with limited number of participants, community organisation deals with large
number of people at any given time.

For example, Poverty cannot be solved by using individual approach

like casework as there are many people affected by poverty. Individual approach is
not practical where the magnitude of the problem is alarming. In such cases we have

60
to use a method, which can help a large number of people. While comparing other
methods of social work community organisation as macro method is useful for
solving widespread economic and social problems like poverty.

Community Organisation as a Problem Solving Method In

community organisation method the community is the client. Community organisation
solves the community problems and fulfils the needs of the community. Many of the
community problems like social injustice, poverty, inadequate housing, poor nutrition,
lack of health, lack of medical services, unemployment, pollution, exploitation,
bonded labour system, illicit arrack, dowry, female infanticide, women and children
trafficking, drug trafficking etc. can be solved by using community organisation
method. In problem solving generally there are three basic aspects.

These are study, diagnosis, and treatment. First the problem has to be
studied. For this, we have to collect information regarding the problem. From the
information collected we have to identify the main causes. This is called diagnosis.
Based on the findings, or diagnosis, a solution is evolved that is called treatment. We
consider this model as medical model because doctors study the patient to find out the
causes for illness and based on findings, treatment or medicines are prescribed.

Such a model can be used in community organisation method.

Problems can be solved only with involvement of people due to which resources are
mobilized to solve the problems. This method is especially applicable in Indian
situations, because in India a large number of people are affected by poverty or other
poverty related problems which need speedy solutions. For this community
organisation as a problem solving method is most effective to solve community
problems.

For example people in certain area suffer due to lack of water for
their cultivation. With the help of the community organiser and people’s participation,
watersheds can be made and ground water level is increased. Water stored during
rainy season can help the people to continue cultivation. Here the whole village
problem is related with water for irrigation and drinking purpose, which can be solved
by using community organisation method.

61
Community Organisation method is used for the following:

a) To meet the needs and bring about and maintain adjustment between needs and
resources in a community.

b) Helping people effectively to work with their problems and plan to realize their
objectives by helping them to develop, strengthen, and maintain qualities of
participation, self-direction and cooperation.

c) Bringing about changes in community and group relationships and in the

distribution of decision making power.

d) The resources of the community are identified and tapped for solving the
community problems

Conclusion

The aim of this chapter was to provide you guidelines to understand

the basic concept of community organisation as a method of social work practice. We
have discussed in detail the meaning of community organisation and also provided the
definitions with explanations. Now you will be able to explain the meaning and
definition of community organisation. Being aware that community work and
community organisation is integral part of social work, you will be able to situate
them in the context of social work.

Principles of Community Organization

Principles

Principles are expressions of value judgments. It is the

generalized guiding rules for a sound practice. Arthur Dunham in 1958 formulated a
statement of 28 principles of community organisation and grouped those under seven
headings. They are:

 Democracy and social welfare;

62
 Community roots for community programs;

 Citizen understanding, support, and participation and professional service;

 Co-operation;

 Social Welfare Programs;

 Adequacy, distribution, and organisation of social welfare services; and

 Prevention.

In India, Siddiqui in 1997 worked out a set of principles based on

the existing evidence based indigenous community organization practices.

 Objective movement

 Specific planning

 Active peoples participation

 Inter-group approach

 Democratic functioning

 Flexible organisation

 Utilisation of available resources

 Cultural orientation

Ross (1967) outlined specific principles – the elementary or

fundamental ideas regarding initiation and continuation of community
organisation processes. These principles have been discussed in terms of the
nature of the organisation or association and the role of the professional worker.
The twelve principles identified by Ross are:

1) Discontent with existing conditions in the community must initiate and/or

nourish development of the association.

63
2) Discontent must be focussed and channelled into organisation, planning, and
action in respect to specific problems.

3) Discontent which initiates or sustains community organisation must be widely

shared in the community

4) The association must involve leaders (both formal and informal) identified with,
and accepted by, major sub-groups in the community.

5) The association must have goals and methods and procedures of high acceptability.

6) The programmes of the association should include some activities with an

emotional content.

7) The association should seek to utilize the manifest and latent goodwill which
exists in the community.

8) The association must develop active and effective lines of communication both
within the association and between the association and the community.

9) The association should seek to support and strengthen groups which it brings
together in cooperative work.

10) The association should develop a pace of work in line with existing conditions in
the community.

11) The association should seek to develop effective leaders.

12) The association must develop strength, stability and prestige in the community.

Phases of Community Organisation

STUDY: carry out survey or initiate the members of community to collect the base
line information about the community.

ANALYSIS: information collected is classified according to common characteristics

and quantified for its magnitude and severity.

64
ASSESMENT: the needs and problems that are widely felt by the community are
identified and given priority according to urgency and severity.

DISCUSSION: it is essential to invite the attention of the community & initiate a

discussion to highlight the issues & find out the ways & means to solve the issues &
also to prioritize the issues. It is further discussed about the resources required & the
plan of action for meeting the problem.

ACTION: Locate the capable individuals and groups suitable to carry out the task.
Committees are formed, roles and responsibilities allotted. The members of the
community are encouraged to take part actively and accept responsibility so that the
action plan can be implemented smoothly. Implementation has to take place with the
active participation of the people. The action plan has to be monitored by the
members of the community ensure that the activities carried out within the time frame
and the resources allocated.

EVALUVATION: The community makes an assessment of the whole process, the

outcome and the successes and identifies the deviations of failure. While reflecting on
outcome of process the reasons for failure are identified and assessed so that they are
avoided in the future.

MODIFICATION: In case the task has to be continued, the modifications, which are
needed as identified in the evaluation& reflection, are incorporated in this stage and
continued.

CONTINUATION: From the list of issues, the other issues are taken up &
community organization process is continued. If the task undertaken is not
successfully completed, the strategy is modified and implemented.

Methods of Community Organisation: Methods (Arthur Dunham’s classification

of CO methods- method of planning and related activities, group decision
making and co-operative action, communication, promotion and social action,
financing and fund raising, method of administration)

65
Methods of Community organization

 Methods of Planning and Related Activities:

1. Fact finding

2. Analysis

3.Evaluation

4. Planning

 Methods of Group Decision Making and Co-operative Action:

5. Meeting practice

6. Conference

7. Committee Practice

8. Negotiation

9. Organization including Mass organization

 Methods of Communication:

10. Education.

11. Consultation

12. Public Relations

13. Formal Written Communication.

14. Formal oral communication

15. The interview.

 Methods of promotion and social action:

16. Promotion.

17. Legislative promotion.

66
 18. Non-Legislative procedural social action

19. Direct action

20. Exerting or invoking authoritative action

 Methods of financing and fund raising:

21. Fund procurement by governmental agencies

22. Fund raising by voluntary agencies

23. Federated financial campaigning

24. Joint budgeting

 Methods of administration:

25. Administrative activities of agencies concerned with social planning.

26. Administration of common services or community organization.

27. Recording

The Steps Involved in Community Organization

1. List the problems – all the identified needs and problems of the
community are listed by the community with the help of the community
organizer. This is a process which makes the people to understand their own
situation. Realization of the needs and problems will bring awareness about
their own situation. The involvement of the community in identifying the
various needs and problems will increase the participation of the people. The
problems in different settings are likely to differ and hence accordingly the
identified problems are listed.

67
2. Give priorities – all the needs and problems cannot be considered
together for further action. Therefore all the needs and problems are analysed
for its severity, magnitude, symptoms and causes based on which they are
ordered and priority is given to all the needs and problems. The community
after having identified the needs and problems analysis them and give priority
by which they have to be taken up for further actions.

3. Select a problem – from the priority list most urgent problem which
needs to be taken up immediately is selected. All the problems cannot be
approached simultaneously there fore there is need for selecting any one
problem and initiate further action. Based on the order of priority the first in
the list is taken up for working out solutions.

4. Redefine the problem – the selected problem is redefined for better

understanding by the community. For better planning the problem has to be
analysed and defined before taking any further step in addressing the problem.
Many times one may look at a phenomenon as a problem by its appearance or
at the peripheral level instead it has to be further analysed is it a real problem.
Does it affect the normal functioning of the community? How many people
are being affected? How are they affected? If nothing is does towards this how
it will disturb the community? These are all some of the questions by which
we can easily analyse and understand to redefine the problem.

5. Formulate achievable objective – the redefined problem is converted

into achievable objectives which will be considered for further action. At
times the objectives have to be split into many parts so that they could be
converted in to programmes and activities towards fulfilling the needs and
problem. Let us assume that illiteracy is a problem in a community. It is
further analysed that majority of the people of the locality have not gone to
school at their childhood days. One of the reasons for that was that there was
no school in their locality. At present a school has been constructed and
teachers are appointed. Now non availability of the school is not the reason for
68
illiteracy. It is further analysed and found that the children are not sent to the
school. Though there were many children at the school going age the parents
do not send them to the school because the teachers are not regular on one
hand and on the other when the teachers are present they do not teach the
children. In this situation the general problem externally appears to be
illiteracy but its root cause is the defective function of the school.

6. Work out the alternatives – based on the objectives the different

ways and means are found out by the community through brain storming. One
should not be content with a problem with one solution because it will limit
the practice of community organization. In order to solve the selected problem
the community has to generate maximum number of alternatives to address the
problem. Let us take the problem of illiteracy as stated in the previous stage.
How do we solve the problem? The problem is directly related to the defective
functioning of the school. What are the different ways to solve this? The
concerned teachers can be met and advised. The defective functioning can be
brought to the notice of the higher authorities. The higher authorities can be
met by the representatives with a written representation. Motivate more
children to join the school. With draw all the children from the school. Close
the school. Organize a protest march. Organize a hunger strike. There could be
many such alternatives could be generated in tacking any problem.

7. Select an appropriate alternative – among the proposed alternatives

one of the best alternatives is selected for tackling the selected problem. To
solve a problem there could be many ways but there may be one best and
suitable way or method by which the problem could be easily solved. Such
options should be selected. While selecting an alternative one has to start with
softer approach and in a sequence. If the lower level approach fails apply the
next one and even that one fails then select the next one and nothing works out
finally we may resort to social action methods and may be at times we may
have to resort to strong measures.

69
8. Work out a plan of action – in order to materialize the selected
alternative an action plan is proposed in which the responsibilities are assigned
and tentative organization is structured. The time frame, resources needed and
personnel involved are decided at this stage. Supposing to solve the illiteracy
problem of a community it is decided to meet the authorities to present a
petition. This has to be discussed at length to decide about the date, time, who,
how many, where etc. At the time of meeting the authorities who is to speak?
What to speak? How to speak? All these things have to be decided and role
played so that it is done in a perfect manner and brings the desired results.

9. Mobilization of resources – to implement the plan of action the

required resources is assessed, identified and mobilized. The resources may be
in terms of time, money, man power and material. An estimate is made and the
sources are identified for mobilizing the resources. Many times man power
resources alone may help to arrive at a solution. Therefore the community has
to have a thorough understanding by which people by themselves may come
forward to include themselves for further action. Apart from this any other
resources have to be mobilized internally and if it is not possible then we have
to think about it from external sources.

10. Implement the plan of action – after having made a plan of action
along with the resources the plan is implemented. The implementation takes
care of the time and resources towards fulfilling the fixed goals. While
implementing the plan of action the involvement of the people and their active
participation by accepting the responsibilities has to be ensured. The people
have to be prepared and guided to become a partner in the problem solving
approach.

11. Evaluate the action – the implemented plan is evaluated to find out
the success and deviancy of the action from the objectives. Any deviancy or

70
 any undesired results are identified and the reasons for the deviancy are
discussed. The positive and desired results are to be appreciated. The
evaluation can be made as one of the components of working with the
community. It could be organized either at periodical level or at the end of the
activity either within the organization by the organization personnel or by an
outsider or by an expert. The task is not complete unless the evaluation is
completed.

12. Modification – based on the evaluation the modification needed is

decided and introduced. In order to bring a permanent solution to the selected
problem it is being addressed with the modifications. These modifications are
proposed in order to settle the problem permanently.

13. Continuation – the modified action plan is implemented and

continued.

14. Select the next problem – once the selected need is fulfilled the next
problem is selected from the priority list.

Characteristics of a good Community Organizer

1) Curiosity – The function of an organiser is to raise questions that agitate, and

challenge the accepted pattern. He goes forth with the questions and suspects that
there are no answers but only further questions.

2) Irreverence – Curiosity and irreverence go together. He is challenging,

stimulating, agitating, discrediting. He stirs unrest. In other words he is creating
discontentment among the people by highlighting the given situation or making the
people to understand the dimensions and possible solution of their social situation.

3) Imagination – To the organiser, imagination is not only a mental faculty but

something deeper. It ignites and feeds the force that drives him to organise for change.

71
To realistically appraise and anticipate the probable reactions of the resisting forces,
he must be able to identify with them too, in his imagination, and foresee their
reactions to his action.

4) A Sense of humour – Humour is essential to successful tactician, for the most

potent weapons known to mankind are satire and ridicule. It enables him to maintain
his perspective and see himself for what he really is and helps to have friendly
relationship with one and all.

5) An organised personality – He should be able to accept and work with

irrationalities for the purpose of change. He should recognize that each person or
community has a hierarchy of values. He must become sensitive to every thing that is
happening around him. He is always learning and every incident teaches him
something. He must also accept without fear or worry that the odds are always against
him and be prepared to accept both positive and negative reactions

6) Free and open mind – He must have a flexible personality, not a rigid structure
that breaks down when something unexpected happens. The organiser while working
with the community does not have any hidden agenda or preconceived ideas.

7) Discerning and critical eye – The organiser should be able to look at the situation
and differentiate it critically. Any situation has to be viewed through the eyes of the
people carefully and find out its magnitude, symptoms and causes.

8) Receptive ear – The organiser has to be a good and an attentive listener, listening
to the people and to their problem. The organiser while working with the community
has to be person having capacity patient listening, and does not give orders to the
people. The difference between a leader and an organiser is – the leader goes on to
build power to fulfill his desires to hold and wield the power for purposes both social
and personal. He wants power to himself. The organiser finds his goal in creation of
power for others to use.

72
 Skills of a Community Organizer

 Problem Analysis – One of the major tasks of the community organiser is to

assist the people in arriving at a solution to the problem. The organiser is capable
of identifying the problem and making the people also to identify, analyse, give
priorities, select an appropriate priority, mobilize resources, make a plan of action,
implement, monitor, evaluate, modify and continue.

 Resource Mobilization – Any problem of the community while working out the
solution requires resources. The resources may be in terms of manpower, money
material and time. On the one hand the organiser is aware of the availability of
the resources within the community or outside the community and on the other
makes the people to identify the sources of resources and the way to tap such
resources.

 Conflict Resolution – Problems of the community involves the people affected

by the problem and the Institutions others who are the causes for the problem.
Therefore there could be a conflict between these two groups or between the
people and the system. The organiser is equipped with the skill for identifying the
conflicting situation and making the people to understand the conflict and then
work out the ways and means to find solutions to the conflict.

 Organising Meeting – Communication within the community and between the

community and the organiser is most important. There needs to be transparency
in the dealings for which formal and informal meetings have to be organised and
information shared. The sharing of information enables sharing of responsibility
and decision making.

 Writing Reports – Documentation of the events for future reference and follow
up is absolutely essential. Any communication or any written representation and
the report of the dealings have to be recorded. This task is either done by the
community organiser or delegated the task to someone else.

73
 Networking – In a community while working with the people the participation of
the people strengthens or increases the power of the people. At times support
from Like minded people or organisation has to elicited so that a pressure is built
against the oppressive force. This helps to create pressure and increase the
bargaining power for which networking with other people and organisations is
done by the community organiser.

 Training – Capacity building of the people and the personnel of an organisation

is important while working with the community. In the process of capacity
building the community organiser has to be a good trainer. The community
organiser has to use his training ability and skills in this regard. Role of
Community Organiser in Different Settings having the required characteristics
and skills and the knowledge about the process and steps of community
organisation, will be able to apply the same in different settings by playing
appropriate roles. The different roles of a community organiser are discussed here.

Role of an Effective Community Organizer

1) Communicator – The community organiser transfers or transmits information,

thought, knowledge etc. to the members of the community. Sharing of information
enables the community to be better prepared and empowered with information. The
communication between the organiser and the community and within the community
is essential. The people have to be prepared and informed about the various effects or
consequences of the community organisation process. The communication takes place
by individual contact, group meetings, group discussions, public meetings etc. At
times the community organiser takes an upper hand and considers that the people are
illiterate and ignorant and hence the dealings with the people become a master slave
relationship. In order to avoid any such undesired relationship the community
organiser has transparency and communicates with the people.

2) Enabler – The community organiser facilitates the process in the community for a
change. He does not carry out any work by himself but he enables the community to

74
do the work. The organiser gives importance to the process than the product.
Therefore the people learn the process rather than get worried about the results or
consequences of the process. By the role of enabler the organiser would create
independence among the people by which they avoid the dependency syndrome. The
community organiser is present with the people and encourages and gives different
suggestions so that the people are able to decide what they would like to do and how
they would like to do.

3) Animator – In any process of community organisation the organiser encourages,

provides direction and guidelines to proceed in carrying out different activities. Many
people because their culture, tend to depend on others and do not want to decide
anything on their own. In such situation the organiser as an animator helps the people
to come forward and have active participation. Any further corrections or
modifications in the works of the community are being done by the animator. The
animator plays a vital role in eliciting the active participation of the people from
planning till evaluation, especially ensuring involvement of people in all the dealings
of the issues and problems.

4) Guide – The community organiser instead of doing anything on his own guides
the members of the community in the process of community organisation. The
community organiser is not a person to shoulder the responsibility or solve problems
of the people. Instead he has to make the people to respond for which the organiser
provides the various avenues and shows different routes while dealing with the
community problems. As a guide, the organiser provides the needed information. He
has to be a person with lots of information and ideas. Once the community organiser
is able to provide information which is useful to the people, the youth from the
neighbouring areas may also approach in getting some guidance from the community
organiser. This would surely fetch credit to the community organiser as well as helps
gain the goodwill of the people.

5) Counsellor – The community organiser understands the community and enables

the community to understand itself. At the time of difficulty the individuals or the
groups are given the required counselling to help them proceed in the correct direction.
One of the very basic dimensions of counselling is to be a patient listener. Usually

75
everyone likes others to listen to them and hesitate to listen to others. Moreover as a
counsellor he has to step into the shoes of others, understand and respond.

6) Collaborator – The community organiser joins hands in performing his task with
his colleagues with other likeminded people and organisations. The organiser has to
have interpersonal relationships and public relations skills. Nowadays organisations
approach a problem not with their personal capacity as they also depend upon
neighbouring organisation. Similarly other organisations may also look for
cooperation and collaboration with different organisations. There are also organisation
working towards a similar problem, wherein a collaborative effort will strengthen
both the organisations. Therefore the role of collaborator is very much needed for
networking with similar and likeminded organisations working for a common cause.

7) Consultant – The community organiser enjoys the confidence of the people and
advises them in matters of vital interest. The community organiser becomes a person
with knowledge and information which is being shared with the people. As a
consultant the community organiser makes he available to the people who are in need,
because the community organiser has information and expertise which could be
availed of by those who are in need of it. The community organiser instead of
working in the field in one area, will be able to contribute his expertise through many
individuals and groups by performing the role of a consultant.

8) Innovator – The community organiser innovates, performs, and improves upon the
techniques, through in the process of community organisation. This gives a lead to the
people of the community and enables them to try out new ways and means to find
solutions to their needs and problems. The community organisation should not be
merely for solving problem. On the other hand it has to function in the areas of
capacity building of the individuals and community where the organiser can be an
innovator by introducing new ways to improve the capacity of the people. Community
organiser is not a person to maintain the system that exists, but he should be a person
to introduce new ways and means to climb up the development ladder.

9) Model – The community organiser commands perfection as a community

organiser and serves as a source of inspiration. The role of the organiser is to become

76
an example while working with the people. This should further become a model
which could be applied in other areas with similar problems. By proper planning in
approaching a problem and executing the plan and documenting the whole process
will be of great help to others. The problem solving process becomes a model to
others.

10) Motivator – The community organiser stimulates and sustains active interest
among the people for reaching a solution to the needs and problems. The community
organiser encourages the community to take up a minor task and complete it
successfully which would enable the people to take up more difficult tasks. In such a
process the people at times may not take any initiative or content to live with the
existing situation. Therefore the organiser motivates the people by making them
observe, analyse, understand and respond to the situation.

11) Catalyst – In the process of community organisation the community organiser

retains his identity, at the same time enables the people to be empowered. The people
gain accessibility and control over resources and acquire skills in decision making.
The community organiser accelerates the actions and reactions so that people are able
to achieve the desired results. As a catalyst the organiser is able to increase the
response level of the people. The catalyst role further enables the people to become
independent and become expert in responding to their own needs.

12) Advocate – The role of the advocate is to a represent or persuades the members
of the community and prepares them to be representatives so as to represent the issues
to the concerned authorities to bring about solution to the unmet needs. The advocacy
role is an important one in the present context. The needs and problems of the people
have to be represented and the required support and networking obtained in order to
increase the pressure on the oppressive forces. In the role of advocate the community
organiser champions the rights of others.

13) Facilitator – The community organiser helps the community to articulate their
needs, clarify and identify their problems, explore appropriate strategies, select and
apply intervention strategies, and develop the people’s capacities to deal with their
own problems more effectively. A facilitator provides support, encouragement, and

77
suggestions to the community so that they may proceed more easily and skilfully in
completing tasks or solving problem. A facilitator assists the community to find
coping strategies, strengths and resources to produce changes necessary for realizing
goals and objectives. A facilitator helps client systems to alter their environment.

14) Mediator – The community organiser intervenes in disputes between parties to

help them find compromises, reconcile differences, or reach 102 Social Work
Intervention with Communities and Institutions mutually satisfying agreements. The
mediator takes a neutral stance between the involved parties. A mediator is involved
in resolving disputes between members or between the community and other persons
in the broader environment.

15) Educator – The community organiser as educator conveys information to the

community and those in the broader environment. Organiser provides information
necessary for coping with problem situations, assists the community in practicing new
behaviour patterns or skills, and teaches through presentation of role models. The
community organiser provides information necessary for decision making.
Community organisation is a macro method in social work. The community organiser
with the required qualities and skills will be able to work with the people. While
working with the people of different background or from different geographical set up
the different roles can be applied. All the roles need not be, or cannot be, applied in all
the settings or in dealing with all the problems.

Conclusion

This chapter has described the settings in which community organisation can be
applied and the skills and characteristics of a community organiser. The community
organisation process involves the community in taking the initiative in identifying,
analyzing, selecting the different needs and problems of the community.. In the
process of community organisation the organiser plays different roles like
communicator, counsellor, consultant, motivator, innovator, guide, advocate etc. in
different settings depending on the situation and needs and problems in the area.

78
 Approaches, Models and Strategies of Community Organization

Approaches - The social work approach, the political activist approach,

neighbourhood maintenance approach/community development approach, and system
change approach, structural change approach.

1. The Social Work Approach: In this approach, the society is viewed as a social
organism and therefore the efforts are oriented towards building a sense of community.
The community organizer whose role is of an "enabler or an advocate” helps the
community identify a problem in the neighborhood and strives to achieve the needed
social resources by gathering the existing the social services and by lobbying with
some in power to meet the needs of the neighborhood. This method is more
consensual and the neighborhood is seen as a collective client.

2. The political Activists Approach: Saul Alinsky, the Godfather of community

organizing is the founder of this approach. The basic philosophy of this approach is
based on his thinking that " more representative the organization the stronger the
organization." In this approach the community is seen as a political entity and not as a
social organism. Here, the neighborhood is viewed as a potential power base capable
of getting power. The role of the community organizer is to help the community
understand the problem in terms of power and necessary steps are taken to mobilize
the community. The problem of the neighborhood is always identified as absence of
power and in the interest of gaining power for the neighborhood the organizers are
faced with conflicts with groups, interests and elites. Since most of the community
organizers come from outside the community, it has faced the problems of equality of
power relations and leadership in the community.

3. Neighborhood Maintenance/Community development Approach: This

approach has emerged out of both the previous approaches namely within the same
neighborhood movements. It is seen in the form of civic associations. This association

79
uses peer group pressure to provide services in the community. They use this strategy
to pressurize the officials to deliver services to the community but sometimes this
approach takes the form of political activists approach as they realize that their goals
can be only achieved only through confrontations. In this approach we see the
characteristics of de-emphasis on dissent and confrontation and these organizations
view themselves as more proactive and development minded.

Some of the steps in Neighborhood Development Approach are:

 Identifying the geographical area for your intervention

 Making our way to the community

 Understand the community and identify the felt needs

 Making an appropriate program

 Planning for resource mobilization

 Developing a strong net-work in the community

 Planning for withdrawal from the community

4. Neighborhood Development Approach: Neighborhood Model is the oldest

model of community organization. This model has been practiced in India and in
some of the underdeveloped countries. It has been used in the developmental
activities. In general it is believed that people living in a neighborhood have the
capacity to meet the problems they come across in their day to day life through their
own efforts and resources. The main aspect here is that the community realizes its
needs and takes appropriate steps to meet the needs of the community, which will
bring greater satisfaction to all its members both individually and collectively.

The role of the worker in this model is to induce a process that will sensitize the
community and make the community realize its needs. Based on the value of self-
sustenance the worker energizes the community and makes the community self-reliant,
and not merely depending on the help form outside. So rather than providing services

80
in the community, the communities are energized to meet its own needs. This model
encourages the people to think for themselves rather than doing things for them.

5. System Change Approach: As the name suggests, the system change model
aims at developing strategies to either restructure or modify the system. Thus it is
termed as "System Change approach to community work”. Although we find
glimpses of this model gaining more acceptances, this has not become very popular.
We know of various mechanisms that cater to the needs of the society. Such as
education, health services housing, women empowerment, and employment.

All these services are rooted through various systems and all these systems do have
sub-systems. The fundamental aspect in this model is that the due to various reasons
the systems become dysfunctional. For example the system of education as we have it
today, reveals that the cities have better educational faculties as compared to the rural
areas. This system (education policy) of education has generated disparities in the
society. i.e. access to education, lack of basic facilities, trained staff, etc. The system
instead of becoming a tool of empowering mechanism brings disparities between
people of different socio-economic condition. So the system has failed to achieve its
objectives. Thus the worker on observing this dysfunction in the community finds it
important to develop strategies to restructure or modify the system.

 Some of the tasks in System Change Approach are:

 Understanding the deficiencies in the system.

 Communicating the findings with the community

 Making strategies to influence the decision making bodies.

 Mobilizing peoples’ participation and seeking out-side support to translate the

plan in to concrete action.

 Making alliances and partnerships with other NGOS and comminute to demand a
change

81
6. Structural Change Approach : One of the most difficult and rarely practiced
models of community work is structural change model. The society consists of small
communities and it is nothing but "a web of relationships". These relationships of the
people are formally structured by the respective countries' state

The special tasks involved in Structural Change Approach:

• Understanding the relationships between macro- and micro social realities.

• Adopting an alternative political ideology.

• Sharing with the family members/faculty members

• Helping the communities

• Helping the communities to identify a course of action.

Policies, law and constitutions and informally by its customs, traditions

etc. that determines the social rights of the individuals. The social structure in some of
the societies is controlled by the state. Understanding the macro- structure of social
relationship and its impact on the micro realities, the worker tries to mobilize the
public opinion to radically change the macro-structure. Thus the structural change
model aims to bring a new social order, an alternative form of society which will
transform the existing conditions at the micro-level. This can happen only if an
alternative form of political ideology is adopted.

This form of community work may originate from a community itself

but it has wider coverage i.e. the entire society or nation. Sometimes this takes the
shape of social action, which is another method of social work profession. Since the
general situation in the developing countries is very peculiar, it is very difficult for the
community worker to actually practice this model.

A social worker may initiate this model. But it is very difficult to predict
the success. However, he makes attempt to saw the seeds of social change by adopting
a political ideology .It might take decades to actually perceive any transformation in
the society nevertheless one can be proud of being the agent of social change. To

82
prepare the community to sustain its interests, enthusiasm and capacity to meet the
strains that may arise out of the conflict with the existing power structure.

Organizational Capacity Building

Now that we have discussed organizational capacity and how, over

time and with changing circumstances, organizations must develop new capacities, we
can shift our focus to organizational capacity building. Backer (2001) writes that
capacity building involves “strengthening nonprofits so they can better achieve their
mission”. Blumenthal (2003) defines capacity building as any “actions that improve
nonprofit effectiveness”

. Typically, building organizational capacity is an ongoing, often

complex developmental process: There is no final destination. At its most basic level,
organizational capacity building is the process of identifying what organizational
capacities to target for strengthening and applying targeted strategies most likely to
build those capacities.

Strategies for Organizational Capacity Building

While the three levels described above help us identify what areas to
target for change in organizations, how to go about building capacity is another
question worth exploring. Whether focusing on incremental change or deeper
transformative change, when people think of organizational capacity building, the
activities that generally come to mind are training workshops and technical assistance.
However, in practice, there is a wide range of actions that can be taken to build
organizational capacity. In addition to the assessment of organizational needs,
strengths, and readiness for change described above, capacity-building practices and
processes can be grouped into two major categories:

(1) Technical assistance and organization development consultation (e.g., training,

coaching, peer networking, provision of resource materials, and convening); and

83
(2) Direct financial support (Backer, Bleeg, & Groves, 2004). We’ll discuss the
former briefly below. After assessing the organization to determine capacity-building
needs, we can apply the activities or strategies most likely to affect the change needed.
Given the diversity of capacity-building needs, a “one size fits all” approach is
believed to be less effective.

Thus, individualization, that is, customization of capacity building

activities to align with organizational needs and circumstances, is important (Backer,
et al., 2010; De Vita, Fleming, & Twombly, 2001; Innovation Network, 2001; Light,
2004; Sobeck, 2008). When developing capacity-building efforts, capacity builders
should take into account: identified nonprofit capacity-building needs and strengths;
nonprofit staff members’ learning styles; and nonprofit history, culture, life stage, and
environment. This individualization should also include flexibility to alter an initial
capacity-building plan as needed (Backer et al., 2010; Blumenthal, 2003).

Technical assistance and organization development consultation in

the form of training, coaching, and peer networking are common capacity-building
strategies. Often an assessment will reveal that an organization’s capacity needs are
interrelated, which means a combination of approaches may be warranted. For
example, a consultant may be brought in to help an executive with board development
and strategic planning while managers attend training on developing logic models and
theories of change for programs. While narrowly defined strategies can work, the
most impactful capacity-building activities include a comprehensive range of
approaches (Backer, 2001). Strategies that include opportunities for peer-to-peer
learning have been cited as an important capacity building success factor (Backer et
al., 2010; Connolly & Lukas, 2002; Innovation Network, 2001; Joffres et al., 2004).

This collaborative capacity-building approach had its challenges, but they found that
over time that:

(1) participants acquire specific knowledge and skills to increase organizational and
community capacity

(2) participants broaden their community connections;

84
(3) participants are able to translate learning into plans and activities at their
agencies

For the capacity building process to actually happen, there is need

for facilitation. And this has to begin with understanding the language of the target
population. To do this are required a good set of facilitators who not only understand
the community and its dynamics but have an understanding of the new institutions
and institutional dynamics that the project aims to introduce. More often than not the
institutional expectations are also new to the facilitators and therefore before they can
begin to interact and facilitate the community processes, they need to understand the
issues themselves.

Community Capacity Building

Community capacity building efforts can encompass a wide range of

activities, from formal leadership development efforts to community-wide planning to
a wide variety of less formal activities that build trust and social capital among
citizens. The purpose of community capacity building is to create opportunities for
people in a community to work together, develop a vision and strategies for the future,
make collaborative decisions, and take action while building the individual skills and
capabilities of a range of participants and organizations within the community (Aspen
Institute, 1996).

Community capacity-building efforts to improve marginalized

communities face two related but different tasks: building common purposes, useful
relationships, and capacities within the community; and connecting the community to
external resources and influence (Saegert, 2005). Building capacity in a community is
about developing common purpose, relationships, resources, and skills.

The Aspen Institute suggests there are eight outcomes to consider as goals for
community capacity building:

(1) Expanded diverse and inclusive citizen participation;

85
 (2) Expanded leadership base;

(3) Strengthened individual skills;

(4) widely shared understanding and vision;

(5) strategic community agenda;

(6) consistent, tangible progress toward goals;

(7) more effective community organizations and institutions; and

(8) better resource utilization by the community

Leadership development

Neighborhoods and communities need local leaders who are willing

and able to assume some responsibility for community betterment by being out front
to ignite and facilitate action (Chaskin et al., 2001). Building the capacity of local
leaders involves enhancing the skills, knowledge, commitment, and access to
information and resources of individual residents in the community and providing
opportunities to increase their active participation in community-improving activities
(Chaskin, 2001). The best leadership development initiative is not a stand-alone
activity but rather embedded in the development of organizations and networks.
Embedding leadership development in these activities provides practical opportunities
for individuals to try out and hone various skills (Chaskin et al., 2001

Finally, Chaskin et al. (2001) remind us that whatever approach is

utilized, developing individual leaders does not automatically translate into stronger
community capacity. New leaders must be willing to use their skills to benefit others
and the community at large and be committed to engaging others to play an active
role in community betterment, gaining strength from solidarity.

86
 Community Organizing

The second strategy for community capacity building—organizational

capacity building—was covered at length in the first part of this chapter, so we will
not review it here. The third strategy for building community capacity is community
organizing. Community organizing is “the process of bringing people together to
solve community problems and address goals” (Chaskin et al., 2001, p. 93).
Community organizing seeks to alter the relations of power between the groups that
have traditionally controlled decisions and the residents of marginalized communities.

Community organizing involves putting relationship building, social

capital development, and partnerships at the core of community building (Gittell &
Vidal, 1998) and capitalizes on individual, organizational, and community strengths.
Drawing again on the excellent book on this topic by Chaskin and his colleagues
(2001), we know that employing a community organizing strategy for community
capacity building forces us to confront several choices for how we go about it. We’ll
highlight two of these: (1) whether to use a conflict or consensus approach; and (2)
whether to focus on single or multiple issues.

Conflict versus consensus strategies

Conflict approaches utilize oppositional tactics to bring about desired ends.

Examples include marches, sit-ins, and mass protests or “actions.” The rationale for
using a conflict strategy is the understanding that powerful people and institutions will
not work to reduce injustice unless direct pressure is applied (Chaskin et al., 2001).
This method seeks to build social power capable of leveraging resources and
negotiating improvements for a community (Speer, Hughey, Gensheimer, & Adams-
Leavitt, 1995). Consensus-based strategies on the other hand do not presume that
conflict is required to stimulate change. Rather, change is sought by promoting mutual
respect and positive interaction among residents, organizations, and other
stakeholders by focusing on opportunities for mutual benefit in order to get things
done (Chaskin et al., 2001). Cooperation is the operating principle instead of

87
confrontation. The current trend in community capacity building is to rely more on
consensus strategies, as they are more useful in building the capacity of individuals,
networks, and communities to seek common ground and develop solutions that
benefit communities.

Single versus multiple issues

Community organizing efforts can focus on a single issue (e.g., vacant

lots) through targeted strategies or take on a wider range of concerns over time.
Single-issue strategies bring people together and promote unified action around a
specific concern. Unfortunately, some single-issue campaigns can be highly targeted
and shortlived. When the issue is resolved, the capacity generated may dissipate
(Chaskin et al., 2001). However, single-issue efforts can also become a starting point
for building capacity for sustained efforts on multiple issues. Multiple-issue strategies
attempt to build a membership base and local capacity to address issues of concern
noted by residents over time. If done well, these actions provide the opportunity for
enhancing collective problemsolving capacities while strengthening community bonds
and commitment. The best organizing efforts are not just about winning one victory,
they are about building power and winning in ways that enhance a community’s
capacities for winning again in the future. This means that how communities organize
around particular issues is just as important as what they win

Capacity Building is not just training and everything cannot be done

through formal training processes. An important aspect of Capacity Building is the
continuity of support, space for clarification of ideas, working together, learning from
mistakes and access to people who can help resolve the mistakes..

Capacity for Participatory Processes - which would mean the

availability of a cadre of facilitators sensitive to the special approach for development
those tribal communities, will require which would be more inclusive and
participatory iv. Capacity for Participant Learning - which would mean systems which
allow for feedback and analysis and can impact attitudes, and behaviours and promote
sharing, trust, responsiveness and openness.

88
 Tools for Community Capacity Building

There are specific technologies that can be used to further the

strategies mentioned above. For example, Internet-based resources, such as the
Community Tool Box (http://ctb .ku.edu/), provide an effective means for
transmitting skills, information, and other resources widely and inexpensively
(Francisco et al., 2001). Community capacity-building efforts that can be enhanced
through such web supports include community needs/assets assessment, resource
development, project planning, community recruitment organizing and mobilization,
intervention strategies, implementation and marketing, advocacy, and evaluation.
Community-based participatory research, when done well, can also help build
community capacity to engage with research as both consumers and participants.

For example, Cashman et al. (2008) illustrate how the roles and
skills of community and academic partners are complementary and that meaningfully
involving community members in data analysis and interpretation, while it may
lengthen project time, can strengthen community capacity in various ways as well as
provide unique and valuable insights into the research results, which can lead to better
outcomes for all. Asset-based community development (Kretzmann & McKnight,
1993) is another specific approach that starts with the capacities of the residents,
organizations, local culture, and physical features of an area and engage in a process
of connecting, organizing, and orchestrating instrumental links among them to build
local definition, investment, creativity, hope, and control.

Guiding Principles

Every capacity building process must have a set of guiding principles which will
guide the process. The guiding principles for the proposed strategy will be the
following:

 It will be motivational and learner centric

 It will be customised for different stakeholders

 It will have a regular capacity building needs assessment mechanism

89
 It will be dynamic and able to develop curricula to match the training needs
assessments

 It will involve continuous learning support and extension including counselling

and hand holding

 It will be (as much as possible) in a location that promotes learning vii. It will be
practical and more grounded and not be expounding theory .

 It will be empowering in nature, through creation of an environment that sustains

the essential values, attitudes, and operational changes that are being proposed by
the OTELP, particularly the concept of empowerment.

How to form a committee ?

The following information is intended to help you in the process of forming an

association, to understand the functions of the committee and its members.
Committees help spread the workload. At its simplest, a committee is simply a group
of motivated people who meet regularly, at least one of whom acts as a convenor.

What is a committee?

A committee is elected by the members of a community association to continue the

work of the association between general meetings. It is the committee members'
responsibility to make sure that decisions taken at its association's general meeting are
acted on during their year in office.

1) Find a location for regular meetings. Community or neighbourhood centres are

usually free and good to work with.

2) Call a public meeting on the issue and, at the conclusion, ask for individuals to
nominate to form a committee to carry forward the issue. This is the most effective
method, as people are often highly focused and motivated at public meetings.

3) Do the rounds. Talk to people or groups with similar interests, let them know about
the new group, and let them know you’re looking for people who really want to make
a difference for children and parents.

90
4) Personally ask individuals who you think have the skills you need. (Be persuasive:
First say

you’ve been looking for individuals who are recognized as having extraordinary skills
and commitment in this area (or similar words), then ask them to join!)

5) At the first committee meeting, elect the following positions:

Chair, deputy chair, secretary, and treasurer. You may also want to have other
positions, like a publicity officer, an entertainment officer, a membership officer, or a
fundraising officer.

What size should a committee be?

Most committees have between 12 and 15 members. Committees with more than 15
members tend to be unwieldy and difficult to operate. Committees with less than 6
people tend to be representative.

Who and what are the office bearers or honorary officers?

Every member of a committee has an important role to play and contribution to make.
However, there are 3 posts or offices which need to be filled in order that the
committee can operate effectively.

 The chairperson, whose role is chairing committee meetings and acting as

spokesperson on behalf of the community association when necessary.

 The treasurer, whose role is looking after the association's income and
expenditure.

 The secretary, whose role is dealing with the association's organisation, including
arranging meetings and taking minutes.

The Chairperson's role and responsibilities

The chairperson of a committee is responsible for the smooth running of meetings,

allowing all members to have their say, and for guiding the committee's work towards

91
the aims set by the community association. This is a vital position in any community
association and a good chairperson will do the following:

At committee meetings

 Conduct business in the order set out in the agenda

 Keep discussion focused on the item as set by the agenda

 Make sure that a decision has been reached before going onto the next item on
the agenda

 Allow everyone to speak and be heard

 Make sure a record of all decisions is kept.

 Between committee meetings Know of all work that the community association
is doing so that he/she is well informed about all matters that may arise at
committee meetings.

 Keep in touch with other committee members and how their work is coming
along, which means supporting people, not ordering them about Meet with
the secretary to arrange and draw up the agenda to be discussed at meetings and
ensure minutes are properly drafted and issued prior to the next meeting.

 The deputy chair roles and responsibilities Stands in if the chair is absent.

 The Treasurer's role and responsibilities

Your treasurer should be happy to handle petty cash and pay bills ,It is
most important that a community association is not spending money that it does not
have, and that good records are kept of its income and expenditure.

 A treasurer should

 Open a bank account for the community association. This can be easily done and
bank staff can explain how to do so.

92
 Pay all money coming into the community association into the bank account,
apart from a small sum of cash, say about £5, which should be kept at hand as
'petty cash'

A record must also be kept of the petty cash and what it is. Any remaining petty
cash at the end of the year should be added to the present balance in the accounts for
the Annual General Meeting.

 Make a regular statement to the committee on how much money the community
association has spent and still has in its account.

 Pay bills for the community association.

 Give out receipts for money given to the community association.

 The secretary's role and responsibilities

Your secretary should be well organised and good at maintaining

records. The secretary is the community association's point of contact with its
members and the wider public in line with the direction given by the committee and
its chairperson. The work involves writing letters on the association's behalf, and
organising and keeping records of committee meetings.

 A secretary is expected to do the following

 Before committee meetings

 Find a room for the meeting.

 Meet the chairperson and agree an agenda.

 Send out a notice to committee members of where and when the meeting will
take place and the agreed agenda.

Prepare all papers needed for the meeting at least a week beforehand. The papers
should include correspondence since the last meeting and minutes, which are a record
of the last meeting.

93
During committee meetings

 Take a note of everyone present at the meeting and everyone who could not be
there but has sent an apology.

 Circulate or read out the minutes of the previous meeting, take questions about
the minutes and change the minutes if necessary.

 Take notes of what members say when they are reporting on action taken and of
the decisions that are taken by the committee.

 Report to the committee any letters written by the secretary and any replies that
have been received so that action can be taken on them.

After committee meetings

 Write up formal minutes from the notes taken during the meeting in time for issue
to the nextcommittee meeting.

 Write and send off any letter that the committee has asked to be dealt with.

 The secretary should maintain up-to-date records of Committee members' names,

addresses andtelephone numbers

Organising Conferences

 How to Organise a Conference?

 You should start planning the conference at least six months prior to the date.
(For larger conference, the planning might start a year in advance.) You’ll be
keeping track of a lot of moving parts.

 You must have a million questions on your mind. Where do you start? How do
you find the right speakers to invite? Which venue will best suit your needs?

 The truth is, even though organising a conference is a demanding endeavour,

you’re not the first one to face it. There’s no need to reinvent the wheel. It’s all
about following a few specific steps.

94
 We’ve prepared this top-level guide on how to organise a conference. It’ll walk
you through the main steps involved and link you over to valuable tools and
articles that will make your job a lot easier.

 The steps aren’t strictly chronological---you may well start contacting potential
speakers before you’ve secured a venue---but they give you a rough idea of what
to focus on first.

Step 1: Decide on a theme

 Every great conference needs a theme. What’s the unifying message that your
speakers will deliver and what’s the key takeaway for conference attendees?

 The best themes are catchy, relatable, and trigger an emotional response. You
want the conference to inspire and stimulate conversation. Your theme has to
enable that.

 For instance, “Stronger as a team” is probably a better theme than “Achieving

improved efficiencies through increased cross-functional collaboration.”

 The theme is more than just a rallying cry for all participants; it will also guide
your branding and promotion, from designing a logo to coming up with social
media hashtags to printing your posters, brochures, and other collateral.

Step 2: Assemble your A-team

 Chances are, you won’t be organising a whole conference all by yourself. (In fact,
we’d be shocked if that were the case.)

 You’ll need a dedicated team of people to assume responsibility for different

aspects of the planning, negotiations, and promotion. Your core team will likely
include:

 Planning team: Conference venue, accommodation, activities, catering.

 Administration team: Budgeting, attendee registration, ticket sales. This

team/person will also be the main point of contact for questions related to the
conference.

95
 Marketing team: Contacting the media, creating promotional material,
managing your website, blog, and social media activities.

 Sponsorships team: In charge of securing sponsors, applying for grants, and

fundraising. (Only relevant for conferences that rely on external sources of
finance. Obviously)

 Volunteers: Helping with all on-site activities on the day of the conference: door
management, ticket scanning, keeping track of the guest list, manning the
wardrobe, guiding people, etc.

 Your main job will be to coordinate the team, set priorities, and delegate tasks.

Step 3: Prepare a budget & business plan

 Whether your conference is funded by sponsors or not, you’ll have to put together
a budget. You need to know where your money is being earned and spent. Having
a budget will also help you set the price for participating in the conference. Here
are the most common items you’ll want to budget for:

 Venue

 Accommodation

 Transportation

 Catering

 Speaker fees

 Activities

 Marketing

 Team members

Preparing a budget with realistic estimates will also come in handy when
searching for venues and negotiating contracts.

96
Step 4: Find sponsors & grants [optional]

 If you’re financing the conference on your own and are not looking for external
sources of revenue, you can safely skip this step.

 If not, you’ll want to go out looking for sponsors or arrange fundraisers. The key
thing to keep in mind is that the sponsors and their values should align with the
theme of your conference. (Would you want McDonald’s to sponsor your “Let’s
Get Fit” conference?)

 Start by finding sponsors that fund similar events or are generally associated with
your conference’s main themes.

 Decide how much say the sponsors should have in how the conference is run.
Will you allow their branding and logo on every piece of equipment? Will they
be able to bring in their own speakers?

 Remember: It’s a fine balance between getting funded and sacrificing the
integrity of your conference. You’re the judge of where to draw that line.

Step 5: Settle on a date

 Now it’s time to decide when your conference will take place. As discussed, that
date should be anywhere from six months to a year ahead.

 You also need to find out how long the conference will last. Industry consensus
suggests that a conference with around 300 participants calls for two full days.
Larger, more in-depth conferences may stretch for even longer.

 Here are some great rules of thumb to keep in mind:

 Pick a date that doesn’t conflict with other major events like festivals. City-wide
events make booking flights more expensive and generally hinder transportation
to and from the conference. Besides, you don’t want your conference to compete
for attention with big events.

97
 Avoid summer and winter holiday periods when people tend to go on vacation.
It’s best to aim for a date between the middle of March and end of June or from
early September to late November.

 Never plan a conference during the weekend. For most participants, attending a
conference is a part of their job, so schedule it during the workweek.

 Try to aim for the end of the week, so that travelling attendees get the chance to
stay behind and sightsee during their time off. The best days for a conference are
Thursday and Friday.

Step 6: Book the venue

 Once you know the date, you can start looking for available venues that match
your requirements.

In general, venues might fall into three categories:

 University campuses: These are best suited for smaller, academic events and are
relatively cheap to hire.

 Hotels: These typically have dedicated conference facilities and own catering.
They’re the best all-in-one choice since they offer both accommodation and
conference space. They also tend to be the most expensive option.

 Independent venues: This category includes all other types of venues that can
host conferences. Many of these specialise in specific types of events.

But the cost of the venue is just one part of the puzzle. Here are a few other
factors to consider when looking for the right venue:

 Size: Booking a too-small venue where everybody has to squeeze into a tiny
room is clearly a bad idea. Similarly, securing a giant venue for a relatively
modest crowd will not only hurt your wallet but also make the conference feel
empty and poorly attended.

98
 Location: It’s best to pick a somewhat secluded location so that participants are
better able to focus on the conference itself. Even better if the venue has calming,
picturesque surroundings to help people relax.

 Atmosphere: It’s crucial that the vibe of the venue suits your target audience and
theme. You don’t want to host a business conference inside a giant gym, for
instance.

 Facilities: Does the venue have the proper layout and the right conference room
styles for your needs? Does it have the necessary facilities like e.g. smaller rooms
for breakout sessions?

 Accommodation: Does the venue provide accommodation or are there hotels

nearby?

 Catering: Is catering included or can external catering companies easily get to

and work inside the venue? If not, are there suitable restaurants and cafes in the
area? (Keep in mind any special dietary requirements: vegan, kosher, nut-free,
etc.)

 Transportation: How easy is it for participants to travel to the venue by public

transport? Are there enough parking spots for those who drive?

 Technical aspects: Does the venue have the right IT, audio, and video equipment?
You’ll need projection screens, microphones, plenty of charging spots for
participants, and---of course---solid WiFi access.

Step 7: Arrange catering & other vendors

 Typically, a dedicated conference venue will also provide on-site catering. If

that’s not the case, you’ll need to bring in external vendors.

 Decide on what type of refreshments you want to offer and how many breaks
there’ll be for food. Reserve up to an hour for lunch and a few 15-20 minute
breaks for coffee and snacks. Remember: If there’s room in your budget, it’s
always best to go for proper hot meals instead of sandwiches when it comes to
lunch.

99
 You want to be sure that the catering company can handle the logistics on the day
of the event. Your best bet is to find a local company close to the conference
venue to avoid potential traffic-related issues and delays.

Application of Community Organization in the various fields of

Social Work

Social Audit

Basis of social audit

Social audit as a term was used as far back as the 1950s. There has been a flurry of
activity and interest in the last seven to eight years in India and neighboring countries.
Voluntary development organizations are also actively concerned.

Social audit is based on the principle that democratic local governance should be
carried out, as far as possible, with the consent and understanding of all concerned. It
is thus a process and not an event.

What is a social audit?

A social audit is a way of measuring, understanding, reporting and ultimately

improving an organization’s social and ethical performance. A social audit helps to
narrow gaps between vision/goal and reality, between efficiency and effectiveness. It
is a technique to understand, measure, verify, report on and to improve the social
performance of the organization.

Social auditing creates an impact upon governance. It values the voice of stakeholders,
including marginalized/poor groups whose voices are rarely heard. Social auditing is
taken up for the purpose of enhancing local governance, particularly for strengthening
accountability and transparency in local bodies.

100
The key difference between development and social audit is that a social audit focuses
on the neglected issue of social impacts, while a development audit has a broader
focus including environment and economic issues, such as the efficiency of a project
or programme.

Objectives of social audit

 Assessing the physical and financial gaps between needs and resources available
for local development.

 Creating awareness among beneficiaries and providers of local social and

productive services.

 Increasing efficacy and effectiveness of local development programmes.

 Scrutiny of various policy decisions, keeping in view stakeholder interests and

priorities, particularly of rural poor.

 Estimation of the opportunity cost for stakeholders of not getting timely access to
public services.

Advantages of social audit

(a) Trains the community on participatory local planning.

(b) Encourages local democracy.
(c) Encourages community participation.
(d) Benefits disadvantaged groups.
(e) Promotes collective decision making and sharing responsibilities.
(f) Develops human resources and social capital

To be effective, the social auditor must have the right to:

 seek clarifications from the implementing agency about any decision-making,

activity, scheme, income and expenditure incurred by the agency;

 consider and scrutinize existing schemes and local activities of the agency; and

101
 access registers and documents relating to all development activities undertaken
by the implementing agency or by any other government department.

 This requires transparency in the decision-making and activities of the

implementing agencies. In a way, social audit includes measures for enhancing
transparency by enforcing the right to information in the planning and
implementation of local development activities.

1. Public documents for social audit

(a) All budget allocations, beneficiary lists, muster rolls, bills, vouchers, accounts, etc.
must be available for public scrutiny.

(b) All applications for licenses/permits and certificates issued by local self-
government institutions must have a serial number. Registers indicating date of
application and date of clearance in each case should be available for reference by any
applicant. If possible, copies should be publicly displayed.

(c) Public assessment of tax, exemptions, grants, etc., to ensure there are no
complaints of undue preferential treatment.

Several states have declared all Gram Panchayat plan documents related to beneficiary
selection, budget cost estimates, etc. to be public documents. A daily notice to be
posted at the site of all development works, lists names of workers, wages paid, cost
and quantities of material, transport charges, etc.

However, social audit arrangements have mostly been ineffective because there is no
legal provision for punitive action. States should enact legislation to facilitate social
audit by the Gram Sabha.

Appropriate institutional level for social audit

The most appropriate institutional level for social audit is the Gram Sabha, which has
been given ‘watchdog’ powers and responsibilities by the Panchayati Raj Acts in most
States to supervise and monitor the functioning of panchayat elected representatives
and government functionaries, and examine the annual statement of accounts and
audit reports. These are implied powers indirectly empowering Gram Sabhas to carry
102
out social audits in addition to other functions. Members of the Gram Sabha and the
village panchayat, intermediate panchayat and district panchayat through their
representatives, can raise issues of social concern and public interest and demand an
explanation.

2. Right to information for members of Gram Sabha

Some States have already passed Right to Information Acts. Notwithstanding some
weaknesses, the Acts have opened the way for transparency in administration from the
State to the panchayat level.

The Right to Information Acts specify the modalities for obtaining information and
provide penalties or failing to furnish or supplying false information. The Acts
facilitate social legislation such as on minimum wages and gender rights and, more
importantly, pave the way for public debate on government development projects.

However, none of the Acts have defined the right to information to include inspection
of works and documents, and the taking of notes and extracts. This is needed to make
the social audit by the Gram Sabha more effective.

The Gram Sabha should have the mandate to: inspect all public documents related to
budget allocations, list of beneficiaries, assistance under each scheme, muster rolls,
bills, vouchers, accounts, etc., for scrutiny; examine annual statements of accounts
and audit reports; discuss the report on the local administration of the preceding year;
review local development for the year or any new activity programme; establish
accountability of functionaries found guilty of violating established norms/rules;
suggest measures for promoting transparency in identifying, planning, implementing,
monitoring and evaluating relevant local development programmes; and ensure
opportunity for rural poor to voice their concerns while participating in social audit
meetings.

103
Social audit committees

Social audit can also be used for auditing the performance of all three PRI tiers with a
social audit committee at each level. These committees should not be permanent, but
can be set up depending on the nature of programmes/schemes to be audited.

Social audit committee members can be drawn from among programme stakeholders.
It is advisable to use the services of retired functionaries of different organizations,
teachers or persons of impeccable integrity living in the Zilla
Panchayat/Block Panchayat/Gram Panchayat jurisdiction. Both facilitators and social
audit committee members can be trained by social audit experts.

Steps in social audit in local bodies

Clarity of purpose and goal of the local elected body.

Identify stakeholders with a focus on their specific roles and duties. Social auditing
aims to ensure a say for all stakeholders. It is particularly important that marginalized
social groups, which are normally excluded, have a say on local development issues
and activities and have their views on the actual performance of local elected bodies.

Definition of performance indicators which must be understood and accepted by all.

Indicator data must be collected by stakeholders on a regular basis.

Regular meetings to review and discuss data/information on performance indicators.

Follow-up of social audit meeting with the panchayat body reviewing stakeholders’
actions, activities and viewpoints, making commitments on changes and agreeing on
future action as recommended by the stakeholders.

Establishment of a group of trusted local people including elderly people, teachers

and others who are committed and independent, to be involved in the verification and
to judge if the decisions based upon social audit have been implemented.

The findings of the social audit should be shared with all local stakeholders. This
encourages transparency and accountability. A report of the social audit meeting

104
should be distributed for Gram Panchayat auditing. In addition, key decisions should
be written on walls and boards and communicated orally.

Key factors for successful social audit

 Level of information shared with and involvement of stakeholders, particularly of

the rural poor, women, and other marginalized sections.

 Commitment, seriousness and clear responsibilities for follow-up actions by

elected members of the Gram Panchayat.

 Involvement of key facilitators in the process.

 How to enhance local capacities for social audit

 Organization of a mass campaign to increase public awareness about the

meaning, scope, purpose and objectives of social audit.

 Establishment of a team of social audit experts in each district who are

responsible for training social audit committee members (stakeholders).

 Implementation of training programmes on social auditing methods -

conducting and preparing social audit reports, and presentation at Gram
Sabha meetings.

Social development monitoring (SDM): a social audit process

SDM is a periodic observation activity by socially disadvantaged groups as local

citizens who are project participants or target beneficiaries. It could also take the form
of action intended to enhance participation, ensure inclusiveness, articulation of
accountability, responsiveness and transparency by implementing agencies or local
institutions, with a declared purpose of making an impact on their socio-economic
status.

105
Conclusion

To sum up, the following proposals can be made to make social audit a regular and
effective institution to promote the culture of transparency and accountability through
the Gram Sabha.

States should enhance Gram Sabha powers to make them effective instruments of
participatory decision-making and ensuring accountability of PRIs in local
development planning.

An agency like the Ombudsman can be set up to look into complaints of local
maladministration.

Development functionaries found guilty of violating established norms for local

development planning should be punished.

It is important to ensure that rural poor are given due protection when they wish to
stand up to speak against any misconduct.

GRAM PANCHAYAT STAKEHOLDERS

106
Examples of social audit

1. Social audit in Jharnipalli Panchayat, Agaipur block, Bolangir district, Orissa

In October 2001, the gram sabha members of Jharnipalli Panchayat conducted a one-
day social audit of development works carried out in the panchayat over the preceding
three years. This audit took place with the active participation of many individuals
and agencies, including block and district administration officials, MKSS [Mazdoor
Kisan Shakti Sanghatan], NCPRI [National Campaign for People’s Right to
Information] and Action Aid India.

The audit found that:

 Although the works were not carried out, the sanctioned funds were shown in the
records as having been utilized.

 Contractors were banned under government guidelines, but 31 contractors were

working on the project.

 Muster rolls were not maintained by the contractors.

 Instead of the target of 100 man-days of employment for families below the
poverty line (BPL), only 12 half days of work were generated.

 The BPL families could not buy subsidized food from the public distribution
system (PDS) shops as partial wages because they did not possess the needed
ration cards.

2. Micro-development planning as part of social audit

A voluntary development organization Samarthan and PRIA

(Society for Participatory Research in Asia) collaborated in a participatory micro-
planning exercise with local officials, panchayat members, members of different
castes, etc. The process was a way to bring resources to the local community and to
increase its involvement in Gram Sabha meetings which took place four times a year.

107
This led to the identification of several goals. One was to construct a drain. Inspired
by the participatory local planning process, the community contributed half the cost of
the drain (Rs 50 000). Those who could not give money offered their labour. The rest
of the money came from the district office and was mobilized by the Gram Panchayat
and its pro-active woman president, the Sarpanch.

Every member of the Gram Sabha developed a sense of ownership of the project. The
Gram Sabha monitors the work. Gram Panchayat representatives also hold regular
ward-level meetings. The relationship between people and their local representatives
developed quickly into one of mutual support.

3. SDM of schools for ‘rehabilitated’ child workers, Jamtara district, Jharkhand

State, India

In 1995, the non-governmental Child Labour Elimination Society (CLES) initiated a

project to set up 40 Vidyalayas (schools) in three blocks with a high incidence of
child labour in Jamtara district. The funds for the project were provided by the
Ministry of Labour, Government of India.

To supervise the schools, three-tier committees were formed at the district, block and
panchayat/village levels, with the district-level committee having the Deputy
Commissioner as its ex-officio chairperson. At the block level, the circle officer (CO)
is the nodal officer entrusted with the responsibility for smooth functioning of the
schools. The committee at the panchayat and village level includes members who
were active during the mass literacy campaigns in the district. However, most
committees at the lowest level are either defunct and not functional or not properly
constituted. Visibly, this particular weakness has resulted in the diminution of an
important forum of citizen interaction, reflection and action.

Programme activities

A series of block and village level meetings with parents were followed by meetings
with local civil society groups/activists and schoolteachers and generated a lot of
optimism. Some parents showed keen interest in monitoring the school.

108
Parents formed a committee of five to eight members, decided on indicators and
modalities of monitoring and the role and responsibilities of monitors. Committee
membership was kept small to ensure easy consensus and spontaneity. Women
showed remarkable interest and had a strong presence on the committee.

After much argument and discussion, the parents finally decided on three indicators
for the purpose of monitoring, viz. - the presence or absence of two teachers; serving
of midday meals to the children; and routine health checks for children by the local
health department.

The committee was entrusted with the task of monitoring the first two indicators four
to five days a month and the health check, once a month, usually on the last working
day of each month. It was also agreed to devise a suitable format to record data,
keeping in view the limited ability of parents in recording detailed observations. Data
was to be recorded on simply designed but ingenious worksheets with suitable
pictures/drawings depicting the three broad indicators.

An important aspect of the indicator development exercise was the clarity in the
minds of parents about the larger objectives of the monitoring i.e. to ensure
responsiveness, efficiency and accountability in teachers, doctors and block level
government officials. Parents who were initially concerned that monitoring would be
seen by other stakeholders as ‘encroaching on their territory’, gradually began to
realize that building an atmosphere of trust holds the key to realizing their long-term
objective.

The very process of engaging themselves in monitoring the working of the schools
not only helped build confidence in the parents, but also imparted the necessary basic
skills of negotiating with government officials. Committee members met the medical
officer and circle officer armed with reliable data from their monitoring and apprised
them of the working of the schools along with their concerns and suggestions. They
also held regular discussions with the teachers on school functioning to understand
their perspective and problems and suggest remedial measures. The schoolteachers
extended complete support to the parents based on a shared perception that the future
of the school lies in working closely with other stakeholders.

109
Impact

The parents met the circle officer and apprised him of their findings, concerns and
suggestions for improved school functioning, such as slackness on the part of doctors
in conducting routine health checks, difficulties in the running of one school due to a
vacant teacher’s post, need for roof construction/repair in another school and sports
equipment for all schools. The district official accepted some of the demands. This
and other such meetings helped citizens to understand the way government business is
conducted and the skills of negotiating with officials.

(Contributed by K. B. Srivastava, former Professor and Head, Centre for Panchayati

Raj, National Institute of Rural Development (NIRD), Hyderabad, India & Chandan
Datta, PRIA, New Delhi.)

Social Impact Assessment

Social Impact Assessment includes the processes of analysing, monitoring

and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both positive and
negative, of planned interventions (policies, programs, plans, projects) and any social
change processes invoked by those interventions. Its primary purpose is to bring about
a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment.
The important features of this definition are that:

The goal of impact assessment is to bring about a more ecologically,

socio-culturally and economically sustainable and equitable environment. Impact
assessment, therefore, promotes community development and empowerment, builds
capacity, and develops social capital (social networks and trust).

The focus of concern of SIA is a proactive stance to development and

better development outcomes, not just the identification or amelioration of negative or
unintended outcomes. Assisting communities and other stakeholders to identify
development goals, and ensuring that positive outcomes are maximised, can be more
important than minimising harm from negative impacts.

110
 The methodology of SIA can be applied to a wide range of planned
interventions, and can be undertaken on behalf of a wide range of actors, and not just
within a regulatory framework.

SIA contributes to the process of adaptive management of policies,

programs, plans and projects, and therefore needs to inform the design and operation
of the planned intervention.

SIA builds on local knowledge and utilises participatory processes to

analyse the concerns of interested and affected parties. It involves stakeholders in the
assessment of social impacts, the analysis of alternatives, and monitoring of the
planned intervention.

The good practice of SIA accepts that social, economic and biophysical
impacts are inherently and inextricably interconnected. Change in any of these
domains will lead to changes in the other domains. SIA must, therefore, develop an
understanding of the impact pathways that are created when change in one domain
triggers impacts across other domains, as well as the iterative or flow-on
consequences within each domain. In other words, there must be consideration of the
second and higher order impacts and of cumulative impacts.

In order for the discipline of SIA to learn and grow, there must be analysis
of the impacts that occurred as a result of past activities. SIA must be reflexive and
evaluative of its theoretical bases and of its practice.

While SIA is typically applied to planned interventions, the techniques of

SIA can also be used to consider the social impacts that derive from other types of
events, such as disasters, demographic change and epidemics.

SIA is best understood as an umbrella or overarching framework that

embodies the evaluation of all impacts on humans and on all the ways in which
people and communities interact with their socio-cultural, economic and biophysical
surroundings. SIA thus has strong links with a wide range of specialist sub-fields
involved in the assessment of areas such as: aesthetic impacts (landscape analysis);
archaeological and cultural heritage impacts (both tangible and non-tangible);

111
community impacts; cultural impacts; demographic impacts; development impacts;
economic and fiscal impacts; gender impacts; health and mental health impacts;
impacts on indigenous rights; infrastructural impacts, institutional impacts; leisure and
tourism impacts; political impacts (human rights, governance, democratisation etc);
poverty; psychological impacts; resource issues (access and ownership of resources);
impacts on social and human capital; and other impacts on societies.

As such, comprehensive SIA cannot normally be undertaken by a single

person, but requires a team approach.

The Nature of SIA In An International Context

The objective of SIA is to ensure that development maximises its

benefits and minimises its costs, especially those costs borne by people (including
those in other places and in the future). Costs and benefits may not be measurable or
quantifiable and are often not adequately taken into account by decision-makers,
regulatory authorities and developers. By identifying impacts in advance:

(1) better decisions can be made about which interventions should proceed and how
they should proceed; and

(2) mitigation measures can be implemented to minimise the harm and maximise the
benefits from a specific planned intervention or related activity.

An important feature of SIA is the professional value system held by

its practitioners. In addition to a commitment to sustainability and to scientific
integrity, such a value system includes an ethic that advocates openness and
accountability, fairness and equity, and defends human rights. The role of SIA goes
far beyond the ex-ante (in advance) prediction of adverse impacts and the
determination of who wins and who loses.

SIA also encompasses: empowerment of local people; enhancement

of the position of women, minority groups and other disadvantaged or marginalised
members of society; development of capacity building; alleviation of all forms of

112
dependency; increase in equity; and a focus on poverty reduction. SIA complements
the economic and technical models that characterise the thinking of many
development professionals and agencies. SIA can be undertaken in different contexts
and for different purposes. This creates difficulties in defining or evaluating it.

The nature of an SIA done on behalf of a multinational corporation

as part of that company’s internal procedures may be very different to an SIA
undertaken by a consultant in compliance with regulatory or funding agency
requirements, or an SIA undertaken by a development agency interested in ensuring
best value for their country’s development assistance. These, in turn, may be very
different to an SIA undertaken by staff or students at a local university on behalf of
the local community, or an SIA undertaken by the local community itself. Each of
these applications of SIA is worthwhile, and none should pretend to be the definitive
statement. Evaluation of an SIA needs to consider its intended purpose.

SIA should also focus on reconstruction of livelihoods. The

improvement of social wellbeing of the wider community should be explicitly
recognised as an objective of planned interventions, and as such should be an
indicator considered by any form of assessment. However, awareness of the
differential distribution of impacts among different groups in society, and particularly
the impact burden experienced by vulnerable groups in the community should always
be of prime concern.

What Are Social Impacts?

SIA is much more than the prediction step within an environmental

assessment framework. Social impacts are much broader than the limited issues often
considered in EIAs (such as demographic changes, job issues, financial security, and
impacts on family life). A limited view of SIA creates demarcation problems about
what are the social impacts to be identified by SIA, versus what is considered by
related fields such as health impact assessment, cultural impact assessment, heritage
impact assessment, aesthetic impact assessment, or gender impact assessment. The

113
SIA community of practitioners considers that all issues that affect people, directly or
indirectly, are pertinent to social impact assessment.

A convenient way of conceptualising social impacts is as changes to one or more

of the following:

 People’s way of life – that is, how they live, work, play and interact with one
another on a day-to-day basis;

 Their culture – that is, their shared beliefs, customs, values and language or
dialect;

 Their community – its cohesion, stability, character, services and facilities;

 Their political systems – the extent to which people are able to participate in
decisions that affect their lives, the level of democratisation that is taking place,
and the resources provided for this purpose;

 Their environment – the quality of the air and water people use; the availability
and quality of the food they eat; the level of hazard or risk, dust and noise they
are exposed to; the adequacy of sanitation, their physical safety, and their access
to and control over resources;

 Their health and wellbeing – health is a state of complete physical, mental,

social and spiritual wellbeing and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity;

 Their personal and property rights – particularly whether people are

economically affected, or experience personal disadvantage which may include a
violation of their civil liberties;

 Their fears and aspirations – their perceptions about their safety, their fears
about the future of their community, and their aspirations for their future and the
future of their children.

114
Activities Comprising SIA

SIA comprises most of the following activities. It:

 Participates in the environmental design of the planned intervention;

 Identifies interested and affected peoples;

 Facilitates and coordinates the participation of stakeholders;

 Documents and analyses the local historical setting of the planned intervention so
as to be able to interpret responses to the intervention, and to assess cumulative
impacts;

 Collects baseline data (social profiling) to allow evaluation and audit of the
impact assessment process and the planned intervention itself;

 Gives a rich picture of the local cultural context, and develops an understanding
of local community values, particularly how they relate to the planned
intervention;

 Identifies and describes the activities which are likely to cause impacts (scoping);

 Predicts (or analyses) likely impacts and how different stakeholders are likely to
respond;

 Assists evaluating and selecting alternatives (including a no development option);

 Assists in site selection;

 Recommends mitigation measures;

 Assists in the valuation process and provides suggestions about compensation

(non-financial as well as financial);

 Describes potential conflicts between stakeholders and advises on resolution

processes;

 Develops coping strategies for dealing with residual or non-mitigatable impacts;

115
 Contributes to skill development and capacity building in the community;

 Advises on appropriate institutional and coordination arrangements for all parties;

 Assists in devising and implementing monitoring and management programs.

CORE VALUES

In the IAIA-endorsed “International Principles for Social Impact Assessment, the SIA
community of practice believes that:

 There are fundamental human rights that are shared equally across cultures, and
by males and females alike.

 There is a right to have those fundamental human rights protected by the rule of
law, with justice applied equally and fairly to all, and available to all.

 People have a right to live and work in an environment which is conducive to

good health and to a good quality of life and which enables the development of
human and social potential.

 Social dimensions of the environment – specifically but not exclusively peace,

the quality of social relationships, freedom from fear, and belongingness – are
important aspects of people’s health and quality of life.

 People have a right to be involved in the decision making about the planned
interventions that will affect their lives.

 Local knowledge and experience are valuable and can be used to enhance
planned interventions.

PRINCIPLES SPECIFIC TO SIA PRACTICE

 Equity considerations should be a fundamental element of impact assessment and

of development planning.

 Many of the social impacts of planned interventions can be predicted.

116
 Planned interventions can be modified to reduce their negative social impacts and
enhance their positive impacts.

 SIA should be an integral part of the development process, involved in all stages
from inception to follow-up audit.

 There should be a focus on socially sustainable development, with SIA

contributing to the determination of best development alternative(s) – SIA (and
EIA) have more to offer than just being an arbiter between economic benefit and
social cost.

 In all planned interventions and their assessments, avenues should be developed

to build the social and human capital of local communities and to strengthen
democratic processes.

 In all planned interventions, but especially where there are unavoidable impacts,
ways to turn impacted peoples into beneficiaries should be investigated.

 The SIA must give due consideration to the alternatives of any planned
intervention, but especially in cases when there are likely to be unavoidable
impacts.

 Full consideration should be given to the potential mitigation measures of social

and environmental impacts, even where impacted communities may approve the
planned intervention and where they may be regarded as beneficiaries.

 Local knowledge and experience and acknowledgment of different local cultural

values should be incorporated in any assessment.

 There should be no use of violence, harassment, intimidation or undue force in

connection with the assessment or implementation of a planned intervention.

 Developmental processes that infringe the human rights of any section of society
should not be accepted.

117
HISTORY

The legal basis of SIA (and thereby increasing standing and

public awareness) first emerged in 1969/1970 when the US National Environment
Policy Act (NEPA) introduced a requirement to ensure that major federal actions
significantly affecting the quality of the human environment were incorporated into a
balanced and publicly available assessment of the likely impact of such actions
(Burdge and Vanclay 1995). The inquiry into the proposed Mackenzie Valley gas
pipeline from Yukon Territory to Alberta (1974-1978) was the first major EIA case
which was overturned for social reasons, due to a failure to consider the impacts on a
local tribe. Since then, SIA has been progressively introduced to many countries
around the world.

PRA and PLA techniques

Participatory techniques emphasize on the importance of involving

people i.e., people participation for the betterment of society through their
involvement in implementation, execution, monitoring and evaluation of various
developmental programs set by the government.

DEFINITIONS OF PRA/PLA: PRA (Participatory rural appraisal)

It is a methodology to involve rural community by interacting with them

and understanding them along with their locality. PLA (Participatory learning and
action) PLA is a one of the recent terminology in the field of participatory technique.
It is learning from community, collection of data and carrying actions.

HISTORY OF RRA/PRA/PLA Farming system research (FSR)

Development in 1960s Objective of FSR was to further research in the

field of farming system, analyse problem and plan research. Rapid rural appraisal
(RRA)

Began in the late 1970s (Rapid collection of data by outsiders to achieve

a more comprehensive understanding of the complexity of rural societies)

118
Rapid rural appraisal (RRA) Participatory rural appraisal (PRA)

DEVELOPED IN1980s (Development of tools that helped farmers

to collect, analyze, and present their own data and information) Participatory learning
and action (PLA) (Participation should not only be limited to rural appraisals and the
approach has learning for action as its basic essence)

CONCEPT OF PRA/PLAA PRA/PLA

Field exercise is not only for information and idea generation, but it is
about analysis and learning by local people. It is about building a process of
participation, discussion, communication, and conflict resolution. The outsider’s role
is that of a catalyst, a facilitator, and convenor of that process within a community.
RRA/PRA/PLA therefore basically aims at a process that empowers local people to
change their own conditions and situations. It is intended to enable them to conduct
their own analysis to plan and to take action.

PRA/PLA CAN BE USED FOR:

 General analysis of a specific topic, question, or problem;

 Needs assessment;

 Identification and establishment of priorities for development or research

activities; Monitoring and evaluation of development or research activities; and

 Identification of conflicting interests between groups.

BENEFITS OF PRA METHODS :

 Empowerment of the local people

 Securing active involvement of the community

 Creating a culture of open learning with each other and with community members

 Setting research priorities

 Setting participatory extension program policy review

119
DANGERS AND LIMITATIONS OF PRA/PLA

 Difficulty in getting exact information

 Difficulty in finding the right questions to ask

 Not enough time to spend in the village

 Danger of ‘rural development tourism

 Difficulty in finding the right interdisciplinary team

 Lack of experience of team members, particularly lack of skills in the field of

communication, facilitation, and conflict negotiation

 Team members do not show the right attitude, fail to listen, and lack respect

OTHER LIMITATIONS OF PRA/PLA

 Overlooking opinions and demands of women, particularly by male team

members

 Lack of institutional support and an open learning environment within

organizations (centres, departments)

 PRA becoming a fashionable label to satisfy public, institutional, or donor

expectations for ‘participatory’ approaches

 Villagers are occupied with farm work

 Villagers give unrealistic answers to receive more support (sometimes be the

village headman)

 Actors involved in PRA research for action activities are not neutral

Ongoing Community Programmes

Ongoing community programmes at the grass root level

Historically, international development has been characterised by top down processes,
where contemporary business models have been applied to the art of development.

120
International agencies enter foreign communities aiming to improve the lives of
vulnerable and impoverished people. This is based upon the premise that objectively
beneficial technical processes exist that may assist any community.

This is absolutely true. These processes have been outlined by the

United Nations in both the Millennium and Sustainable Development Goal
frameworks. Indeed, agricultural infrastructure, maternal health clinics, sanitation
systems and access to fresh water can all be viewed as objectively beneficial to any
community. These are the broad, universal goals that international NGOs have set
themselves, and in many ways, they are very good at achieving them.​

At the local level however, on-going community development

requires a very different approach. Rather than merely providing infrastructure,
healthcare clinics or emergency relief, truly sustainable programs at the local
level must be a reflection of the community’s real needs and values. If not, it cannot
succeed. However objectively beneficial a resource may be, if nobody uses it, it is
worthless. This is the cornerstone of neoliberal development philosophy.
In rejecting the notion of indisputable ‘best practice’, neoliberal development
embraces community needs, values and knowledge in solving local problems.

This is grassroots development. Community members working

together to improve their collective livelihoods. It is bottom-up and locally
accountable, acknowledging that the process of development is just as important as
the results. By focusing primarily upon capacity building, grassroots development
promotes inclusiveness and resilience. It provides a space for communities to address
local issues, find common ground and balance competing interests. Instead of
technically skilled foreign agencies bringing a service to a community and then
leaving, grassroots development aims to build their own capacity so that they may go
on to solve problems into the future.

INTRODUCTION

The process of social planning largely denotes sketching of the

blueprint of predetermined social and economic goals, in both spatial and temporal
context. It involves prioritizing needs and setting up of clearly defined goals. It also

121
includescritical analysis of the existing and to be acquired resources in terms of men,
money, materials, organisations and technologies, so as to obtain maximum results at
minimum costs.

Social planning is done with the inherent goal of obtaining

economic growth with social justice, maximizing work opportunities, self-reliance,
enhancing income, removing regional and caste-class disparities, alleviating poverty,
and in sum, to improve the quality of life of the nation as a whole. India, with almost
three-fourths of the rural population, is predominantly an agrarian society.

Meaning and scope of grassroots LEVEL PLANNING

As we already know, rural development bears a special significance

in the development of the country. Keeping these considerations in mind, a lot of
planning and programme initiations have been done for rural development. Many
steps have been taken for agricultural growth, employment of rural youth, water
supply, infrastructure development, housing, health and education sectors. Planners at
the higher level would formulate programmes and schemes for the development of
rural areas without being fully aware of the ground realities. In the post independence
period, systematic efforts were made from time to time for the overall development of
rural areas. Community Development Programmes (CDP) were launched in the first
five year plan period. Agricultural development was one of the core issues of CDP.
People’s participation through certain grassroots level institutions like the block level
institutions, village panchayats, gram sabhas, mahila mandali, youth clubs, krishi
charcha mandali, was tried. But these grass roots level institutions were largely
voluntary, without any statutory back-up. A vast sum of money was spent on rural
development through different sectoral departments trying to reach the rural people
directly with skeletal field level functionaries. Several new programmes and schemes
were launched every now and then without paying any attention to the ground
realities and needs and priorities of the rural masses.

122
 Weak planning capabilities at the block level and absence of effective
village based institutions of the people’s participation compounded the problems of
grass roots level planning.

It must be emphasized that grass roots level planning is decentralized

planning where the people at the grass roots not only have the authority to plan for
their own community, but also the power to use resources for effective
implementation and to supervise the whole process. It also involves sharing of
responsibility and accountability among themselves for the socio-economic
development of their own community as well as that of the nation.

Centre

State

District

Block

Village

Grassroots Level

The decentralization of powers from Centre to States, States to

districts, and areas within districts and villages can be one of the best ways of
radically restructuring an over-centralized system of planning. Centralization has had
made the common man over-dependent and apathetic towards the government
programmes meant for his own welfare and development. Decentralization, on the
other hand, results in empowering people, promoting public participation and
increasing efficiency. Under the system of democratic decentralization, which is
popularly termed as Panchayati Raj in the context of rural areas, the rural people elect
village Panchayat members, who are responsible for executing the plans and
programmes for rural development. The village members participate in the planning
of rural development programmes and its monitoring, supervision and evaluation

123
through gram sabhas. One of the unique features of this democratic decentralization
is the involvement of all sections of the society in the planning and execution process.

The scope of grass roots level planning is too vast. It also includes
other crucial areas like animal husbandry and dairy farming, minor irrigation, fishing,
social forestry, small scale industries, rural housing, water supply, electricity and
energy, education, public works, public health and sanitation, social welfare, poverty
alleviation, development and welfare of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes,
promotion of sports and cultural affairs, public distribution system, relief work during
natural calamities, etc. Apart from all these areas of intervention, it is the duty of the
Panchayat to ensure people’s participation in all theactivities for the development of
the village and to maintain transparency in their work. Thus, it may be implied that
decentralization has been seen as necessary and desirable for the participation of the
people in the process of planned development. With the 73rd and 74th Constitutional
Amendments of 1993, Panchayati Raj Institutions (PRI) and urban local bodies have
taken root all over the country. Though teething problems are natural, the success
stories of PRIs functioning have been reported, more or less, across the length and
breadth of the country. In the next subsection, role of Panchayati Raj in grass roots
level planning is discussed in somewhat more detail.

THE PANCHAYATI RAJ SYSTEM AND GRASSROOTS LEVEL PLANNING

The matters relating to decentralized planning are gaining wide

interest among the social planners and social researchers. It is universally agreed that
‘local problems have local solutions’ and a blanket strategy cannot be effective even
within a district.

A brief look at the institutions of democratic decentralization would

be beneficial in understanding its significance. Community Development programmes
were introduced in 1952 in order to transform the social and economic life of the rural
community. These programmes could not elicit effective people’s participation. To
understand the reasons, Balvantrai Mehta Committee was set up, which recommended
institutionalization of local participation and democratic decentralization through

124
Panchayati Raj system. It suggested three tier-system of Panchayati Raj : zilla
parishads at the district level, block samiti at the intermediate level and village

Panchayat at the lowest level.

Many states adopted the recommendations of the committee, but

the Panchayati Raj system in these states was not uniform. There were feelings of
general apathy or indifference or even hostility among the officials and state level
politicians. Powers of the Panchayat members were very limited. The institution itself
could be dissolved by the district authorities. Elections for Panchayats were very
irregular. Consequently Panchayati Raj system started fading away after 1965. From
1977 to 1988, many committees and sub-committees were set up to look into the
institution, its strengths and weaknesses and to suggest modalities to make it effective.

Now, there are nearly 594 district Panchayats, about 6000

block/tehsil/mandal Panchayats at the intermediate level and about 250,000 gram
(village) Panchayats in the country. As a result of these structural changes, in the
current context, in every five years, about 34 lakh representatives are elected by the
people of whom more than one million are women. Even though the institution of
Panchayati Raj existed before this landmark constitutional amendment, they were not
having the real powers to take decisions, nor did they have any financial or legal
powers to execute their plans. This Act ensures provision of rights and responsibilities
to the elected members of the Panchayat to play a much larger role in the
development.

Now the Panchayat bodies are empowered institutions executing

regulatory, administrative and developmental functions. This act entrusts the village
Panchayat to plan and execute programmes on subjects like agriculture, land
improvement, animal husbandry, small scale industries, safe drinking water, health
and sanitation, poverty alleviation programmes, family welfare, social welfare and the
like.

125
Salient Features of Panchayati Raj Institution

Before understanding how grass roots level planning is done, it would

be importantto understand the basic features of the existing Panchayati Raj system. It
is a three-tier structure of local self-governance where, at the village level, Village
Panchayat takes care of the civic and developmental administration. Block level body
or Block Panchayats assist Village Panchayats and give technical advice and guidance
for execution of developmental programmes. Here, it may be noted that smaller states
with population below 20 lakhs will have the option of not to have the intermediate
level Panchayat. At the district level, Zilla Parishad is mainly supervisory and
coordinating institution and functions as a bridge between state and people below
district.

One of the mandatory provisions that shape the structure of the new
PR administration is the establishment of Gram sabha comprising all the voters in a
village. It is the ‘Gram sabha’ or ‘village assembly’, which comprises all adult
members registered as voters in the Panchayat area. Gram sabha is the basic unit of
the democratic system. Every adult citizen of that area can take part in the grass roots
level planning through the gram sabha. The gram sabha has the right to take part in
the planning, supervision of the activities as well as financial status of the
programmes being implemented in its respective area. The village Panchayat is
accountable to gram sabha for all its activities.

Gram sabha acts as a watchdog over the functioning of lower

level Panchayat. All the states have provided for the constitution of gram sabha, but
in terms of meetings, there are variations among the states ranging from once in a year
in Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal to four times in a year in Assam. Some states
like Tamil Nadu and Karnataka have integrated Gram sabha into the process of
selecting the beneficiaries that make them more active in the process of development.
It also makes the process of selection of beneficiaries, crucial in many developmental
programmes, more transparent.

The present constitutional amendment ensures to fulfill, both

structurally and financially, the responsibilities of the PRIs, through reservations for

126
the oppressed sections, including women and other backward castes. This has enabled
these sections to occupy seats of decision-making. Due recognition has been given to
the citizens belonging to weaker section, like women, SCs/STs, to take active part in
the functioning of the PRIs. Seats and posts of chairpersons of the Panchayats at all
levels were reserved for Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs) in
proportion to their population in that area. One-third of these must be women. As a
result, women are chairpersons of about 200 district Panchayats, more than 2000
block/tehsil/mandal Panchayats at the intermediate level and about 85,000 gram
Panchayats. Also, there are about 700,000 elected members belonging to the SCs/ STs
categories. A large number of hitherto excluded groups and communities are now
included in the decision-making bodies.

Another important feature of Panchayati Raj institution is that seats at

all levels are to be filled by direct election. The tenure of the panchayat bodies is of
fiveyears duration. Election to constitute new Panchayat members should be
completed before the expiry of the term. In the event of dissolution, elections should
be held compulsorily within six months. Also, for each state, an independent Election
Commission has been constituted for superintendence, direction and control of the
electoral process. Direct elections make the members of the Panchayats at all levels
directly accountable to their respective constituency, resulting in greater pressure to
perform effectively for village development.

Social action

Concept of social action, objectives - principles, methods of social action.

What is Social Action in Sociology

According to Max Weber sociology is the science of social action.

Obviously it means any action in relation to other action and its important
characteristic is the nature of being social. Max Weber himself differentiated such
actions by giving examples. A driver driving a car is doing social activity and a
student reading a book is not. From the former example it is learnt that the car driver

127
affects others by his driving while the student has no social effect or relation with
others. That is why car driving is social activity while book reading is not.

Definition of Social Action

According to Duncan Mitchel "Action is social when the actor behaves in such a
manner that his action is intended to influence the action of one or more other
persons."

Here the actor acts in presence of some social situation. While it is a continuously
occurring group event spread in time and space and invites the attention of the actor
towards action. When one or more persons perform an action in presence of this
situation it is called social action. From this discussion we can conclude that as;

 Can be done by one or more persons

 Influences others

 Is performed in face of some social situation

 Has its relationship with some social system the way that the actors are
interdependent upon one another.

Elements of Social Actions

Following are Talcott Parsons five elements

 The actor. It is that individual who performs an act. The actor can be one or
more persons.

 The goal. It is the aim or objective for which the action was done. Without goal,
an action is futile and baseless.

 Social situation. The actor performs his role in presence of some situation. While
this situation is a continuously occurring group event spread in space and time
and this situation instigates the actor to action. To control the situation he does an

128
 act. Therefore, a situation is an agent of social action. There are two types of
situation controllable and uncontrollable situation.

 Formative orientation. It is performed on some social pattern, custom. All these

forms are called norms of society. The pattern on which it is done is called norm.

 Energy. These require energy for its performance. Physical energy and training
are essential for an act.

4 Types of Social Action

According to Max Weber there are four types

1. The rational orientation to a system of discrete individual ends: It means that

for the achievement of an individual objective, the logic of cause and effect is
applied. Without cause an aim cannot be attained. The logic that every event has
its cause is the main idea. Such actions have ends and objective for the Individual.

2. The rational orientation to an absolute value: Such action is done for the
pursuit of a value of highest dignity. Real truth can be named as absolute value.
Truth, faith, sacrifice and beliefs are its examples in religion. Service of humanity
is general value. Social actions for such alts also require logical performance.

3. Traditionally oriented action: In such action. Logical orientation is not counted.

The established patterns of behaviour in terms of customs, rituals, conventions
and beliefs ate adopted. These patterns are taken for granted and no question of
how, why and what is asked. In such actions, cultural values play important roles
because they are diverted towards such values,

4. The effectual orientation: Here the feelings of the people are considered. Such
action is neither rational nor traditional. Such action is unplanned. It is done
according to the feelings of an effect upon the actor.

129
Examples of Social Action in Sociology

 When the passengers collectively push the bus to get it started it is called social
action.

 A big log needs a number of persons for its removal from one place to another.
The persons applying force collectively perform it.

 The people build a dam around a village to save it from floods.

 A leader of a village gets the people motivated towards building a mosque. The
people collect contribution and the mosque is built.

 The farmers help one another in farming.

 You help a needy student in his studies.

 You help the patients.

 Canvassing during elections and casting vote

 A teacher teaching his students in class

 Delivering speech, raising slogans, leading a procession and holding out banners.

 Social Work Intervention with Communities and Institutions

Social Action: Concept and Principles

Introduction

In professional social work, six methods of working with people

have been identified. Among them three are basic or primary methods. They are:
casework, group work and community organisation. In day-today practice, social
workers use these three methods of working with people – casework with individual
clients, group work with small groups and community organisation with
sociologically definable communities. In addition, there are three secondary or allied
methods of social work. They are: social action, social work research and social

130
welfare administration. Social action seeks the betterment of masses through social
legislation, propaganda and appropriate action programmes. When there is a need to
bring about some change in the social structure or to prevent the negative change from
happening, which may influence the general population or a large number of people,
social action comes into play. Narmada Bachao Andolan is one of the finest examples
of social action carried out for the betterment of the masses. Let us look into the
concept of social action in some detail.

Concept of Social Action

Social action is considered an auxiliary method of professional

social work. As one of the methods ofbworking with people, it has remained a
debatable issue among the social work professionals. Social action is a method of
social work used for mobilizing masses in order to bring about structural changes in
the social system or to prevent adverse changes. It is an organised effort to change or
improve social and economic institutions. Some of the social problems like dowry
system, destruction of natural resources, alcoholism, poor housing, health, etc. can be
tackled through social action. As a method of professional social work, social action
has remained an issue with wide ranging of opinions regarding its scope, strategies
and tactics to be used, its status as a method and its relevance tosocial work practice.
Mary Richmond was the first social worker to use the word ‘social action’ in 1922.

She defines social action as “mass betterment through propaganda

and social legislation”. However, Sydney Maslin (1947) limits the scope of social
action by considering it as a process of social work mainly concerned with securing
legislation to meet mass problems. Baldwin broadens the scope of social action by
emphasizing on bringing about structural changes in the social system through social
action. Baldwin (1966) defines social action as “an organised effort to change social
and economic institutions as distinguished from social work or social service, the
fields which do not characteristically cover essential changes in established
institutions.

The objective of social action is the proper shaping and

development of socio-cultural environment in which a richer and fuller life may be

131
possible for all the citizens. Mishra (1992) has identified following goals of social
action:

 Prevention of needs;

 Solution of mass problems;

 Improvement in mass conditions;

 Influencing institutions, policies and practices;

 Introduction of new mechanisms or programmes;

 Redistribution of power and resources (human, material and moral);

 Decision-making;

 Effect on thought and action structure; and

 Improvement in health, education and welfare.

Principles of Social Action

Considering Gandhian principle of mobilisation as a typical example of the direct

mobilisation model of social action Britto (1984) brings out the following
principles of social action:

 The principle of Credibility Building:

It is the task of creating public image of leadership, the organisation

and the participants of the movement as champions of justice, rectitude and truth. It
helps in securing due recognition from the opponent, the referencepublic and the
peripheral participants of the movement. Credibility can be built through one or many
of the following ways:

1) Gestures of goodwill towards the opponent: To exemplify, when Gandhiji was in

England, World War I broke out. He recruited students for service in a British
Ambulance Corps on the Western Front. These gestures of goodwill towards the

132
opponents projected the image of Gandhiji as a true humanitarian personality. His
philosophy of non-violence facilitated the credibility-building process among his
opponents, the British.

2) Example setting: Dr. Rajendra Singh, the Magsaysay award winner of 2001, had
set examples of water conservation in many villages of Rajasthan, by making check-
dams, through mobilisation of village resources (manpower, cash and kind) before
starting water-conservation movement at a much larger scale.

3) Selection of typical, urgently felt problems for struggles: The leaders gain
credibility if they stress on the felt-needs of the people. Scarcity of water has
remained one of the pressing problems of the people of Rajasthan. When Dr. R. Singh
initiated his intervention on this issue, his credibility was automatically established.

4) Success: Successful efforts help in setting up credibility of the leader and the
philosophy he/she is preaching. Seeing the successful work of Singh in certain
villages of Rajasthan, State government also came forward to extend its support.
Local leaders from various other villages and NGO professionals also approached him
for help.

 Principle of Legitimisation:

Legitimisation is the process of convincing the target group and the

general public that the movement-objectives are morally right. The ideal would be
making a case for the movement as a moral imperative. Leaders of the movement
might use theological, philosophical, legal-technical, public opinion paths to establish
the tenability of the movement’s objectives. Legitimisation is a continuous process.
Before launching the programme, the leaders justify their action. Subsequently, as the
conflict exhilarates to higher stages and as the leader adds new dimension to their
programme, further justification is added and fresh arguments are put forth. Such
justification is not done by leaders alone. In the course of their participation, followers
too, contribute to the legitimisation process. Following are the three approaches to
legitimisation:

133
1) Theological and religious approach to legitimisation: Gandhiji, used this
approach during freedom movement. He appealed to serve dharma by revolting
against injustice of Britishers.

2) Moral approach to legitimisation: People associated in the Campaign Against

Child Labour, through peaceful rallies, persuasive speeches, use of media, organising,
drawing competition among school children, have helped to create an environment
against child abuse in the country. As a result employing children in any occupation is
considered morally wrong and it becomes moral obligation to all conscious citizens to
make sure that all children below the age of 14 years go to school instead of earning a
livelihood.

3) Legal-technical approach to legitimization: People engaged with the ‘Campaign

for People’s Right to Health’ have based their argument on the human rights issues,
fundamental rights and government’s commitment to ‘Health for All’. It gives
credibility to the movement.

 Principle of Dramatisation:

Dramatisation is the principle of mass mobilisation by which the

leaders of a movement galvanize the population into action by emotional appeals to
heroism, sensational news management, novel procedures, pungent slogans and such
other techniques. Almost every leader mobilising the masses, uses this principle of
dramatisation. Tilak, Marx, Guevara, Periyar and the Assam agitation leaders,
resorted to this principle. Some of the mechanisms of dramatisation could be:

1) Use of songs: Catchy songs, which put forth the cause of a movement, create a
dramatic effect. During freedom struggle, at Bardoli, local talent was tapped to
compose songs to stimulate the enthusiasm of the people. Several choirs were trained
and they travelled from village to village in a bullock cart to sing satyagrahic hymns
at numerous meetings.

134
2) Powerful speeches: This is also a crucial way of motivating the masses and
creating drama-effect.Gandhiji’s appeal to sacrifice and martyrdom wasthrilling and it
had a special appeal for the youth to work for this cause.

3) Role of women: Making prominent women lead marchers was a technique which
gave a dramatic effect to the movement. At Rajkot, Kasturba Gandhi herself
inaugurated the civil disobedience movement by courting arrest first.

4) Boycott: Boycott is also an effective way of influencing public opinion both when
the effort is successful and when it is crushed. Picketing and ‘hartals’– voluntary
closure of shops and other organisations, were used by Gandhiji to dramatise the issue.

5) Slogans: Bharat chodo, Jal hi Jeevan, Say no to Drugs, HIV/AIDS– knowledge is

prevention, etc. are some of the slogans used to give dramatic effect to various social
movements.

 Principle of Multiple Strategies:

There are two basic approaches to development: conflictual and

nonconflictual. Taking the main thrust of a programme, one can classify it as political,
economic or social. The basket principle indicates the adoption of a multiple strategy,
using combined approaches and also a combination of different types of programmes.
Zeltman and Duncan have identified four development strategies from their
experience of community development. These have been framed for use in ocial
action. They are:

1) Educational strategy: In this strategy, the prospective\ participants are educated at

the individual, group and mass level. This is one of the basic requirements of social
action. People or target groups are given necessary information about the issue. By
creating awareness people are motivated and persuaded to participate in the
movement. During campaign against child labour, a network of NGOs working with
children was developed and these NGOs in tune created awareness in their respective
areas through educational strategy. Education by demonstration is an important aspect

135
of this principle. Demonstration has deep impact on the knowledge retention of the
target population.

2) Persuasive strategy: Persuasive strategy is the adoption of a set of

actions/procedures to bring about changes by reasoning, urging and inducing others to
accept a particular viewpoint. Gandhiji used this strategy by constantly seeking
opportunities for dialogue with his opponents. At every rally, stress was laid on
winning new converts by oratory and gentle presentation of arguments.

3) Facilitative strategy: This refers to a set of procedures and activities to facilitate

the participation of all sections of society in the mass movement. The programme
Gandhians devised was often so simple and devoid of any risk that even illiterate
children could imitate them and participate in the National Liberation Movement. In
salt- satyagraha, Gandhiji did not go into thetechnicalities of salt making. He simply
askedthe followers to make consumable salt by boilingthe sea-water. Its simplicity did
facilitate greaterparticipation.

4) Power strategy: It involves the use of coercion to obtain the desired objectives.
The forms of coercion may vary. Gandhiji used social ostracism as one of the
techniques of power strategy.

 Principle of Dual Approach:

Any activist has to buildb counter-systems or revive some unused

system, which is thought to be beneficial to the mobilised publicbon a self-help basis
without involving the opponent.This is a natural requirement consequent upon the
attempt to destroy the system established/maintained by the opponents.

Gandhian constructive work programme performed such a function, in a

small measure, together with conflictual programmes of satyagrahis. This cooperative
effort indicates that Gandhians adopted or attempted to a dual approach in their
mobilization.

136
 Principle of Manifold Programmes:

It means developing a variety of programmes with the ultimate objective

of mass mobilization. These can be broadly categorized into three parts: Social,
Economic and Political programme. Dr. Rajendra Singh has taken up the issue of
water conservation as a composite of manifold programmes. His water conservation
helped the villagers, particularly women, who had to go miles to fetch water. It helped
in better development of crops, better animal husbandry, implying more economic
benefits. During the movement, there were direct and indirect conflict resolutions
with the local eaders, panchayat bodies and state government.

Skills Involved in Social Action

After understanding the concept and principles of by social workers

for social action. These skills are no different from the general skills; professional
social worker uses these skills by combining the ethics and principles of professional
social work. However, a social worker using social action, as a method of social work,
requires certain skills; the more important among these are briefly described below.

 Relational Skills:

The social worker should have skills for building rapport with
individuals and groups and skills for maintaining these relations. He/she should be
able to develop and maintain professional relationship with the clients. The social
worker should have the ability to identify the leadership qualities among the clientele
and should be skilful to harness these qualities for social action. Along with this
working harmoniously with the established local leaders is also needed. He/she should
be able to deal with intra-group and inter-group conflicts effectively. The ability to
diagnose problematic behaviour among the clients and providing counselling is
needed to develop and maintain integration within the community. The social worker
should identify tension-producing situations and diffuse them before they become
serious. Developing and maintaining cordial relations with other agencies and NGOs

137
working in the same geographical area and those working for similar causes is also
required.

 Analytical and Research Skills:

The social worker should have the ability to objectively study the
sociocultural and economic characteristics of the community. He/she should be able
to find out the pressing problems and needs of the clientele. He/ she should be able to
analyze the social problems, the factors contributing to the social problems and its
ramifications on the social, economic, political, ideological, cultural, ecological
aspects of life. He/ she should be able to conduct research and/or understand the likely
impact of research studies in a functional sense. Added to this, the social worker
should be able to facilitate the community people to speak out their own felt needs
and prioritize them. The social worker should never try to impose his/her own
understanding of the social situation and problems on the community.

 Intervention Skills:

After need identification, the social worker should have the ability to
help the clientele chalk out practical intervention strategiesto deal with the problem.
The social worker should provide various options to the clientele and help them in
analyzing pros and cons of each option for taking up proper steps. Social action may
require ‘confrontation’ with authorities. The social worker must inform the
community about the consequences of taking up hard steps like sit-ins, boycotts,
strikes, etc. The social worker should be able to maintain the desired level of feeling
of discontent and emotional surcharge to bring about the necessary change,
enthusiasm and courage among the community people for a fairly long time so as to
minimize the possibility of failure of mass mobilization before the set objectives are
achieved. The social worker should be able to maintain patience and composed
behaviour as he/ she has to deal with emotional balance of the clientele in a rational
way. Added to this, the social worker should have the ability to create the
environment wherein individuals and groups can actively participate. The
interventions should be developed keeping in mind the pressing need, resources

138
(human and material) and sociocultural milieu of the community. He/she should be
able to improvise situations for targeted interventions.

 Managerial Skills:

The social worker also needs the knowledge and ability to handle
organisation, which may be the outcome of the institutionalization of people’s
participation. He/she should be able to coordinate and collaborate with various groups
and local leaders so as to unite the clientele for the required intervention. He/she
should be skilful enough to make policies and programmes, programme planning,
coordinating, recording, budgeting and elementary accounting and maintenance of
various records. He/she should be able to mobilize internal/ external resources in
terms of money, men, materials, equipment, etc. The social worker also requires the
skills of supervising human and material resources and its effective utilization for the
welfare and development of the targeted community.

 Communication Skills:

These skills are highly crucial for social action. The social worker
should have the ability to develop effective public relations with local organisations
and leaders. He/she should be able to effectively communicate verbally (including
public speaking) and in writing as well. The social worker should be able to deliver or
identify people who can deliver powerful speeches. He/she should be able to devise
indoor/outdoor media for effectively communicating with the target audiences. The
social worker should be able to evaluate and use folk and mass media suited to
diverse groups. These skills are used for developing slogans and motivational songs,
speeches and IEC materials for mass mobilization. The social worker should have
skills to educate, facilitate, negotiate and persuade for necessary actions at needed
places.

 Training Skills:

The social worker should be able to train local leaders and identified
leaders for taking up the charge of mass mobilization and confrontation with the
authorities. He/she should be able to train selected people at the local level aimed at

139
imparting knowledge about the social issue taken up for action and the modalities of
carrying out the intervention including the ‘confrontation process’. These people
should be trained for creating public opinion for or against the social issue taken up
and identify and involve people in social action. They should also be trained to utilize
social action strategies and tactics (confrontation, persuasion, negotiation, boycott,
etc.) without the use of violence.

Means of Social Action:

 Research and Collection of Data –

 Survey, Analysis and Assessment,

 Planning Solution,

 Meeting Key Persons, Groups and Agencies,

 Public Meetings, Discussions,

 Create Public Opinion, Awareness, education,

 Use of Mass Media and Press Meeting for Propaganda,

 Use of Legislation and Enforcement of Legislation,

 Representation to the Authorities,

 Proposal to the Authorities,

 Coordinating the work of different groups and agencies,

 Implementing the Action and Reflection,

 Modification and Continuation.

140
 Campaign / Promotional Strategy

A promotional plan is a valuable marketing tool when it comes to

launching a new service or product or expanding your market reach into new verticals
or demographics. When planning a promotional campaign, keep in mind that a
successful campaign achieves all of the following desired outcomes and goals:

 Your promotional message reaches your intended and targeted audience.

 Your audience understands your message.

 Your message stimulates the recipients, and they take action.

The question is how you achieve these outcomes with your

campaign. The process is natural, but it takes "planning" time. Here are seven steps
that will get your campaign off to the right start.

Assess Marketing Communication Opportunities: It's essential to

examine and understand the needs of your target market. Who is your message going
out to? Current users, influencers among individuals, decision-makers, groups, or the
general public?

What Communication Channels Will You Use?: In the first step of

planning, you should have defined the markets, products, and environments. This
information will assist you in deciding which communication channels will be most
beneficial. Will you use personal communication channels such as face to face
meeting, telephone contact, or perhaps a personal sales presentation? Or will the
nonpersonal communication such as newspapers, magazines, or direct mail work
better?

Determine Your Objectives: Keep in mind that your objectives in

a promotional campaign are slightly different from your marketing campaign.
Promotional objectives should be stated regarding long or short-term behaviors by
people who have been exposed to your promotional communication. These objectives
must be stated, measurable, and appropriate to the phase of market development.

141
 Determine Your Promotion Mix: This is where you will need to
allocate resources to sales promotion, advertising, publicity, and, of course, personal
selling. Don't skimp on either of these areas. You must create awareness among your
buyers for your promotional campaign to succeed. A well-rounded promotion will use
all these methods in some capacity.

Develop Your Promotional Message: You will need to sit down

with your team and focus on the content, appeal, structure, format, and source of the
message. Keep in mind that appeal and execution always work together in
promotional campaigns.

Develop the Promotion Budget: You must now determine the

total promotion budget. This involves determining cost breakdowns per territory and
promotional mix elements. Take some time to break down allocations and determine
the affordability, percent of sales, and competitive parity. By breaking down these
costs, you will get a better idea of gauging the success potential of your campaign.

Determine Campaign Effectiveness: After marketing

communications are assigned, the promotional plan must be formally defined in a
written document. In this document, you should include situation analysis, copy
platform, timetables for effective integration of promotional elements with elements
in your marketing mix. You will also need to determine how you will measure the
effectiveness once it is implemented.

Collaborative Strategy

"Collaborative Strategy is the synergy between the strategy of a

Business and the Strategy of its Partners to realise the objectives through
collaboration." This concept is being evolved as the new way to grow a Business.
Companies collaborate with their partners, vendors and customers to build synergy at
strategic level to grow their business.

142
 Pressure / Advocacy Strategy,

Advocacy is the active support of an idea or cause expressed

through strategies and methods that influence the opinions and decisions of people
and organisations.

In the social and economic development context the aims of

advocacy are to create or change policies, laws, regulations, distribution of resources
or other decisions that affect people’s lives and to ensure that such decisions lead to
implementation. Such advocacy is generally directed at policy makers including
politicians, government officials and public servants, but also private sector leaders
whose decisions impact upon peoples lives, as well as those whose opinions and
actions influence policy makers, such as journalists and the media, development
agencies and large NGOs.

Negotiate Strategy

It is a pre-determined approach or prepared plan of action to achieve a

specific goal or objective to potentially find and make an agreement or contract in a
negotiation with another party or parties. (also see Negotiation Tactics).

Legal Suasion / Litigation Strategy

Litigation strategy is the process by which counsel for one party to a

lawsuit intends to integrate their actions with anticipated events and reactions to
achieve the overarching goal of the litigation. The strategic goal may be the verdict, or
the damages or sentence awarded in the case.

Conscientization Strategy,

The development of understanding and awareness of one's position

in social, political, economic, cultural, and historical contexts, with a particular
emphasis on a critical understanding of one's position in power, privilege, and
oppression.

143
 Human Relation Strategy

Relationships between employees and management are of

substantial value in any workplace. Human relations is the process of training
employees, addressing their needs, fostering a workplace culture and resolving
conflicts between different employees or between employees and management.

Political Organisation Strategy

Economic Organisation Strategy

Economic strategy is a relatively new and rapidly developing

area of economic consulting, involving the application of economic principles and
methods to provide clients with unique insights aimed at addressing specific

144
issues/problems and/or enhancing their long-term performance. PMCA’s
comparative strengths in economic strategy consulting can add real value and provide
clients with new insights beyond those provided by traditional management
consulting. Economic strategy consulting often involves combining the other areas of
economic consulting, such as competition and public policy, imaginatively and
innovatively

Conflict Management Strategy

With a basic understanding of the five conflict management

strategies, small business owners can better deal with conflicts before they escalate
beyond repair.

 Strategy One: Accommodating. …

 Strategy Two: Avoiding. …

 Strategy Three: Collaborating. …

 Strategy Four: Compromising. …

 Strategy Five: Competing.

 Situation Modification Strategy

Situation modification involves efforts to modify a situation so as to

change its emotional impact. Situation modification refers specifically to altering
one's external, physical environment. Altering one's "internal" environment to
regulate emotion is called cognitive change.

UNIT 19: Social Problems and Social Action, Role of Social Worker in Social Action,
Social Activists and Social Action Groups in India.

SOCIAL ACTION IN INDIA

India has been the place of many social action movements. Let us
briefly Satyagraha is a uniquely Indian concept and mode of social action shaped into
a formidable tool by Mahatma Gandhi. Although based on non-violence (since

145
Gandhi believed and practiced ahimsa and considered it a powerful tool), satyagraha
meant exerting moral pressure, through mass mobilization, mass courting of arrests,
and long protest marches to achieve the goal. We mention here some examples.

The Rowlatt Act Satyagraha: What is popularly known as the

Rowlatt Act (1918) represented an attempt to put war time restrictions on civil rights
and detentions without trial for a maximum period of two years. All sections of Indian
political opinion vehemently opposed the Rowlatt Act but it was left to Mahatma
Gandhi to work out a practicable all-India mass protest. The intention was to go
beyond petitions but at the same time to stop it from being unrestrained or violent.
Initially, the volunteers merely courted arrest by publicly selling prohibited literature.
It was then extended by Mahatma Gandhi to include the idea of an all India Hartal
(strike).

The Salt Satyagraha: Mahatma Gandhi’s famous Dandi march

symbolized protest against the government monopoly of salt and the claim to salt tax.
The march which started from Sabarmati to the sea through the heartland of Gujarat
attracted considerable attention both within India and outside. Mahatma Gandhi
propagated manufacture and auctioning of salt by the people violating the unjust law.
This action was accompanied by boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.

The Nagpur Flag Satyagraha: This was started in mid-1923 against a

local order banning the use of the Congress flag in some areas of the city.

The Borsad (Kheda district, Gujarat) Satyagraha: This was

directed against a poll tax imposed to be paid by every adult for the police required to
suppress a wave of dacoities. The movement took the form of total non-payment of
thenew levy by all the 104 affected villages and the tax had to be withdrawn.

The Vaikom Satyagraha: This was the first temple entry

movement. It was essentially an attempt on Gandhian lines to assert the right of low
caste Ezhavas and untouchables to use roads near a Tranvancore temple. Gandhian
social action has to be understood in the context of the Gandhian philosophy of work
which aimed at building a social and economic order based on non-violence, and
building the strength of the people and the moral fabric.

146
It included not only activities like relief work in emergencies but also setting up basis
education schools, the promotion of khadi and other cottage crafts, anti -liquor
propaganda, uplift of the lower castes and untouchables.

‘Chetna’ march in Panchmahal and Sabrakantha districts of

Gujarat: This was organised by DISHA (a voluntary organisation) which, on analysis
of its programmes, came to the conclusion that unless awareness is created among the
forest labourers, minor forest produce collectors, small community action groups and
other agencies working in the area, the injustices and exploitation would continue and
the affected people would not come forward to lodge their complaints, narrate their
grievances

Narmada Bachao Andholan is a social action movement which has

brought together several organisations engaged in developmental issues, for the
environmental problems caused by the construction of the Narmada Dam. The
movement today enjoys widespread support, cutting across different segments of the
population, apart from people directly affected by the construction of the dam. The
movement is spearheaded by eminent social workers, scientists, intellectuals, students
and the local villagers.

Huge protest marches have been organised in which villagers from

far and near, from different states, have participated with banners, shouting slogans,
sporting badges forming a human chain on the banks of the Narmada in protest,
taking pledges, organising demonstrations at the dam site, and often violating
prohibitory orders. Its defiant message from the people to decision makers and
planners is for full participation at all the levels of planning and that the people are no
longer prepared to watch in mute desperation, as projects after projects are approved
without ensuring that the benefits accrue mainly to the people and are not cornered by
the vested interests like the ‘contractor and the rich’.

147
 Social action for social reform and social development - scope of
social action in India.

Scope of social action depends on how its aims are formulated.

Its aim is dependent on the aim of social work profession. If social work profession is
concerned with providing wholesome, rich and abundant life for everyone, then it is
logical for social workers to try to probe beyond end results, to uncover causes and to
seek prevention rather than that of merely cure or treatment. It also depends on how
the causative factors for human problems are understood. Also if the aim of social
action is modification of earlier legislation, bringing in new legislation or the bringing
about a revolution, then the social action centers on these activities.

However if the liberal tradition informs the democratic systems,

and there is focus on generating more economic growth and develop more social
services to meet those problems – then social action will focus on the inadequacy of
social services, social legislation and other similar issues. But if there are questions
regarding whether growth is justified at the cost of equality, or whether it is required
at all, and whether there are alternatives available to the development model proposed,
then the scope of social action is linked to these questions and seeking solutions for
these.

Then it also goes beyond existing legal norms as the concept of

legality in itself is a relative concept. The desirability of elitist and western led social
goals and other questions related to who decides that these goals as desirable, legal
and required by people and by what eans become the focus of social action.

Constitutional and Welfare Provisions

Thus the scope of the method has to be seen in the light of the
constitutional and other welfare provisions of the state as also the existing disparities
and social concerns, emanating from the social context. These may include such areas
as poverty, unemployment and livelihood issues – the NREGP and the social auditing

148
of such programme, watershed management and public health, ecological disasters,
displacement and relocation issues of both rural and urban population, SEZ issues and
land acquisition issues, equity in educational provisions the right to development and
the right to livelihood and the reduced space for the marginalized in the increasingly
favorable climate for privatization of resources and services, demanding equity and
access in energy resources are all areas which call for a mass, intermediate and micro
level social action. There is a need to demand not only what is due but also prevent
what is threatened in terms of loss of livelihoods, in the light of increasing spending
on mega infrastructure projects, which may take away land of the poor and the
marginalized in the urban fringes. Expansion and development of urbanization with
Master Plans favoring the rich and the resourceful which at the same time reduce
urban livelihood options for the self-employed such as vendors. Such issues are fertile
grounds for social action. There are many Nandigrams and Singurs in the making in
the light of India’s urbanizing spree and the spiralling economic growth rates.

The right to information act that was the result of social action has
to be carefully protected because of many attempts to dilute it by vested interests. The
use of such instruments for ensuring satisfactory and quality service provision,
ensuring transparency in governance issues and decision making and empowering
communities in its use is something that can fall in the genre of social action.

Discrimination by state and other vested interests, showing outright

prejudice towards certain sections of population such as the religious minorities or the
politically marginalized are yet another area for social action to alleviate distress and
injustice.

Social Legislation through social action - Role of social worker In

social action.

SOCIAL LEGISLATION

Laws that seek to promote the common good, generally by protecting

and assisting the weaker members of society, are considered to be social legislation.

149
Such legislation includes laws assisting the unemployed, the infirm, the disabled, and
the elderly. The social welfare system consists of hundreds of state and federal
programs of two general types. Some programs, including Social Security, Medicare,
unemployment insurance, and Workers' Compensation, are called social insurance
programs because they are designed to protect citizens against hardship due to old age,
unemployment, or injury. Because people receiving benefits from these programs
generally have contributed toward their benefits by paying payroll taxes during the
years that they worked, these social insurance programs are usually thought of as
earned rewards for work. Programs of a second type, often cumulatively called the
Welfare System, provide government assistance to those already poor. These social
programs have maximum income requirements and include Aid to Families with
Dependent Children, the Food Stamp Program, Medicaid, and Supplemental Security
Insurance.

Although the United States has had social welfare legislation since
colonial times, its nature and extent has changed over the years. For much of U.S.
history, Americans preferred to rely on the marketplace to distribute goods and
services equitably among the population. In cases where the market clearly failed to
provide for categories of people such as widows, orphans, or the elderly, families
were expected to take responsibility for the care of their members. When family
members lacked the ability to do so, private, religious, or charitable organizations
often played that role. Help from the town, county, or local government was rarely
provided, and even then only in those cases where the need arose due to conditions
beyond the individual's control, such as sickness, old age, mental incapacity, or
widowhood.

Role of a social worker in social action

The role of the social action worker is to facilitate the group through a
five-stage process. The intention is to change the traditional relationship between
service users and the professionals employed to work with them. A social action
worker is a facilitator, not a provider

150
Social Action Groups.

India has been the place of many social action movements. Let us briefly mention
some of them.

Satyagraha is a uniquely Indian concept and mode of social action shaped into a
formidable tool by Mahatma Gandhi. Although based on non-violence (since Gandhi
believed and practiced ahimsa and considered it a powerful tool), satyagraha meant
exerting moral pressure, through mass mobilization, mass courting of arrests, and long
protest marches to achieve the goal. We mention here some examples.

The Rowlatt Act Satyagraha: What is popularly known as the Rowlatt Act (1918)
represented an attempt to put war time restrictions on civil rights and detentions
without trial for a maximum period of two years. All sections of Indian political
opinion vehemently opposed the Rowlatt Act but it was left to Mahatma Gandhi to
work out a practicable all-India mass protest. The intention was to go beyond petitions
but at the same time to stop it from being unrestrained or violent. Initially, the
volunteers merely courted arrest by publicly selling prohibited literature. It was then
extended by Mahatma Gandhi to include the idea of an all India Hartal (strike).

The Salt Satyagraha: Mahatma Gandhi’s famous Dandi march symbolized protest
against the government monopoly of salt and the claim to salt tax. The march which
started from Sabarmati to the sea through the heartland of Gujarat attracted
considerable attention both within India and outside. Mahatma Gandhi propagated
manufacture and auctioning of salt by the people violating the unjust law. This action
was accompanied by boycott of foreign cloth and liquor.

The Nagpur Flag Satyagraha: This was started in mid 1923 against a local order
banning the use of the Congress flag in some areas of the city.

The Borsad (Kheda district, Gujarat) Satyagraha: This was directed against a poll
tax imposed to be paid by every adult for the police required to suppress a wave of
dacoities. The movement took the form of total non-payment of the new levy by all
the 104 affected villages and the tax had to be withdrawn.

151
The Vaikom Satyagraha: This was the first temple entry movement. It was
essentially an attempt on Gandhian lines to assert the right of low caste Ezhavas and
untouchables to use roads near a Tranvancore temple. Gandhian social action has to
be understood in the context of the Gandhian philosophy of work which aimed at
building a social and economic order based on non-violence, and building the strength
of the people and the moral fabric. It included not only activities like relief work in
emergencies but also setting up basis education schools, the promotion of khadi and
other cottage crafts, anti -liquor propaganda, uplift of the lower castes and
untouchables.

‘Chetna’ march in Panchmahal and Sabrakantha districts of Gujarat: This was

organised by DISHA (a voluntary organisation) which, on analysis of its programmes,
came to the conclusion that unless awareness is created among the forest labourers,
minor forest produce collectors, small community action groups and other agencies
working in the area, the injustices and exploitation would continue and the affected
people would not come forward to lodge their complaints, narrate their grievances and
seek redressal. One of the methods Social Action devised by DISHA to generate
awareness was to organise a foot march in the area which covered nearly 1000 km
through the most backward districts.

Mahila Mukti Morcha – Dalli Rajhara: Dalli Rajhara is an iron ore mining town in
the southern Durg district in Madhya Pradesh. The mines here are largely worked
manually through contractors. Contract labourers are mainly members of Adivasi,
landless and small peasant households from the seven districts of Chattisgarh in
eastern Madhya Pradesh.

The women took a leading role in organising social action

struggles. For example, in 1979-80, the wages of the workers improved after a
successful struggle. A successful anti-alcoholism campaign was carried out on the
ground that it drained hard won benefits back into the pockets of the contractors and
liquor merchants. The mass mobilization achieved among the households was a rare
example of mobilization on a social issue. Women played a leading role in
propagating the philosophy of this campaign, and in organising mohalla committees,
for detection and punishment. In 1982 the women started their own forum called

152
Mahila Mukti Morcha (MMM). The forum concentrated on three broad areas of
concern – women and work, women and health and women’s struggles. Action arising
out of MMM platform was largely issue-based. Awareness and mobilization were
effected through a variety of methods including plays and songs, and through annual
observation of martyrdom of those who had struggled for the rights of the poor.

Narmada Bachao Andholan is a social action movement which has brought together
several organisations engaged in developmental issues, for the environmental
problems caused by the construction of the Narmada Dam. The movement today
enjoys widespread support, cutting across different segments of the population, apart
from people directly affected by the construction of the dam. The movement is
spearheaded by eminent social workers, scientists, intellectuals, students and the local
villagers. Huge protest marches have been organised in which villagers from far and
near, from different states, have participated with banners, shouting slogans, sporting
badges forming a human chain on the banks of the Narmada in protest, taking pledges,
organising demonstrations at the dam site, and often violating prohibitory orders. Its
defiant message from the people to decision makers and planners is for full
participation at all the levels of planning and that the people are no longer prepared to
watch in mute desperation, as projects after projects are approved without ensuring
that the benefits accrue mainly to the people and are not cornered by the vested
interests like the ‘contractor and the rich’

National and Regional Social Activists

 Paulo Freire

Paulo Reglus Neves Freire was a Brazilian educator whose

revolutionary pedagogical theory influenced educational and social movements
throughout the world and whose philosophical writings influenced academic
disciplines that include theology, sociology, anthropology, applied linguistics,
pedagogy, and cultural studies. He was born to a middle-class family in Recife, in the

153
state of Pernambuco in the northeast of Brazil. His early work in adult literacy–the
most famous being his literacy experiments in the town of Angicos in Rio Grande do
Norte–was terminated after the military coup in 1964. That year he went into exile,
during which time he lived in Bolivia; then Chile where he worked for the United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) and the Chilean
Institute for Agrarian Reform, and where he wrote his most important work,
Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1970); Mexico; the United States where he held a brief
appointment at Harvard University's Center for Studies in Development and Social
Change; and Switzerland where he worked for the World Council of Churches as the
director of their education program.

He also served as an adviser for various governments, most

notably the government of Guinea-Bissau. In 1980 he returned to Brazil to teach and
later to serve as secretary of education for Sāo Paulo. He worked as a consultant for
revolutionary governments such as the New Jewel Movement in Grenada, the
Sandinista government in Nicaragua, and the government of Julius K. Nyerere in
Tanzania. From 1985 until his death in 1997, Freire served as the honorary president
of the International Council for Adult Education. Freire's conception of education as a
deeply political project oriented toward the transformation of society has been crucial
to the education of revolutionary societies and societies undergoing civil war, as well
as established Western democracies. Freire's work has exercised considerable
influence among progressive educators in the West, especially in the context of
emerging traditions of critical pedagogy, bilingual education, and multicultural
education.

Freire's revolutionary pedagogy starts from a deep love for, and

humility before, poor and oppressed people and a respect for their "common sense,"
which constitutes knowledge no less important than the scientific knowledge of the
professional. This humility makes possible a condition of reciprocal trust and
communication between the educator, who also learns, and the student, who also
teaches. Thus, education becomes a "communion" between participants in a dialogue
characterized by a reflexive, reciprocal, and socially relevant exchange, rather than
the unilateral action of one individual agent for the benefit of the other. Nevertheless,

154
this does not amount to a celebration of the untrammeled core of consciousness of the
oppressed, in which the educator recedes into the background as a mere facilitator.

Freire conceived of authentic teaching as enacting a clear

authority, rather than being authoritarian. The teacher, in his conception, is not neutral,
but intervenes in the educational situation in order to help the student to overcome
those aspects of his or her social constructs that are paralyzing, and to learn to think
critically. In a similar fashion, Freire validated and affirmed the experiences of the
oppressed without automatically legitimizing or validating their content. All
experiences–including those of the teacher–had to be interrogated in order to lay bare
their ideological assumptions and presuppositions. The benchmark that Freire used for
evaluating experiences grew out of a Christianized Marxist humanism. From this
position, Freire urged both students and teachers to unlearn their race, class, and
gender privileges and to engage in a dialogue with those whose experiences are very
different from their own. Thus, he did not uncritically affirm student or teacher
experiences but provided the conceptual tools with which to critically interrogate
them so as to minimize their politically domesticating influences.

Conceptual Tools

 Banking education.

Freire criticized prevailing forms of education as reducing students to

the status of passive objects to be acted upon by the teacher. In this traditional form of
education it is the job of the teacher to deposit in the minds of the students, considered
to be empty in an absolute ignorance, the bits of information that constitute
knowledge. Freire called this banking education. The goal of banking education is to
immobilize the people within existing frameworks of power by conditioning them to
accept that meaning and historical agency are the sole property of the oppressor.
Educators within the dominant culture and class fractions often characterize the
oppressed as marginal, pathological, and helpless. In the banking model, knowledge is
taken to be a gift that is bestowed upon the student by the teacher. Freire viewed this
false generosity on the part of the oppressor–which ostensibly aims to incorporate and
improve the oppressed–as a crucial means of domination by the capitalist class. The

155
indispensable soil of good teaching consists of creating the pedagogical conditions for
genuine dialogue, which maintains that teachers should not impose their views on
students, but neither should they camouflage them nor drain them of political and
ethical import.

 Problem-posing method.

Against the banking model, Freire proposed a dialogical problem-

posing method of education. In this model, the teacher and student become co-
investigators of knowledge and of the world. Instead of suggesting to students that
their situation in society has been transcendentally fixed by nature or reason, as the
banking model does, Freire's problem-posing education invites the oppressed to
explore their reality as a "problem" to be transformed. The content of this education
cannot be determined necessarily in advance, through the expertise of the educator,
but must instead arise from the lived experiences or reality of the students. It is not the
task of the educator to provide the answer to the problems that these situations present,
but to help students to achieve a form of critical thinking (or conscientization) that
will make possible an awareness of society as mutable and potentially open to
transformation. Once they are able to see the world as a transformable situation, rather
than an unthinkable and inescapable stasis, it becomes possible for students to
imagine a new and different reality.

In order, however, to undertake this process, the oppressed must

challenge their own internalization of the oppressor. The oppressed are accustomed to
thinking of themselves as "less than." They have been conditioned to view as
complete and human only the dominating practices of the oppressor, so that to fully
become human means to simulate these practices. Against a "fear of freedom" that
protects them from a cataclysmic reorganization of their being, the oppressed in
dialogue engage in an existential process of dis-identifying with "the oppressor
housed within." This dis-identification allows them to begin the process of imagining
a new being and a new life as subjects of their own history.

156
 Culture circle.

The concrete basis for Freire's dialogical system of education is

the culture circle, in which students and coordinator together discuss generative
themes that have significance within the context of students' lives. These themes,
which are related to nature, culture, work, and relationships, are discovered through
the cooperative research of educators and students. They express, in an open rather
than propagandistic fashion, the principle contradictions that confront the students in
their world. These themes are then represented in the form of codifications (usually
visual representations) that are taken as the basis for dialogue within the circle. As
students decode these representations, they recognize them as situations in which they
themselves are involved as subjects. The process of critical consciousness formation
is initiated when students learn to read the codifications in their situationality, rather
than simply experiencing them, and this makes possible the intervention by students
in society. As the culture circle comes to recognize the need for print literacy, the
visual codifications are accompanied by words to which they correspond. Students
learn to read these words in the process of reading the aspects of the world with which
they are linked.

Although this system of codifications has been very successful

in promoting print literacy among adult students, Freire always emphasized that it
should not be approached mechanically, but rather as a process of creation and
awakening of consciousness. For Freire, it is a mistake to speak of reading as solely
the decoding of text. Rather, reading is a process of apprehending power and causality
in society and one's location in it. Awareness of the historicity of social life makes it
possible for students to imagine its re-creation. Literacy is thus a "self-transformation
producing a stance of intervention" (Freire 1988, p. 404). Literacy programs that
appropriate parts of Freire's method while ignoring the essential politicization of the
process of reading the world as a limit situation to be overcome distort and subvert the
process of literacy education. For Freire, authentic education is always a "practice of
freedom" rather than an alienating inculcation of skills.

157
Philosophy of Education

Freire's philosophy of education is not a simple method but rather an

organic political consciousness. The domination of some by others must be overcome,
in his view, so that the humanization of all can take place. Authoritarian forms of
education, in serving to reinforce the oppressors' view of the world, and their material
privilege in it, constitute an obstacle to the liberation of human beings. The means of
this liberation is a praxis, or process of action and reflection, which simultaneously
names reality and acts to change it. Freire criticized views that emphasized either the
objective or subjective aspect of social transformation, and insisted that revolutionary
change takes place precisely through the consistency of a critical commitment in both
word and deed. This dialectical unity is expressed in his formulation, "To speak a true
word is to transform the world" (Freire 1996, p. 68).

Freire's educational project was conceived in solidarity with

anticapitalist and anti-imperialist movements throughout the world. It calls upon the
more privileged educational and revolutionary leaders to commit "class suicide" and
to struggle in partnership with the oppressed. Though this appeal is firmly grounded
in a Marxist political analysis, which calls for the reconfiguring of systems of
production and distribution, Freire rejected elitist and sectarian versions of socialism
in favor of a vision of revolution from "below" based on the work of autonomous
popular organizations. Not only does Freire's project involve a material reorganization
of society, but a cultural reorganization as well. Given the history of European
imperialism, an emancipatory education of the oppressed involves a dismantling of
colonial structures and ideologies. The literacy projects he undertook in former
Portuguese colonies in Africa included an emphasis on the reaffirmation of the
people's indigenous cultures against their negation by the legacy of the metropolitan
invaders.

Freire's work constitutes a rejection of voluntarism and idealism as

well as determinism and objectivism. The originality of Freire's thought consists in his
synthesis of a number of philosophical and political traditions and his application of
them to the pedagogical encounter. Thus, the Hegelian dialectic of master and slave
informs his vision of liberation from authoritarian forms of education; the

158
existentialism of Jean Paul Sartre and Martin Buber makes possible his description of
the self-transformation of the oppressed into a space of radical intersubjectivity; the
historical materialism of Karl Marx influences his conception of the historicity of
social relations; his emphasis on love as a necessary precondition of authentic
education has an affinity with radical Christian liberation theology; and the anti-
imperialist revolutionism of Ernesto Che Guevara and Frantz Fanon undergird his
notion of the "oppressor housed within" as well as his commitment to a praxis of
militant anticolonialism.

Freire's pedagogy implies an important emphasis on the

imagination, though this is not an aspect that has been emphasized enough in writings
about him. The transformation of social conditions involves a rethinking of the world
as a particular world, capable of being changed. But the reframing proposed here
depends upon the power of the imagination to see outside, beyond, and against what is.
More than a cognitive or emotional potential, the human imagination, in Freire's view,
is capable of a radical and productive envisioning that exceeds the limits of the given.
It is in this capacity that everyone's humanity consists, and for this reason it can never
be the gift of the teacher to the student.

Rather, educator-student and student-educator work together to

mobilize the imagination in the service of creating a vision of a new society. It is here
that Freire's notion of education as an ontological vocation for bringing about social
justice becomes most clear. For Freire, this vocation is an endless struggle because
critical awareness itself can only be a necessary precondition for it. Because liberation
as a goal is always underburdened of a necessary assurance that critical awareness
will propel the subject into the world of concrete praxis, the critical education must
constantly be engaged in attempts to undress social structures and formations of
oppression within the social universe of capital without a guarantee that such a
struggle will bring about the desired results.

159
 Saul Alinsky

Saul Alinsky, community organizing and rules for radicals

Saul Alinsky, community organizing and rules for radicals. Saul

Alinsky’s work is an important reference point for thinking about community
organizing and community development. His books Reveille for Radicals (1946)
and Rules for Radicals (1971) were both classic explorations of organizing and
remain popular today. Mike Seal examines Alinsky’s continuing relevance to the
activities of informal educators, community organizers and animateurs.

Only two kinds of people can afford the luxury of acting on

principle, those with absolute power and those with none and no desire to get
any…everyone else who wants to be effective in politics has to learn to be
‘unprincipled’ enough to compromise in order to see their principles succeed. (Rogers
1990: 12)

Liberals in their meetings utter bold words; they strut, grimace

belligerently, and then issue a weasel-worded statement ‘which has tremendous
implications, if read between the lines.’ They sit calmly, dispassionately, studying the
issue; judging both sides; they sit and still sit. (Alinsky 1971: 4)

The Radical may resort to the sword but when he does he is not
filled with hatred against those individuals whom he attacks. He hates these
individuals not as persons but as symbols representing ideas or interests which he
believes to be inimical to the welfare of the people. (Alinsky 1946: 23)

Saul David Alinsky (1909-1972) was both a committed organizer

and activist (founding the Industrial Areas Foundation in Chicago) and an influential
writer. His books Reveille for Radicals (1946) and Rules for Radicals (1972) were,
and remain, important statements of community organizing. Alinsky’s ideas bear
careful exploration and have a continuing relevance for informal educators and all
those whose role involves trying to effect change in communities. They are
particularly useful for those who have to engage with local or national power

160
structures and workers who wish to engage alienated or disparate communities and
seek common cause between them. His thoughts on the nature of work with
communities are challenging, and yet relevant. In this article I want to expand on
three areas. On:

 The place of principles and morality in community work;

 What it is to be a liberal or a radical; and

 Rules for how to engage with power structures effectively.

The three quotes above are meant to encapsulate his thinking on these
subjects. I will go on to expand on the ideas that stem from them.

Saul Alinsky’s life and work

Saul Alinsky was born in Chicago on 30 January 1909, the child of

Russian-Jewish immigrant parents. Saul Alinsky’s parents divorced when he was 13
years old, and he went to live with his father who had moved to Los Angeles. At an
early age he was interested in the dynamics of power and the interaction between
those who are denied resources and those who deny. ‘I never thought of walking on
the grass,’ he recalls, ‘until I saw a sign saying ‘Keep off the grass.’ Then I would
stomp all over it.’

He earned a doctorate in archaeology from the University of Chicago

in 1930. However, it was spending a summer helping dissident miners in their revolt
against John L. Lewis’s United Mine Workers that influenced his future direction.
Upon graduation he won a fellowship from the university’s sociology department
which enabled him to study criminology. He went to work for Clifford Shaw at the
Institute for Juvenile Research and soon found himself working at the State
Penitentiary (at which he stayed for three years). At this time he married Helene
Simon, with whom he had a son and a daughter. He had met Helene while studying at
the University and they married in 1932. As Horwitt (1989: 17) has commented, the
Depression and the growing turbulence of the 1930s politicized both of them. Helene,
a social worker, was a strong organizer and gained a considerable reputation in the
labour movement.

161
 In 1936 Saul Alinsky left his work at the Penitentiary to return to the
Institute in Chicago. He appeared set for a career as a criminologist, however a
growing concern to counter the threat of Fascism, and the development of more
militant labour organizing (especially that linked to the development of the
Committee for Industrial Organization (CIO) grew in their appeal. Alinsky was
particularly struck by the way in which John L. Lewis led the CIO (Horwitt 1989: 17).
Clifford Shaw and Saul Alinsky were both convinced that it was the ‘social milieu’
that caused delinquency rather than some particular quality of individuals. It was the
study of this – and in particular gang life – that took Alinsky to South Chicago and
then to the Back-of-the-Yards (the slum area that Upton Sinclair had earlier written so
movingly about in The Jungle). There Saul Alinsky found a number of people who
wanted change. Joe Meegan, who had grown up in the area worked his way through
De Paul University, and had become a teacher became a key ally and together they set
up the Back-of-the-Yards Neighborhood Council. While historically an Irish-Catholic
community, they were able to identify common interests that brought together
previously hostile ethnic groups of Serbs and Croatians, Czechs and Slovaks, Poles
and Lithuanians in the community and brought them into the organization. Alinsky
also worked closely with local Catholic priests to build the council. The way they
built the coalition meant that the council had great success in stabilizing the Back-of-
the-Yards neighborhood and in advocating for that community.

In 1939 Saul Alinsky established the Industrial Areas Foundation to

bring his method of reform to other declining urban neighborhoods. He left the
Institute to work for the Foundation. His approach depended on uniting ordinary
citizens around immediate grievances in their neighborhoods and in protesting
vigorously and outside of the ‘established’ ways of expressing dissent (see below). He
concentrated on recruiting and training indigenous ‘organizers’ to take a lead in the
communities. His first book Reveille for Radicals outlines the principles and practice
of community organizing and just one month after its publication in 1946 it made
the New York Times best-seller list (Horwitt 1989: 176).

Alinsky was busy – and often on the road – and things looked
promising. But in 1947 Helene drowned while on holiday with the children – and it

162
hit him hard. He found it difficult to focus for many months; furthermore the financial
position of the Foundation was not good. Saul Alinsky took on writing an
‘unauthorized biography’ of John L Lewis (which appeared in 1949) in part to
stabilize his own finances. He also began working with Fred Ross around organizing
Mexican-Americans in California. Significantly though, Saul Alinsky was not a
casualty of the hysteria surrounding radicals and supposed communists in the late
1940s and early 1950s (Horwitt 1989: 240). He continued to have significant support
from key figures in the Catholic Church and the press – and his combative style might
well have backfired on any congressional investigation committee that called him
before them (op. cit.).

Saul Alinsky had looked around for new writing projects (including
proposing a joint book with C Wright Mills) – and although he started work on a
biography of Monsignor John O’Grady it was not completed. The community
organizing work – with the exception of the Back-of-the-Yards (under Joe Meegan)
and California (Fred Ross) – was not developing. In 1952 Alinsky married Jean
Graham (who had a debutante background and was divorced from an executive of
Bethlehem Steel) (Horwitt 1989: 256). Jean did not have a strong interest in Alinsky’s
social and political work – but had rebelled against her family’s upper-class elitism
(op. cit.: 257). Sadly, though she was to become ill with multiple sclerosis not long
after they were married. New areas of work opened up including working in
Woodlawn and beyond with Puerto Ricans (with Nicholas von Hoffman and the
Catholic Church). He also looked to New York and began to develop work there with
various organizations with mixed results. This took him away from home (and Jean).

The Industrial Areas Foundation gained a significant amount of money

from the Archdiocese of Chicago in 1957 to undertake a study of the changes in local
communities resulting from population shifts (in particular the growing African
American) – and the tensions and discrimination involved. As part of the study a
number of priests were to be trained in community analysis and organization. Saul
Alinsky also worked to bring the first major modern civil rights effort to Chicago,
which as Horwitt (1989: 363) has commented was the most segregated city in the
North. He also continued be active in more general community organizing –

163
especially around Chicago. The work in Woodlawn, in particular, attracted attention
with its focus on local organizing and its critique of ‘welfare colonialism’. As Charles
Silberman noted in his best-selling study Crisis in Black and White (which appeared
in 1964), Alinsky’s approach (through the work of the Temporary Woodlawn
Association – TWO) was of great significance. It looked to put much more control in
the hands of local people. Silberman recognized that large scale state intervention was
needed in terms of schooling, job creation and health – but how these were to be
brought about, ‘at whose direction and initiative, was critically important (Horwitt
1989: 449).

Press and media attention to Saul Alinsky grew significantly following

the publication of Crisis in Black and White. He became something of a celebrity –
for example featuring in a series of interviews in Harper’s. On the domestic front his
relationship with Jean his wife had deteriorated. She was living in California for most
of the time while Saul Alinsky worked out of Chicago. In 1966 Alinsky met and
developed a relationship with Irene McInnis. Jean and Saul Alinsky divorced,
amicably it is said, in 1969 – and he married Irene in 1971 (Horwitt 1989: 536).

Saul Alinsky became more critical of both the approach and the tactics
of the 1960’s young radicals. ‘A guy has to be a political idiot,’ he told them, ‘to say
all power comes out of the barrel of a gun when the other side has the guns.’ He was
very distrustful of the charismatic elements of some of the new radical movements.
For him both action and direction had to be rooted in the practical concerns of the
masses. America’s War on Poverty saw the expansion of Saul Alinsky’s organisation
and its influence. In New York he successfully organized local African American
residents to pressure the city’s largest employer, the Eastman Kodak Company, to hire
more African Americans and also to give them a role in recruitment.

However, he soon fell out further with both the establishment and more
‘radical elements’. He called President Johnson’s War on Poverty ‘a huge political
pork barrel’ and found it increasingly difficult to work with local African American
groups influenced by ‘Black Power’ who understandably did not want to function
under white leadership. He remained active till his death, organizing white worker
councils in Chicago, steelworkers in Pittsburgh, Indians in Canada, and Chicanos in

164
the Southwest, where he influenced Cesar Chavez, who was later to found the first
successful labor organization among California farm workers. Alinsky’s second
book, Rules for Radicals: A Political Primer for Practical Radicals, published in 1971
was a reflection on the lessons he felt he had learned in this later period. It,
like Reveille for Radicals was a publishing success – and has had a long-term appeal.

Saul Alinsky died on June 12, 1972 in Carmel, California. He had been
to visit Jean, gone to a bank, and then collapsed outside of a heart attack.

Alinsky on means and ends

Saul Alinsky had a particular take on the subject of means and ends,
or in the terminology of informal education, on process and product. He was
specifically impatient with people who would not take action for reasons of principle.
As he says in his chapter ‘Of Means and Ends’ in Rules for Radicals.

He who sacrifices the mass good for his personal conscience has a
peculiar conception of ‘personal salvation’; he doesn’t care enough for people to ‘be
corrupted’ for them. (Alinsky 1972: 25)

He thought that the morality of action needed not to be judged in or

of itself but weighed against the morality of inaction. As Saul Alinsky states at the
outset of the chapter:

The man of action views the issue of means and ends in pragmatic
and strategic terms. He has no other problem; he thinks only of his actual resources
and the possibilities of various choices of action. He asks of ends only whether they
are achievable and worth the cost; of means, only whether they will work. To say that
corrupt means corrupt the ends is to believe in the immaculate conception of ends and
principles. (Alinsky 1972: 24)

Alinsky then proceed to develop a set of rules regarding the ethics

of means and ends. Given his take on morality the idea of a set of rules about them
seems ironic and this was part of his idiosyncratic style. Saul Alinsky can seem very
amoral in his statements. I think that it is helpful to treat them as questions upon
which to reflect when considering the morality of means and ends. For him the point

165
was not to dwell on the morals people should hold, but to understand the morals
which guide people in practice.

Here I want to highlight the key elements of his approach – as outlined in Rules.

1) One’s concern with the ethics of means and ends varies inversely with one’s
personal interest in the issue, and one’s distance from the scene of conflict (Alinsky
1972: 26). Saul Alinsky was critical of those who criticized the morality of actions
they were not involved in, were dispassionate about or were not touched by. For him,
the further people are away from the conflict, the more they fuss over the moral
delicacies. Furthermore, such moralising and distancing denies one’s own culpability.
He agreed with Peck that the demonizing of and moralising about the soldiers in the
Mai Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War was hypocritical. For Alinsky the questions
were how do people got to the point of committing atrocities, how people were
socialised into the army, its cultures of responsibility, who becomes a soldier and
ultimately why the war was being fought. Sadly such concerns are still relevant today.

2) The judgement of the ethics of means is dependent upon the political position of
those sitting in judgement. Our cause had to be all shining justice, allied with the
angels; theirs had to be all evil, tied to the Devil; in no war has the enemy or the cause
ever been gray. Yet nowadays, with the need for propaganda over, the declaration is
still taken to be self evidently true. For Saul Alinsky, both parties in a dispute will
claim, and need to claim, that the opposition’s means are immoral and their own
means are ethical and rooted in the highest of human values. This seems to be true of
the wars in the Falklands, the Balkans, Afghanistan, Iraq etc. We portray ourselves as
fighting for reasons such as freedom, democracy, protecting the innocent and portray
the ‘insurgents’ as displaying the opposite moral characteristics.

3) In war, the end justifies almost any means (Alinsky 1972: 29-30). For Saul
Alinsky people are expedient in the moment, and then find ways to justify this as
consistent and moral after the fact. For example, Churchill was asked how he could
reconcile himself to siding with the communists, given his stated opinions. He
responded, ‘I have only one purpose, the destruction of Hitler, and my life is much
simplified

166
thereby.’ Yet prior to the war he said ‘One may dislike Hitler’s system and yet admire
his patriotic achievements. If our country were defeated, I hope we should find a
champion as admirable to restore our courage and lead us back to our place among the
nations’ – (Great Contemporaries: 1937). During the war the allies, and Britain in
particular supported the communist led resistance in Greece. Yet after the war
Churchill turned British guns on communist partisans who had fought with the allies
in the second world war in the Greek Civil war and supported the return of a
monarchy for Greece.

Saul Alinsky uses the example of the American Declaration of Independence to

elaborate on this statement: To the Colonists who drafted it, the Declaration was self-
evidently true; to the British, it deliberately ignored the benefits of the British
presence. The colonists recognized at the time that the document was not balanced
and was to some extent propaganda.

4) The judgement of the ethics of means must be made in the context of the times in
which the action occurred and not from any other chronological vantage
point (Alinsky 1972: 30-2). Saul Alinsky uses the example of the Boston Massacre to
illustrate his point. Patrick Carr, one of the townspeople shot dead by the British,
stated on his deathbed that the townspeople had been the aggressors and that the
British fired in self-defence. This admission threatened to destroy the martyrdom that
the Revolutionary Leader, Sam Adams, had invested in the townspeople. Adams
thereby discredited Patrick Carr as ‘an Irish papist who had died in the confession of
the Roman Catholic Church.’ For Alinsky it would be easy to condemn Adams, but as
he says, we are not today involved in a revolution against the British Empire. Alinsky
says we have to judge the act through the lens of the times.

5) Concern with ethics increases with the number of means available (Alinsky
1972: 232-34). Saul Alinsky said that moral questions may enter the equation when
one has alternate means. If one lacks this choice, one will take what options one has.
He was talking at a time when there was condemnation of the tactic of the Viet Cong
of sending children to plant bombs in bars frequented by American soldiers. He would
have probably have understood the actions of suicide bombers, or at least would have

167
said the question is not ‘how could anyone do this’? but what drove them to see these
actions as their only effective tactics.

6) The less important the end, the more one engage in ethical evaluations about
means (Alinsky 1972: 34). This is similar to Saul Alinsky’s first point, the question
being how people’s moralizing changes according to how important the end is to them.
As a parallel, many informal educators I have worked with moralise very differently
about, for example, the young people they work with compared to their own children.
With the young people they work with, they recognise that they will experiment with
drugs, alcohol and sex as a part of their ‘means’ of growing up; and have ways of
reacting to the young people when they do these things. However they react to their
own children using drugs and alcohol and having sex quite differently! Such ‘means’
are not an options for them.

7) Success or failure is a mighty determinant of ethics (Alinsky 1972: 34).

Yesterday’s immoral terrorist is today’s moral and dignified statesman of high

standing — because he was successful. Yesterday’s moral statesman is sitting in front
of a ‘war crimes tribunal’ today — because he lost. (Connachie 2001)

Saul Alinsky saw this as an extension of the old adage that history favours the
winners. I am sure Churchill would be remembered very differently had we lost the
war. He also identified ‘winners’ as those in power, not necessarily in a
complimentary way, but simply in recognition that at present, those with power are
winning. From this perspective, whether groups are defined as terrorists or freedom
fighters, is normally determined by those in power.

8) The morality of a means depends upon whether the means is being employed at a
time of imminent defeat or imminent victory (Alinsky 1972: 34-5). This relates to
point five and says that we should judge different acts differently at different points. If
a person cheats because they are desperate, we should judge it differently than if they
cheat when they are winning. Similarly if a person steals to feed their children, it is
different from theft by someone who already has a lot of money. Interestingly, at
present, for a first offence or a small amount, both are likely to receive a fine in the
UK. This seems the opposite of Alinsky’s principle in that the poor person would be

168
less able to pay the fine, and have a greater (admittedly only financial) impact on
them than on the richer person.

9) Any effective means is automatically judged by the opposition as being

unethical (Alinsky 1972: 35-6). Alinsky sees one of the tactics of those in a battle is to
judge the other side as being immoral. We will find ways to judge their methods as
unethical even if they are also used by our side. We will, of course, be using them is a
slightly different, more moral, way. As a youth worker I remember having a battle
with a certain management committee about the use of the building, in particular
about whether we needed the full-size snooker table that dominated one room – and
which no young people used. At first they questioned whether I was being truly
representative of the young people in their views about the table, despite this being
my role in the meeting. When I brought the young people to express their own views
to the management committee they said I had put them on the spot in a meeting,
which was not appropriate, despite them having invited them. When the young people
wrote in to express their views, the management committee said that while they were
the young people in the club, they questioned whether they were representative of the
young people ‘in the community’. The snooker table stayed.

10) You do what you can with what you have and clothe it with moral
garments (Alinsky 1972: 36-45). Interestingly while this may seem the most morally
redundant, Saul Alinsky uses the example of Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of ‘passive
resistance’ as an illustration. He points out that, perhaps ‘passive resistance’ was
simply:

… the only intelligent, realistic, expedient program which Gandhi had at his disposal;
and that the ‘morality’ which surrounded this policy of passive resistance was to a
large degree a rationale to cloak a pragmatic program with a desired and essential
moral cover…. Confronted with the issue of what means he could employ against the
British, we come to the other criteria previously mentioned; that the kind of means
selected and how they can be used is significantly dependent upon the face of the
enemy, or the character of his opposition. Gandhi’s opposition not only made the
effective use of passive resistance possible but practically invited it. His enemy was a
British administration characterized by an old, aristocratic, liberal tradition, one which

169
granted a good deal of freedom to its colonials and which always had operated on a
pattern of using, absorbing, seducing, or destroying, through flattery or corruption, the
revolutionary leaders who arose from the colonial ranks. This was the kind of
opposition that would have tolerated and ultimately capitulated before the tactic of
passive resistance. (Alinsky 1972: 38, 41)

Alinsky on liberalism and radicalism

As we can see from the opening quote, Saul Alinsky was

contemptuous of the kind of liberal thinking that led to inaction. Indeed, he devoted a
significant part of Reveille for Radicals comparing the radical and liberal orientations.
He was also equally contemptuous of what he termed ‘suicidal’ or ‘rhetorical’ radicals.
He starts the prologue to Rules for Radicals by addressing what he sees as the new
generation of radicals, and the folly of some of their approaches.

The Revolutionary force today..are reminiscent of the idealistic

early Christians, yet they also urge violence and cry, ‘Burn the system down!’ They
have no illusions about the system, but plenty of illusions about the way to change our
world. It is to this point that I have written this book.

Furthermore, he felt that people should not underestimate the

room to manoeuvre in democratic systems. Saul Alinsky did not deny government
harassment, but still felt that the system had potential to be reformed. More to the
point unless the masses thought that these avenues had been exhausted, they would
not embrace change. He felt that many of the new radical movements, erroneously,
wanted to skip the organising phase and go straight for revolution, turning potential
allies, and even those communities they were meant to be representing, against them.
For Alinsky, to take such a suicidal approach means ‘there is no play, nothing but
confrontation for confrontation’s sake – a flare-up and back to darkness’ (op. cit.). He
saws the involvement and active participation of citizens in issues where they had real
concerns, as the key, both to radicalism and democracy. He was cynical about easy
sloganeering, especially when some of the heroes of the day were cited.

170
Spouting quotes from Mao, Castro, and Che Guevara, which are as germane to our
highly technological, computerized, cybernetic, nuclear-powered, mass media society
as a stagecoach on a jet runway at Kennedy airport. (Alinsky 1972: xxv).

Tactics for radicals

The bulk of the rest of Rules for Radicals is concerned with tactics,
which he sometimes also refers to as the rules of power politics. I will expand on each
in turn. I will also give examples from Mark Thomas, a UK-based socialist comedian
who I think uses these techniques in his show.

1) Power is not only what you have but what the enemy thinks you have (Alinsky
1972: 127). In the book he says that if one has mass support, one should flaunt it, if
one does not one should make a lot of noise, if one cannot make a big noise, make a
big stink. Mark Thomas uses this technique frequently. When complaining about the
tube privatization he formed a band of famous names and asked them to perform on
the tube singing protest songs about it.

2) Never go outside the experience of your people (Alinsky 1972: 127). Mark
Thomas makes extensive use of such techniques as getting the public to ring up their
elected representatives or have mass letter writing campaigns. He will also put
familiar mechanisms to other uses. When complaining about the use of
organophosphates he put up yellow appeals for witness signs to draw attention to the
public. When investigating Crown immunity to murder, when a person was run over
by an army Landrover he put up tiredness kills signs all over the front of the army
base.

3) Wherever possible go outside of the experience of the enemy (Alinsky 1972: 127).
Mark Thomas would continually try and dumbfound people. When complaining about
the building of a dam that was to displace 15,000 people in Turkey he built an ice
sculpture of a dam in front on the headquarters of the company building it.

4) Make the enemy live up to their own book of rules (Alinsky 1972: 128). This is
one of Mark Thomas’s favorite tactics. He found out that people who inherited
expensive paintings could avoid inheritance tax by allowing the public to have access

171
to the painting. He got the public to ring up numerous people who had done this and
request to see the paintings. When they refused, or refused everyone he managed to
get the law changed.

5) Ridicule is man’s most potent weapon (Alinsky 1972: 128). Mark Thomas was
complaining about the exporting of guns to Iran, where the government had claimed
that they did not know the pipes were going to be used for that purpose because they
had been put down as something else for export terms, despite the fact that they could
not have been used for that purpose. He protested by painting a tank pink, put a plastic
ice-cream cone on the top of it and tried to export it as an ice cream van.

6) A good tactic is one that your people enjoy (Alinsky 1972: 128). When some
pensioners had arranged to have, what could easily have been a boring meeting with a
health minister, he got them to ask questions in the form of a dance routine. He also
get a group of people to protest against GM crops by wearing radioactive protection
gear and running around with Geiger counters.

7) A tactic that drags on too long becomes a drag (Alinsky 1972: 128). Mark
Thomas confesses to using a series of ‘stunts’, to make his points. He tends to use a
lot of small actions, as illustrated about, rather than a prolonged action. This approach
leads into the eighth rule.

8) Keep the pressure on (Alinsky 1972: 128). Saul Alinsky says not to rest on ones
laurels if one has a partial victory. He says we should keep in mind Franklin D.
Roosevelt’s response to a reform delegation, ‘Okay, you’ve convinced me. Now go
on out and bring pressure on me!’ For Alinsky, action comes from keeping the heat on.

9) The threat is usually more terrifying than the thing itself (Alinsky 1972: 129).
When Saul Alinsky leaked word that large numbers of poor people were going to tie
up the washrooms of O’Hare Airport, Chicago city authorities quickly agreed to act
on a longstanding commitment to a ghetto organization. They imagined the mayhem
as thousands of passengers poured off airplanes to discover every washroom occupied.
Then they imagined the international embarrassment and the damage to the city’s
reputation. Again, when challenging the avoidance of inheritance tax, Mark

172
threatened to have more and more people requesting to see the paintings if a change
did not happen.

10) The major premise for tactics is the development of operations that will maintain
a constant pressure upon the opposition (Alinsky 1972: 129). Such pressure is
necessary, Saul Alinsky argued, in order to get reaction from the opposition. He
argued that ‘the action is in the reaction’ (op. cit.).

11) If you push a negative hard and deep enough it will break through into its
counterside (Alinsky 1972: 129). Essentially, this is to not give up and be afraid to
concentrate on the negative aspects. In many cases Mark’s pushing of the negative
aspects led to changes, such as a change in the law for the paintings, Nestle
reconsidering their production of milk and Channel Four producing a website for
posting up MEP’s interests (which is compulsory in other countries). He also
succeeded in getting some serious questions asked about corporate killing in
Parliament.

12) The price of a successful attack is a constructive alternative (Alinsky 1972: 130).
This is the other side of the previous rule. If one does push the other party through to
changing one has to offer some kind of solution. This would be one of my criticisms
of Mark Thomas; he rarely offers solutions to the issues that he raises. It probably
highlights the difference between an entertainer and a community organizer. It would
also be one of Saul Alinsky’s main criticisms and goes back to the distinction he
made between a real and a rhetorical radical. He had little time for some on the ultra
left who knew what they were protesting against, but had little idea what they were
fighting for. It is noticeable that Mark Thomas does achieve concrete things, when he
has concrete demands.

13) Pick the target, freeze it, personalize it, and polarize it (Alinsky 1972: 130). This
is perhaps Saul Alinsky’s most controversial rule and is the counter to the common
idea that we should not make things personal. When pursuing the changes in the
inheritance law for paintings he targets one individual. He will often find out who the
CEO is in a company and hound that person. In the organophosphates debate it is one
scientist that he targets and the validity of his findings.

173
Conclusion

Saul Alinsky’s ideas could be seen as controversial, but he was

effective and practical as a community activist, and his work and writing deserves to
be more widely known among those involved in informal education, community
development work and social pedagogy.

 Mahatma Gandhi and Social Change

Basic Issues of Social Change:

In his voluminous writings, Gandhi touched or dwelt upon myriad

issues of interpersonal, intergroup and individual-group relations that affected society
and called for reform and even revolutionary change in the structure, institutions,
processes and value orientations of society. Although his perspective was Universalist
in nature, his point of departure was the contemporary Indian situation.

Social change in India constituted his immediate goal and priority. In the pursuit of
this objective, he fashioned a programme of social reconstruction that evolved from
his experiences and experiments in various areas of social life in a kind of trial and
error process. He was deeply conscious of the inertial drag of tradition as well as the
natural propensities of man to pursue narrow and immediate interests and dominate
his fellow beings.

The central feature of Gandhi’s thought is that it is man centred,

not system centred. Its premise is the moral autonomy of man and the possibility of
his lasting liberation from his own lower self and the impersonal and compelling
dictates of the structure of society. The ideal social order is that which gives man the
opportunity to realize his moral autonomy and encourages him always to exercise this
autonomy in an enlightened manner that is conducive to individual and collective
well-being. The movement from the existing imperfect state of man and society
towards perfection requires the inculcation of certain fundamental values by man
along with the establishment of social instrumentalities, which will promote and
ensure the perennial primacy of these values.

174
 However, Gandhi postulates the inseparability of ‘ends’ (values)
and ‘means’ (instrumentalities) that is the dialectical unity of cause and effect.
Therefore, a logical discrimination between values and instrumentalities is not
possible – nor even desirable – in his thought.

It is in this context that the basic issues of social change in his

writings have to be identified. In other words, these issues cannot be classified into
neat categories labelled ‘values’ and ‘instrumentalities’. Rather, they form a
configuration that can only be analysed in terms of certain objectives, which need to
be woven into the social fabric.

From this point of view, we may identify the basic issues of social
change prescribed by Gandhi as the institution of human dignity and equality; the
elevation of labour to a high dignity; the quest for self-reliance; the propagation of the
principle of trusteeship; the pursuit of truth and ahimsa; the establishment of a
socially purposive system of education; the recognition of tolerance as a primary
value; the realization of the inseparability of ends and means; and the urge towards a
rational and scientific view of life.

Before proceeding to a brief elucidation of these issues, it is

necessary to point out that, in contrast to other modern thinkers, Gandhi distilled most
of his ideas from a-secular premises. This is clearly seen, for instance, in his
justification of equality and his prognosis for sustaining the egalitarian imperative.

Modern egalitarianism has been derived from a positivist theory

of natural rights, or from the logic that it is not possible to determine relative primacy
between the infinite hierarchies of classification, or from the irrationality of
discrimination between incomparable individualities. Gandhi, on the other hand,
eschews such abstract considerations and bases his concept of equality on the
monistic premise of advaita philosophy that all sentient beings possess divinity as
ultimately inalienable parts of the Supreme Being.

His belief in the Supreme Being, who manifested himself inter

alia in an immanent moral law of the universe and was the ultimate reality, identical
with the absolute truth, was the core of his thought. But his theism was rationally

175
constructed and argued and it was devoid of mystical elements. Indeed, his calculus of
good and evil was based upon secular and rational criteria and it is possible to argue
that his references to the Supreme Being had a metaphorical quality inasmuch as they
sought to enjoin socially constructive conduct. To him, religions were valuable not
because they were built on the idea of communion with God, but because they gave
strength to ethical principles and conduct. In other words, despite the a-secular
foundations of some of them, his social ideas were rationalistic in their content and
orientation.

To return to the issues of social change identifiable in Gandhi’s

vision, the institution of human dignity and equality as the guiding principles and
objectives for social reconstruction derived from his belief that every human being, by
virtue of the element of divinity in him, must be recognized as having intrinsic worth
and as deserving of the highest respect, and he should feel and be free to achieve his
full potential.

Denial of dignity or equality to an individual was thus

unacceptable, not so much for being offensive to formal human rights, as for its effect
of crushing his spirit and denying the Supreme Being itself. The dismantling of the
artificial barriers that categorized human beings according to descending scales of
dignity and equality was a sine qua non for the ideal society and necessitated a
conscious realization of the moral indefensibility of these categories on the part of
those who were responsible for their sustenance and benefited from them. But it also
required the assertion of the right to dignity and equality by the victims of their denial.

Gandhi extended the application of these concepts beyond

individuals to group identities, such as religious communities, cultural and linguistic
entities, regions, and other distinctive social collectives. His view that the oppressed
and the underprivileged must struggle for their own liberation is evident in his social
crusades against untouchability and for gender equality, for all through, he insisted
that it was as much a duty for the untouchables and women to strive for their
emancipation from social degradation and inequality as it was for the rest of society.

176
 Although he was categorical in upholding the principle of
merit, he did not reject the principle of positive discrimination outright and, in fact,
recognized the urgent need for providing the conditions and wherewithal for the
backward and the underprivileged to bring them on par with the privileged sections of
society.

He also maintained that if an equitable social order

reflecting the ideal of respect for human dignity and equality was founded on the
inner realization that this ideal was an inalienable element of the moral law of the
universe, instead of on formal laws and social sanctions, it would not have the
tendency to regress towards older or new patterns of indignity and inequality.

However, Gandhi’s conception of equality went beyond the

right to equal dignity and opportunity, for it envisioned the right to equitable
sustenance by society for individuals contributing to the social process to the best of
their ability and potential. This was imperative to preclude the persistence and steady
enlargement of inequality on account of the differing capacities and needs of
individuals and the cooperative nature of social life.

This, in turn, required the removal of artificial distinctions

between different kinds of labour, and particularly between intellectual and manual
labour, through the universal acceptance of bread labour and the pursuit of self-
reliance by individuals as well as different levels of collective life from the family to
the nation, which was represented by such ideals as the self-sufficiency of villages
with respect to their essential needs and use of swadeshi.

A significant component of this approach was the

minimization of wants and the related idea of non-retention of what was surplus to the
satisfaction of natural needs. In order to ensure against the resultant accumulation of
unproductive wealth, Gandhi postulated the principle of trusteeship whereby the rich
were to act as trustees for their superfluous wealth, which was to be used for society.

It is true that dignifying of labour, self-reliance and

trusteeship are generally associated with the economic realm of Gandhi’s thought. Yet,
they are of central relevance to the process of social change for several reasons.

177
 Firstly, Gandhi himself insisted on the comprehensive and
integral nature of his ideas and their categorization is, therefore, anathema to his
scheme for social transformation.

Secondly, these ideas, despite their apparent economic orientation,

are basically concerned with and provide important instrumentalities for social change
through the metamorphosis of man into a social being in the true sense.

Thirdly, their operation represents and reinforces the innate higher

traits of social commitment and sympathy in human nature. In the ultimate analysis,
the elevation of labour to a high dignity, the quest for self-reliance and the
propagation of the principle of trusteeship are important basic issues of social change
because they have a direct bearing on extant social structures and human tendencies
that militate against progress towards the ideal society.

Truth and ahimsa were regarded by Gandhi as forming an

inseparable complex, logically distinguishable only in that the former is the end and
the latter, the means. Although he defined truth variously in different contexts, there is
no inconsistency in his formulations. To him, truth (the absolute truth) is identical
with the ultimate reality which pervades the universe (the eternal principle or God).
However, man cannot realize this absolutely and is prone to regarding a particular
facet of it, relative in time, place or substance, as the end itself. This may generate
conflict between specific relative truths.

However, in the contest between different relative truths, there

can be no place for asserting the superiority of one over another and, therefore, for the
imposition of one’s own perception over an opponent. This necessitates the adoption
of ahimsa as an operative creed, indeed as a supreme duty, not merely in the negative
sense of not inflicting physical or emotional injury on any living being, but also – and
more importantly – in the positive sense of active empathy with and love for the
opponent, even to the extent of inviting and experiencing self-suffering.

The struggle for social change, therefore, requires the inculcation

of persistent concern for the disclosure of the absolute truth. This implies that each
individual must recognize the relative character of his own variant of the truth and

178
commit himself to non-violence. In other words, social change has to be predicated on
a conscious and continuing pursuit of truth and ahimsa, the mode of its articulation
being satyagraha.

To Gandhi, education could sub serve social change only if it

gave primacy to character building over the acquisition of knowledge and
occupational skills, and was moreover related to the individual’s environment and
oriented towards its betterment. The character building aim of education ought, he felt,
to be directed to the inculcation of selfless values and attitudes, and should
contemplate the whole life by informing and pervading its learning and occupational
functions.

Education for its own sake or for acquiring specialized

information in isolation from the process of development of society was, he believed,
a contradiction in terms. His Basic Education scheme sought to universalize education
by making the school complementary to the home and integrating value orientation
with vocationalization, while ensuring the economic self-sufficiency of the school.
His urgent stress on the establishment of a socially purposive system of education
reflected the importance he attached to education as an efficacious agent for social
change.

Gandhi’s emphasis on the recognition of tolerance as a

fundamental value arose only incidentally from his concern over the apparently
endemic tensions and strife afflicting contemporary inter-communal relations in India.
This was so because, to him, tolerance as a basic principle derived from his
conceptions of equality among the constituents of plural societies, truth and ahimsa
(as set out earlier in this section). Each collective identity had the same rights as the
others, irrespective of size, and could claim to espouse no more than a relative truth.

Moreover, it could only exercise the right to self-expression if it

conceded the same right to others, which implied the practice of ahimsa. An injured
party was enjoined to seek redressal only through the medium of satyagraha.
Tolerance demanded that contentious issues be resolved through dialogue, arbitration
and compromise without sacrifice of the fundamental principle. Tolerance alone could,

179
he believed, provide lasting foundations of overall integration and harmony in plural
social orders.

Gandhi was emphatic in turning down the assertions that an object

could be detached from the means adopted to attain it and that the individual had the
freedom to employ any from a range of optional means to achieve a desired end. To
him, ends and means were inseparable and, in fact, convertible terms, and both ought
to be equally pure.

Moreover, since means were themselves ends in the process of

realization, different means lead to substantially or qualitatively different outcomes,
and fair results can only emerge from fair means. His stress on the fairness or purity
of means was also derived from his belief that man can only strive and cannot
command results, for he has control over means alone, never on ends.

What an individual achieves through impure means only degrades

him and makes him a lesser mortal instead of aiding him (as pure means do) to realize
his full stature. Impure means (such as violence, hypocrisy and treachery) also involve
the exploitation of other individuals and, therefore, even when they achieve
immediate results, they sow the seeds of dissension and reaction among those who
have been used and render the results unstable or ephemeral. Good means, or those
consistent with truth, ahimsa and justice, may take longer to fructify, but their fruits
are enduring. Gandhi, therefore, insisted that the realization of the inseparability of
ends and means was essential for positive social change.

Although the premises of some of Gandhi’s ideas were distinctly

a-secular and he employed an idiom and a metaphor that were spiritual in appearance,
he developed his ideas in a rational manner and reached his conclusions through the
scientific method of observation, hypothesis and experimentation. He readily admitted
errors and varied the experiment to discover the proper way to the solution of a
particular social problem.

He always made the first test of a hypothesis on himself before he

asked anyone else to try it. In 1933, he stated that he had developed the “science of
satyagraha” through “scientific research”, to which he had applied “all the skill of a

180
scientist”. His approach to social problems, including religious and traditional issues,
was always critical and he advocated the test of reason to prove the soundness of any
doctrine or custom.

His critique of the methods and activities of the cow protection

societies, the concept of untouchability, and contemporary Hindu and Muslim
fundamentalism was out and out rationalist in temper, as was his advocacy of the
revisions of the (Hindu) Smritis in the light of contemporary goals and needs.

He believed that his own concepts of equality, truth, ahimsa,

swadeshi and bread labour would find universal recognition only when vindicated by
popular rationality. It is true that he gave faith a higher pedestal than reason in some
respects, but at the same time, he held that while faith transcended reason, it did not
contradict it, and reason remained a valuable guide to man in his social life. Thus, to
Gandhi, the urge towards a scientific and rational view of life was an important
instrumentality for social transformation.

The foregoing account of the basic issues of social change has

sought to identify the different prongs of the interventionist thrust of Gandhi’s
reconstructive social programme, the aims of which were twofold: to instill in man a
deep and abiding concern for certain values and social goals, and to institute practical
arrangements which would serve to reinforce them and prevent (and, in fact, obviate)
regression towards unsocial and self-centred tendencies. The agent of this intervention
would be man himself, with the vanguard comprising persons, who, “through a
revolutionary transformation of self”, would initiate “a process of social reordering”
and help “create institutions that install and sustain a normal civilization”.

This vanguard would mobilize the people by example more than

precept into a collective drive towards the ideal society. The values and social goals
prescribed by Gandhi were to be the essential elements of the personal ideology of the
individuals constituting the vanguard, but their ultimate test was their acceptance by
the people as their operative creed.

181
Theory of Social Change:

Gandhi did not construct a theory of social change in the sense

that most social analysts do. But scattered through the vast magnitude of his writings
are many pointers and indications through which one can delineate his design for
social reordering. This design is radically different from that of other social thinkers.

It is pertinent to remember that his ideas were partly the result

of his interaction with and disapprobatory assessment of modern civilization as
typified by the rich industrial countries and partly the outcome of his political and
social struggles in South Africa and India.

His upbringing and readings also played a major part in his

orientation towards man and society. His proposals for social change are different
because they are not concerned with the progress of civilization or the historical
process; his main concern is the destiny of man, which according to him is self-
development, and he judges a civilization according to its capacity to fulfill this
purpose. Material well-being is the prime consideration of modern civilization;
opposed to this is Gandhi’s view of progress as the movement towards self-discovery
or self-realization of man.

Therefore, it is necessary in this context to begin with an

examination of Gandhi’s theory of human nature, or his conception of man. He begins
with the recognition that in his basic inclinations, man is essentially a brute and easily
led towards the gratification of his fundamental brutish nature or lower self. This
phenomenal personality of man is subject to the law of nature (or, the egocentric urge
to survive and dominate by whatever means) that governs all living beings. However,
man is also endowed, unlike the brute, with reason, discrimination and free will,
which invest him with the capacity to choose the kind of life he would lead and the
kind of relationship he would have with his fellow beings, or the rest of humanity.

As a result, “the law of nature as applied to … [man] is

different from the law of nature as applied to the … [brute]”, for these endowments
enable him to be aware of the self-destructive consequences of the unfettered
expression of his brutish instincts. As Gandhi put it: “If all men were to act according

182
to their lawless law, there would be perfect chaos within 24 hours. Man being by
nature more passionate than the brute, the moment all restraint is withdrawn, the lava
of unbridled passion would overspread the whole earth and destroy mankind.”

Moreover, man also possessed a moral and spiritual tendency

because of the element of divinity present in him. Under his phenomenal exterior,
there was an inner, higher core that distinguished him from the rest of creation. This
was the real self of man (the ‘self’), which lay unmanifest and unrevealed. The
exterior personality of man and his inner self were both socially oriented, as man was
a social being by nature as well as the compulsions of survival.

But while the phenomenal exterior tended towards the lower

instincts of dominating and exploiting fellow beings, the real self-soughtfulfilment
through the actualization of the moral instinct of fraternity and sympathy. However,
the real self remained suppressed as long as the exterior personality held sway over
the individual.

Gandhi held that each individual had in him the potential to

rise above his natural inclinations, or lower self, and strive to become a total human
being, provided he understood the moral and spiritual aspects of his nature and
exercised his will for the purpose. The effort to move towards a higher plane of
existence initiated the process of the uncovering of the real self – of self-realization.

Gandhi, however, rejected the notion that the endeavour of the

individual for self-realization, or rising above the law of nature, could only be
meaningful if he transcended the pulls of the phenomenal world by renouncing all
existential concerns and withdrawing from the social realm. Instead, he postulated the
doctrine that the duty of the individual “lies in remaining in the world and engaging in
action not motivated by self-interest, but directed towards ameliorating the suffering
of others”.

To Gandhi, real freedom meant liberation from (or rising

above) the law of nature and recognizing the fundamental unity of man and equality
of individuals. In other words, laws designed to protect man’s individuality and
enshrine his rights were not the essence of liberty, for what was important was the

183
freedom of the self to evolve and take man towards disinterested altruism, which
represented his duty and destiny to toil tirelessly for perfection.

However, the path to genuine self-discovery is strewn with

numerous pitfalls. The first of these is the seductive pull of material comfort and the
gratification it brings to the senses. Gandhi maintained that “man must choose either
of the two courses, the upward or the downward, but as he has the brute in him, he
will more easily choose the downward course than the upward, especially when the
downward course is presented to him in a beautiful garb”.

A second pitfall is that out of ignorance, he is not able to

discriminate between worldly concerns and the imperatives of self-realization. A third
arises from the bind of samskaras, or the socially conditioned or acquired habits of
thought and behaviour, which cloud his vision and make him, veer towards actions
reflecting his lower self. Finally, engagement in any kind of action (including
philanthropic action), without constant awareness of the need to remain detached from
the fruits (even the socially beneficial fruits) of such action, activate the ego and open
the door for the assertion of the lower self and immersion in the phenomenal world.

But Gandhi had faith in the ultimate redemption of man. In his

view, the individual was not only perfectible, but also had the spark to search for
perfection, and this quest itself, however humble or limited, initiated the process of
social transformation. However, his effort could have no content or meaning in
isolation from his fellow beings – from society. Therefore, the question of the
relationship between the individual and society was at the centre of his social theory.

Gandhi believed that the individual and society were parts of

an organic whole in which were included all living beings and material objects. There
was an essential unity underlying all phenomena, which underscored the fact of
mutual dependence between them. He gives a graphic description of this relationship
in the following passage: “Individuality is and is not, even as each drop in the ocean is
an individual and is not. It is not, because apart from the ocean it has no existence. It
is, because the ocean has no existence if the drop has not, that is, has no individuality.

184
They are beautifully interdependent. And if this is true of the physical law, how much
more so of the spiritual world?”

However, there is no doubt that for Gandhi, the individual was

the prime factor and corporate growth was determined by individual growth. He
would often say that “a chain is no stronger than the weakest link in it”. But this did
not mean that the individual was supreme, for his very individuality would lack
relevance if it developed without reference to the individualities of others, or if their
needs were subordinated to his requirements. Indeed, man’s effort for self-realization
would defeat itself if it became a quest for personal salvation or a private enterprise in
which society was merely a necessary facility.

An individual moving on the path towards the uncovering of

his real self had no superior claim to social resources than one who was steeped in the
demands of his lower nature. On the contrary, the first condition of moral growth was
the recognition of the priority of the needs of others, of the indivisibility of man and
his fellow beings – of the essential oneness of the individual and society.

Gandhi thus posits the concept, not so much of the

interdependence of man and society, as their integrity. To him, the dichotomy of the
individual and society is false. Society is not something external to the individual, but
a projection of his own identity or an extension of the self. Gandhi’s doctrine,
therefore, rejects both the Marxian view of man as an ensemble of social relations
whose nature is governed by the objective conditions of his existence (the basic
material structures of social life) and the liberal view of man as a free agent in a
milieu, which arises “mechanically and independently of the individual will, from the
actions of countless autonomous individuals on each other and in response to each
other, behaving as rationally as possible for the protection of their private interests …
with no regard for any trans-individual authority or values”.

In his scheme, the individual is potentially a morally

autonomous entity, entrapped by his lower nature into subservience to the false
imperatives and values of the phenomenal world, but capable of being aroused to his
moral freedom to pursue the call of the higher self. This quest begins independently of

185
the social fabric, but the course of this movement towards self-realization reshapes his
environment in accordance with the moral and spiritual concomitants of the higher
self, which are built on disinterested altruism, or the imperative of submerging
individual identity in the service of humanity.

In the light of the foregoing discussion, one may recapitulate,

in outline, Gandhi’s theory of social change. At first glance, it would appear that his
ideas, with their emphasis on the divinity of man and union with God as the ultimate
destiny of the individual, are derived from spiritualist premises and have spiritualist
objectives. However, on deeper reflection, it becomes clear that these concepts are
metaphorical (and not substantial) in his theory and their purpose is to stress the
necessity for considering each individual as absolutely equal in social regard and to
elevate selfless endeavour to the highest level of human conduct.

He does not postulate any divine design for the universe, or

the operation of a divine law which entails retribution for transgressions of the will of
God, or any afterlife. His view of the primary brutish instincts of man and the
possibility of their sublimation through the effort for self-realization, or the movement
from false consciousness to real consciousness, is an essay in the psychology of man,
which has a striking concordance with modern theories of human behaviour.

To Gandhi, truth was, in its essence, the state of freedom from

self-regarding motives and the continuous urge to overcome the bewitchment of false
consciousness. His belief in the perfectibility of man, or in the ability of the individual
to relentlessly pursue the truth, is a reflection of the conviction that it is possible for
man, at the individual level and collectively, to proceed non-regressively from a self-
regarding to another-regarding outlook.

This pursuit is aided along by the effort to adhere to certain

norms of conduct and Gandhi has suggested a number of such referential standards.
To that extent, his approach is normative. He also believed that while man’s conduct
was influenced by the values current in society, man had also the capacity to commit
himself to value orientations that lay beyond the sphere of extant social values.

186
 Social values emanated from the interaction of man and his
social environment and were perforce relative in space and time. However, values
which represented a perceived dichotomy between the individual and society, or
which were discordant with the essential oneness of all human beings, were falsely
reflective of the lower self. True values must, he felt, be relevant to the moral well-
being of the individual and society.

But Gandhi was not a positivist, for he did not believe in or

prescribe a fixed system of ultimate values and he rejected the concept of progress in
a linear fashion. Progress could not be measured on a material scale and had to be
related to the extent to which the individual had advanced on the path of self-
realization and the extent to which the social order had developed into one which
helped, not hindered, this quest.

However, Gandhi rejected the utilitarian calculus of the

greatest good of the greatest number because it, “in its nakedness, means that in order
to achieve the supposed good of 51 per cent, the interest of 49 per cent may be or
rather should be sacrificed”. He characterized it as “a heartless doctrine which had
done harm to humanity”. Against the utilitarian ideal, he proposed “the only real
dignified, human doctrine” of sarvodaya, or the greatest good of all, which could only
be achieved “by uttermost self-sacrifice”.

To be animated by the spirit of self-sacrifice was to proceed

towards self-realization, the goal of which was the achievement of integration
between the individual and society. However, this goal could only be reached
gradually, for man was subject to a variety of limitations, physical, physiological and
intellectual, which retarded his ability to transcend his proximate environs. Gandhi,
therefore, prescribed the path of commitment and service to “our immediate
surroundings to the exclusion of the more remote”, which is articulated by the concept
of swadeshi.

The concept of swadeshi was, in Gandhi’s theory, inextricably

linked with the ideal of the village republic or self-contained, self-sufficient and
autonomous communities, which, however, were not self-limited or self-limiting, as

187
they had a network of mutually supportive and sympathetic linkages with their
counterparts.

These communities were not to be arranged hierarchically, but

would be encompassed in “ever-widening, never ascending circles”, in which life
“will be an oceanic circle whose centre will be the individual always ready to perish
for the village, the latter ready to perish for the circle of villages, till at last the whole
becomes one life composed of individuals, never aggressive in their arrogance, but
ever humble, sharing the majesty of the oceanic circle of which they are integral
units”.

They also represented a social system which was participative

in character and was so constituted that it encouraged the cooperative tendency, that is,
assisted the individual to break out of the restricted shell of selfish individuality on to
the goal of disinterested altruism. In other words, they constituted a social order that
enabled man to attempt the transformation of society through self-transformation.

Thus, Gandhi’s thinking on social change was in terms of a

social revolution in which systemic change was attained through a moral revolution in
values. His most important contribution to the general techniques of revolution was
the theory of ahimsa (non-violence) and its practice in the form of satyagraha. This
included, firstly, the use of moral force by an individual dedicated to the service of the
people and, secondly, collective pressure and persuasion against the opponents.What
was envisaged by Gandhi was a dialectical opposition of values in which the
satyagrahi pitted the whole of his spiritual strength against the opponent and was
prepared to suffer all hardships – physical and emotional – heaped on him.

Initially, the opponent might not be moved, but Gandhi

believed that no individual was without a divine spark which could, in certain
circumstances, be ignited and made to respond to a moral appeal. The satyngrahi’s
effort was to reach this depth of the individual being and bring out its most noble
aspect.

Violence, or even a slight compromise in means, could not be

considered, as the question concerned human values. Against such an onslaught, the

188
opponent is expected to assert his perception of truth or reality and the struggle might
continue, but each stage would be marked by a higher level of truth.

In such a moral struggle, however long and protracted, the

outcome would perforce be a moral one, for as long as the protagonists of different
partial versions of the truth made a constant effort to comprehend the fact of the
relativity of their perception, their confrontation initiated the process of its revelation
and had the positive outcome of bringing all closer to the absolute truth.

The Modern Non-Violent Social Order:

Gandhi was sceptical about drawing up a detailed plan for a

modern non-violent social order for several reasons. As the individual was
instrumental in transforming society through the extension of his self, social
institutions and systems were reflections of his moral and social level. A violent
people would obviously create a violent society, while a non-violent people would
create a non-violent one.

Therefore, Gandhi felt that it was futile to draw up a social

scheme before the adequate moral level was attained. In 1929, he wrote: “We do not
know our distant goal. It will be determined not by our definitions, but by our acts,
voluntary and involuntary. If we are wise, we will take care of the present and the
future will take care of itself. God has given us only a limited sphere of action and
limited vision. Sufficient unto the day is the good thereof.”

Secondly, Gandhi’s faith in the principles of renunciation of the

fruits of action precluded planning far into the future as that could lead to attachment
and desire. It emphasized concentration on immediate duties and problems and
reliance on the efficacy of good deeds.

If the seeker of truth gave free rein to his imagination and

dissipated his energy in an attempt to describe the social order that would emerge
after the non-violent revolution, he would encumber himself with irrelevant details
and lose his detachment, his thought control and present efficiency.

189
 There was another reason for Gandhi’s lack of emphasis on the
future social order. Satyagraha was a science in the making. He had not worked it out
in its entirety. He was still experimenting with non-violence, trying to apply it to all
spheres of life and studying its possibilities. Indeed, he felt that the experiment was
not even in an advanced stage. Therefore, he regarded the very effort to determine in
detail the institutional forms of the future non-violent society as premature and
“unscientific”.

Nevertheless, we do find fairly detailed references in his writings

to the kind of society Gandhi envisioned as ideal, inasmuch as it had the quality to
help man in the pursuit of unfolding his real self. To Gandhi, society provided the
framework in which the individual could strive meaningfully and achieve liberation.
He had a deep distrust of politics and he refused to assign a significant role to political
machinery as the agent of individual or social change.

He viewed “an increase in the power of the state with the

greatest fear because … it does the greatest harm by destroying individuality, which is
at the root of all progress …. The state represents violence in a concentrated and
organized form. The individual has a soul, but as the state is a soulless machine, it can
never be weaned from the violence to which it owes its very existence.”

He pictured the ideal society as an “enlightened anarchy”, where

“everyone is his own ruler, and … there is no political power, because there is no
state”. However, Gandhi-was also a realist and, despite his negative assessment of the
political realm, felt called upon to participate in the arena of politics: “If I seem to
take part in politics, it is only because politics encircles us today like the coil of the
snake from which one cannot get out, no matter how much one tried. I wish therefore
to wrestle with the snake.” It was the same realism that, in later writings, brings him
towards the acceptance of the inevitability of the state in human affairs. However, the
state of his conception, the non-violent state, was a distinctive entity, quite different
from any other model of the state.

To Gandhi, political power, or the state, was not an end in itself,

but “one of the means of enabling people to better their condition in every department

190
of life”. Thus, he did not accept the Hegelian view of the state as the final goal of
human organization, the ultimate end that has the highest right against the individual
and is itself above morality.

He was against the theory of absolute sovereignty of the state,

which lays upon the individual the duty of absolute, unquestioning obedience to the
law of the state. For him, sovereignty was of the people based on pure moral authority.
Though Gandhi makes the disobedience of laws that offended the moral sense a right
as well as a duty of the citizen and considers such disobedience the key to democracy,
he provides ample safeguards against anarchy by making this disobedience civil and
non-violent.

Gandhi consistently favoured a democracy, but, for India, based

it on a system of indirect election to circumvent the problems of its vast size and its
relative backwardness. In his view, all public offices had to be held in the spirit of
service without the slightest expectation of personal gain. To ensure that only virtuous
persons were elected to represent the people, he postulated the “labour franchise”,
which meant that political rights would only devolve on those who performed manual
labour.

To quote him, “The qualifications for franchise should be neither

property nor position, but manual work … [for a] literacy or property test has proved
to be elusive. Manual work gives an opportunity to all who wish to take part in the
government and the well-being of the state.” Labour franchise is the application to
politics of the ideal of bread labour, which aims at making life self-sufficient and
people self-reliant and fearless.

Gandhi wanted to reserve the right to vote only to people aged

between 18 and 50. People above 50 would have only moral influence, but no
political authority through the vote. The non-violent state would have to be a secular
state. Even if the whole community had only one religion, the state must not patronize
it. Everyone living in the state should be entitled to profess his religion without let or
hindrance, so long as he obeyed the common law of the land.

191
However, Gandhi held the teaching of fundamental ethics to be a function of the state.
The state must not undertake religious education, which must be the sole concern of
religious associations. He was also opposed to state aid to religious bodies.

Crime, though diminished, would not disappear from the non-

violent state because it would not consist only of ideal men. But Gandhi regarded all
crime as the result of social malfunctioning and so prescribed its treatment along
different lines. Criminals would be detained, not for punishment or deterrence, but for
reform. Prisons would be turned into reformatories and workshops so that their
inmates could be rehabilitated and discharged prisoners might become model citizens
of the state.

A police force would be necessary, but its ranks would be

composed of believers in non-violence. They would be servants, not masters of the
people. The force would carry some kind of arms, but they would use them rarely, if
at all. In fact, policemen would be reformers and their police work ought to be
confined to robbers and dacoits. Gandhi was opposed to the use of the army for the
protection of civil liberties, internal peace and even against foreign aggression. In the
non-violent state, he would completely decentralize defence against aggression and
injustice. However, he was in favour of a non-violent army.

In the sphere of production, the non-violent state would differ

from the stateless society in that the indispensable large scale production as well as
heavy transport would continue. Gandhi conceded that so-called civilized man had
come to regard these as essential for his comfort and convenience. But centralized
production, he felt, should be so planned as to sub-serve and not destroy villages and
their crafts.

For this purpose, he would permit private ownership of the

means of production only if the capitalist raised the worker to the status of co-
proprietor of his wealth and both labour and capital worked as mutual trustees and
trustees of consumers.

Failing this, he would accept state ownership. These nationalized,

state owned factories, he said, ought to work under the most attractive and ideal

192
conditions, not for profit, but for the benefit of humanity. In state owned enterprises,
workers should have a place in the management through their elected representatives
and an equal share in the management with the representatives of the government.

The production of primary necessities such as food and cloth had

to be completely decentralized in that it should remain in the control of the masses.
Even in this sphere of production, Gandhi said, so long as villages aimed at being
self-contained and manufactured mainly for use, he had no objection to villagers
using even modern machines and tools that they could make and afford to employ.
Only, such machines and tools should not be used as a means of exploitation of others.
Thus, if electricity could be made available in villages, he would not mind villagers
plying their tools and implements with the help of electricity. But then the village
communities or the state would own the power houses just as they did their grazing
pastures.

The state would promote small scale industries and would

control natural resources such as forests, minerals, power resources and
communications in the interest of the people. The state would regulate the rate of
commission to be paid to the trustees for the wealth accumulated by them. If landlords
and capitalists failed to live up to the ideals of trusteeship and voluntary efforts
proved unavailing, the state would have to end the various forms of landlordism and
own and manage, jointly with workers’ representatives, the unavoidable centralized
production. Gandhi was of the view that the role of the state would diminish gradually
once the non-violent structure was firmly established and economic life became
increasingly self-regulated.

A unique feature of Gandhi’s scheme of taxation, however

quaint, was the idea of payment in labour, rather than in money. He said, “Payment in
labour invigorates the nation. Where people perform labour voluntarily for the service
of society, exchange of money becomes unnecessary. The labour of collecting the
taxes and keeping accounts is saved and the results are equally good.” Payment in this
form also implies the use of taxes for the benefit of the area in which they are
collected.

193
Before concluding this section, Gandhi’s concepts of nationalism and the related
theme of internationalism may be considered as they are the projections of his ideas
for laying the foundation of a new social order in the world. Nationalism, in his view,
was not confined to the territorial limits of a nation, but transcended them and had
universal connotations. It could not be aggressive, exclusive or destructive.

One reason why nationalism was constructive in his opinion was

that the means it employed to fulfill itself was non-violence, the method of conversion
and non-coercion. Besides, it was inspired by the ideal of world unity rooted in the
highest truth, the spiritual oneness of mankind and stood for a country learning to live,
not by exploiting others, but by serving others and dying for others.

As such, he said, non-violent nationalism is the essential

precondition of sound internationalism. In 1925, he wrote: “It is impossible for one to
be an internationalist without being a nationalist …. It is not nationalism that is an evil,
it is the narrowness, selfishness, exclusiveness which is the bane of modern nations ….
Indian nationalism … wants to organize itself or to find full self expression for the
benefit and service of humanity at large.”

Nationalism to Gandhi did not mean isolated independence, but a

state of healthy and dignified interdependence with other nations. Such a condition of
peaceful coexistence could only be maintained, he thought, by the world being united
under a central governing body composed of the representatives of the component
parts.

Only such an international organization that was freely established

and maintained by non-violence could solve all the problems of the world. The
League of Nations failed in its duty because it lacked the necessary sanctions, he felt.
This power should be based on satyagraha or non-violent non-cooperation, the
efficacy of which had been demonstrated in India. The first necessity was the giving
up of armaments and the use of force to defend even proven rights.

“Proven rights,” he writes, “should be capable of being vindicated

by right means as against the rude, or sanguinary, means.” For controlling violent
outbreaks between states, he would welcome an international non-violent police force

194
resembling peace brigades or the police force of the non-violent state. Before general
disarmament commenced, he said, some nation would have to dare to disarm itself
and take large risks. The level of non-violence in that nation would naturally have
risen so high as to command universal respect.

Gandhi was clear that all the nations composing the League of
Nations would have to be fully independent and there could be no question of
superiority or inferiority between them. The smallest nation should feel as the tallest.

This state of affairs could only be reached after the establishment of

just political and economic international relations and the ending of imperialism. For
this purpose, the great nations would have to shed competition and the desire to
multiply wants and material possessions obviously, a prerequisite of such an
international league would be the inculcation of non-violent values by the member
nations.

In short, Gandhi’s theory of social change would lead to the creation

of a society in which the average individual would have attained a high level of moral
growth and he would lead a corporate life characterized by approximate social and
economic equality, genuine political consciousness, voluntary cooperation and
simplicity.

Contemporary Relevance:

We finally turn to an examination of the contemporary

relevance of Gandhi. “Modern industrial civilization”, as Gandhi described it, has
crept over most parts of the world and this has led man to seek contentment through
the satisfaction of his material needs,’ concerning himself less and less with
discovering his true or inner self. The world has become roughly divided into the very
rich countries and the very poor, and within each country, there is social and
economic polarization.

Exploitation and violence are common phenomena of life.

Transcendental values such as honesty, morality, harmony and kindness, which point
the way to an integrated and simple life, hold little attraction. Powerful divisive forces

195
are at work in their place, which are leading to an extreme fragmentation of our social
and political life. Religion, region and language have become shibboleths under
whose cover many crimes are committed.

Another major, fallout of modern civilization is the very real

threat to our ecosystem or biosphere. For example, carbon dioxide emission levels
have risen by 29 per cent in the last 150 years, leading to global warming, which is
causing glaciers to melt, raising sea levels and drowning coastal lowlands.

Our soil, air and water are getting clogged with noxious
chemicals from polluting industrial effluents, which, in turn, are dangerously
impacting human health, reportedly even causing diseases such as skin cancer,
gastrointestinal, eye, dental and bone problems, ‘spontaneous’ abortions and even
altering human DNA.

In such a grim scenario, Gandhi’s proposals for social change

take on special relevance. Modern writers and thinkers have recognized the fact of the
“broken totality” of modern human life lacking a notion of intrinsic good and a
holistic approach. Gandhi emphasized the essential oneness of all life with
interdependence as the law of life. This was also the supreme truth or God for Gandhi,
the realization of which was the goal of all life.

Satyagraha was the means he forged for the purpose. The

concept was integral to the pursuit of truth and ahimsa. One might question the
practicality of the technique of satyagraha for bringing about changes in the modern
social and political milieu. If it is accepted that there are and always will be
individuals who can rise above themselves and energize radical movements that
articulate popular concerns with determination and restraint, satyagraha will assume
significance as an effective and relevant modality of popular action.

The burgeoning environmental movements in the heartland of

modern industrial civilization, and particularly their local and communitarian
articulations, represent the core of the technique of satyagraha in their non-violent and
mass character. The degree of success they have achieved in forcing governments to
institute ecological legislation, compelling industrial units to abide by them and

196
infusing people with ecological consciousness vindicates the practicality and
relevance of the concept.

Evidently, there can be no greater indictment of modern

civilization than the arms race between the superpowers and the lesser powers, their
heavy reliance on the sale of arms to other countries and the increasing sophistication
in the production of weapons designed to annihilate large portions of mankind. In this
situation, non-violent techniques, which require both moral courage and physical
courage, appear to be the only rational way out. As Gandhi suggested, one major
power will have to have the courage to begin the process of disarmament by
disarming itself, rather than continuing to participate in the arms race.

In this context, it may be noted that a group of Palestinian

nationalists had tried to apply Gandhi’s philosophy of non-violence to force Israel to
end its occupation of West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Leading the movement was
Mubarak Awad, director of the Palestinian Centre for the Study of Non-Violence,
who was convinced that the Israelis did not know how to handle people who practised
non-violence.

Awad came to India for six weeks in 1986 and discussed with
Gandhians the ways in which he could use Gandhi’s philosophy for advancing
Palestinian nationalism. He said, “I tell the people no throwing stones, no violent
behaviour of any kind. Even if the tanks come, do not run away because you have
truth on your side.”

Well known people’s movements in recent history based on

civil disobedience have acknowledged the strong impact of Gandhi on their
philosophy and strategy. Martin Luther King, the leader of the civil rights movement
in the United States, said: “Gandhi was probably the first person in history to lift the
love ethic of Jesus above mere interaction between individuals to a powerful and
effective social force on a large scale …. The whole concept of ‘satyagraha’ was
profoundly significant to me.”

Gandhi became the symbol of resistance and was

acknowledged as such by non-violent revolutionaries in Eastern Europe, such as Lech

197
Walesa in Poland and Vaclav Havel in Czechoslovakia in the 1980s The Dalai Lama
has always proclaimed the influence of Gandhi in his non-violent effort to gain
autonomy for Tibet. In the 1990s, Nelson Mandela was in a position to publicly
acknowledge that “the Gandhian influence dominated freedom struggles on the
African continent right up to the 1960s”. Very recently, Gandhi’s influence appeared
to have motivated the Buddhist monks who launched a powerful movement in Lhasa
in March 2008 and in Yangon against the authoritarian regime in Myanmar.

In terms of social development, India presents a paradox:

While, on the one hand, cultural pluralism is plainly evident, on the other,
communalism and communal strife pose a major threat to peace and development.
Gandhi’s views in this regard assume a great deal of relevance for us. His chief
concern was the evolution of human values in the context of truth and morality, and
for this reason, he was not dogmatically attached to any religion. In his view, all the
principal religions of the world were manifestations of truth, but none was perfect
because each was interpreted through human agency.

Each religion had to be looked at from the point of view of the

adherent as it satisfied a spiritual need in him. Equal regard and mutual tolerance must
form the ground rule of life in a multicultural society. What was necessary was to
consider the essential and underlying spirit of a religious system, rather than its
external and mundane details. Gandhi was uncompromising in one respect. Reason,
he said, must form the sole guide for accepting the authenticity of religious texts and,
therefore, the irrational and superstitious customs and traditions associated with
religion should be rejected.

The state, in Gandhi’s opinion, had to be strictly secular and

keep aloof from all religious activities and not patronize any denomination at all.
Appeal by the government to the religious sentiment in any form was reprehensible.
The majority community had a positive role to play in defusing communal tension.
Being stronger it must, he said, extend the hand of friendship and try to make the
minorities feel secure.

198
 In this context, Gandhi always desired that respected leaders
of both communities should meet together and discuss contentious issues in a spirit of
mutual regard and consideration for the sentiments of each other. Issues that could not
be decided in this manner should be referred to arbitration councils composed of
eminent persons enjoying a reputation for fairness.

Another suggestion of Gandhi’s for defusing communal

tension has a good deal of contemporary relevance. At the level of the locality,
individuals enjoying the trust of both communities should form peace brigades, the
purpose of which would be to iron out differences and form bridges to promote active
cooperation between the communities. Women, he felt, had a special role to play here.
Gandhi believed women had greater persuasive powers and could effectively mould
public opinion. Gandhi died a martyr to the cause of communalism and, in his death,
showed the path to communal harmony.

The press and other media have always played a major role in
the spread or containment of emotive issues such as communalism. Gandhi was in
favour of editors, journalists and reporters following a minimum code of professional
morality and reporting with a sense of social responsibility. He was also of the view
that scurrilous writing in the press should be submitted for review to the arbitration
councils, which would verify the facts and have correct versions published. Such a
policy could be followed in our own times with common benefit to all.

Gandhi regarded education as a powerful medium for

transmitting secular and humane values to children. He stressed the need to ensure
that educational curricula were free from religious bias and designed to promote
fundamental ethics common to all religions. He was totally opposed to the ownership
and management of educational institutions by religious bodies, as they often
propagated communal feelings.

However, he did not mind established religious institutions

imparting purely religious education, for this was not meant for the general populace
or general students. These ideas are quite germane to the present as state sponsored or
state aided educational institutions in India are neither able to promote secular ethics

199
or social consciousness among pupils, nor combat overarching communal biases
among the young.

Another important value where education could play a positive

interventionist role was that of manual labour. It is strange but true that manual labour
is looked down upon in an agricultural country like India. This is the reason for the
sorry state of the labourers in the country, the undue rush for white collar jobs and the
deep social divide so plainly visible between those who labour with their hands and
those who function from their desks.

Gandhi’s doctrine of bread labour made him regard manual

labour in the light of a sacred duty laid upon each individual, regardless of his
vocation in life. He believed in the equality of all labour and in the corresponding
equality of wages. If Indians would alter their attitude towards manual labour and try
to approximate Gandhi’s approach, many of the economic and social ills in the
country could perhaps be resolved. One obvious way would be to include manual
labour in the school curriculum, not in a mechanical way, but integrated with the rest
of die curriculum, as Gandhi had envisaged.

Gandhi’s emphasis on swadeshi, which did not merely denote

“belonging to one’s country”, but also to the immediate neighbourhood, is extremely
important for our times. Local institutions and organizations for managing local
affairs have either dwindled or become non-existent with the result that we have lost
faith in ourselves to do anything and constantly rely on the authorities to solve our
local problems.

The need of the hour is to arouse popular consciousness about

local issues and try to resolve them through voluntary cooperation. People in the field
of appropriate and indigenous technology are showing ways in which even a force
like electricity can be produced locally, rendering huge dams unnecessary. The
indigenous water harvesting technology being tried out in various parts of India would
have met with Gandhi’s whole hearted approval. Conservation of resources was an
article of faith with him.

200
 The doctrine of swadeshi also assumes significance in the face of
the economic and cultural imperialism launched by multinational corporations in
developing countries. The government and the people need to make concerted efforts
to stop the march of the multinationals and launch a simultaneous movement to
promote the consumption of indigenous products.

With India’s manpower and agricultural resources, it must be

obvious even to laymen that the emphasis in production should be on small scale and
cottage industries, which would do justice to India’s resources and bring about
substantial uplift of the rural poor, who compose the overwhelming majority of the
country’s population.

Gandhi was wholly in favour of small scale production, it being

most beneficial for humanity – man would not be uprooted from his native soil or lose
his empathy with nature. This may sound like turning the clock back, but may well
become necessary very soon.

Gandhi’s persistent emphasis on sound management of

agricultural production in India assumes great significance in the context of the
current global food and unemployment crises, which have affected India as well. It
would be relevant to quote M.S. Swaminathan, the celebrated agricultural scientist
and Father of the Green Revolution in India, on the issue: “Carefully planned
agricultural progress can help to create simultaneously more food, income and jobs. It
is only agriculture, including crop and animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry and agro-
processing, which can promote job led economic growth. Modern industry, in contrast,
promotes jobless growth, which will lead to joyless growth in population rich nations.

In his quest for the satisfaction of his senses, modern man has
indiscriminately exploited his environment, both human and non-human. In the
process, he has become spiritually impoverished and alienated from his true self,
which demands sharing and giving for its fulfillment. The current danger to life from
all kinds of pollution and ecological imbalances is the result of man’s thirst for
material possessions and personal advancement. This process has had a reaction and

201
led to an upsurge of movements and activities to protect the environment. Some such
are mentioned here as they are closely related to Gandhi’s ideas.

The Chipko Movement was launched in the Garhwal hills of

north India for the preservation of the forests. Inspired by Gandhi and Acharya
Vinoba Bhave’s Sarvodaya Movement, it was led by Sunderlal Bahuguna and first
began with the villagers embracing tree trunks to protest the felling of ash trees by a
sports goods company. This movement now has global dimensions. Bahuguna is
currently engaged in resisting non-violently the threat of enormous destruction to
human life and the environment by the giant Tehri Dam Project, which is also in the
Garhwal region.

Another strong non-violent movement to save the environment,

especially the uprooting of local communities for a giant river project and to prevent
the resultant havoc caused by it, is the Narmada Bachao Andolan led by Medha
Patkar with the active and committed support of several other members of the
intelligentsia. More recently, the satyagraha technique was adopted to protest the
construction of big dams across the Bhagirathi river (the upper reaches of the Ganga),
as a result of which two of the six projects have been suspended so far. The
satyagraha is being undertaken by Professor G.D. Agarwal, a retired professor of the
Indian Institute of Technology in Kanpur.

The relevance of Gandhi’s ideas in the judicial field is becoming

increasingly apparent these days. A lawyer himself, he was well aware of the dilatory
tactics and enormous expenditure involved in litigation, which often resulted in the
total denial of justice to the common man. He was of the opinion that disputes should
not reach the stage of litigation and must be resolved through arbitration and
conciliation. He was in favour of reviving the ancient panchayat system of settling
disputes in the villages.

The modern Lok Adalats exemplify to some extent Gandhi’s

concept of rendering justice. They were first established in 1982 as part of the legal
aid strategy. To quote from the legal journal, The Lawyers Collective, “Lok Adalats

202
are informal, flexible, participatory forums which have as their purpose the
encouragement of settlements, compromises and the avoidance of litigation.”

The parties to a dispute voluntarily utilize their services to avoid

the harassment and frustration often met with in ordinary courts of law. Lok Adalats
have no adjudicatory authority and their judges are usually retired judges, advocates
or social workers, who act only as mediators or conciliators. Lok Adalats have
received statutory status and it is hoped that they will be fully integrated into the
present judicial structure. This will inspire greater confidence among litigants and
advocates and provide access to quick, effective and “inexpensive” justice.

Finally, even on the contentious subject of reservations in jobs

and services, Gandhi’s views are very relevant today. Gandhi believed in social and
economic equality and more so in equality of opportunity, especially for those he
called Harijans. However, he was totally opposed to reservations in jobs and services
on the basis of social categories as that was tantamount to compromising the standard
of merit in them.

Moreover, such reservation removed the incentive for

improvement and endeavour in those on whom these benefits were bestowed. He
favoured special opportunities for education and training for the underprivileged
sections of society, especially the Harijans. This would naturally widen the scope of
their employment and betterment.

But successive governments have acquired a vested interest in

carrying on the policy of reservations and, in the process, fostered a feeling of
antagonism towards the reserved categories among the rest of the population. What is
required is political courage to phase out the policy of reservations and for the
government to follow a comprehensive plan for securing social justice and equal
opportunity for all, particularly at the grass-roots level.

It is hoped that the foregoing section has illustrated to some

extent the contemporary relevance of Gandhi’s theory of social change. Men and
women in Gandhi’s society would live in close touch with their environment, not
wishing to dominate it, but enjoying being part of it. His relevance for all time has

203
been brought out most cogently by Sarojini Naidu, his famous co-worker and India’s
outstanding poetess, in a passage written a few months before his assassination.

 Ambedkar

Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar was born on 14th April, 1891 in a

small town at Mhow Cantt near Indore in Mahar caste, which is known as
untouchable caste in Maharashtra. He died on 6th December, 1956. His name was
Bhim Sakpal, during childhood. His father was Ramji Sakpal, who was the follower
of Saint Kabir. Therefore, he never believed in caste. He adopted Buddha religion
along with 5 lakh people in a historical congregation on 14th October, 1956 at Nagpur.

In 1923, Ambedkar started his law practice and also devoted

himself for the upliftment of Dalits (depressed class) and poor. In 1930, he became
the president of the All India ^Depressed Class Association. In 1936, he formed an
Independent Labour Party, which later on turned into All India Scheduled Castes
Federation.

On 7th August, 1942, Ambedkar became the member of the

Council for Governor General. In his chairmanship, the Consti-tution of India was
drafted. On 3rd August, 1949, he took the char ge of the Law Minister in the
Government of India. In 1955, he formed Bharatiya Buddha Mahasabha. Ambedkar
always felt that the depressed class has no honour in the Hindu religion which also
reflects in his writings and actions.

Concept of Dalit:

Generally, the word Dalit includes those who are designated in

administrative parlance as Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other
Backward Classes (OBCs). However, in common political discourse, the term Dalit is
so far mainly referred to Scheduled Castes.

The term ‘Scheduled Caste’ was used for the first time by the
British in Government of India Act, 1935. Prior to this, the untouchable castes were

204
known as depressed classes in public discourse. Mahatma Gandhi gave them the name
Harijan – man of God. Gandhi himself did not coin the name. He borrowed the name
from a Bhakti saint of the 17th century – Narsimh Mehta.

Dalit Liberation: Subaltern Approach:

With the advent of Ambedkar into the Indian political arena during
1920s, the issue of social reforms achieved a new dimension. He was of the opinion
that until and unless the downtrodden themselves came forward to fight their battle,
no one else could alleviate their grievances. No one else could know better than them
about their own state of affairs.

An another aspect of Ambedkar’s subaltern approach for the

emancipation of Dalits and their empowerment was his distinct formulation of Indian
nationalism in opposition to the dominant discourse of Hindu nationalism as
represented by Raja Rammohan Roy, B.G. Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal
Nehru.

Methodology:

Ambedkar undertook different types of studies, some involving

the collection of sizeable data and the other processing such as the election studies of
1937 and 1945, focusing on the constituencies reserved for Scheduled Castes. He
undertook several case studies, often to drive home a point better.

There are studies where he attempted to locate the major

changes in policy or issues over a period by dividing the period into appropriate
stages. These projects required resort to documents and archives for necessary data,
such as doctoral studies of Ambedkar, which drew not merely from official
documents but also from archival data. In them, there are the standard references to
the manuscripts and texts.

There are studies such as Who were the Shudras?, exegetical in

nature, which delve into texts but propose an alternative thesis because the existing
explanations of these texts do not account for certain known details or passages.
Studies, such as The Untouchables, resort to the method of constructing a distinctive

205
thesis centred on a characteristic feature in a determinate group, existing solely in that
group and universally shared by it.

Ambedkar also dwelt a great deal on interpretation and on the

criteria appropriate for it.7 He argued that Gandhi’s interpretation of Hinduism did
not stand up to the criteria of interpretation, Further, he felt that interpretations which
do not take popularly held beliefs and strong evaluations into account, do not
materially affect the situation studied.

The ideas and ideals of John Dewey, Edwin R.A. Seligman, the
Fabians and the British Idealists had a deep impact on Ambedkar. He described
himself as a ‘progressive radical’ and occasionally as a ‘progressive conservative, the
qualification, ‘progressive’, being generally present, distinguishing himself from the
liberals and the communists depending on the case.

He saw the Directive Principles of State Policy of the Indian

Constitution as upholding economic democracy. His notion of liberty was avowedly
that of the T.H. Green kind. Although he talked of equality before law and considered
it as a major contribution of the British rule in India, he was not satisfied with this
notion and advanced stronger notions such as equality of consideration, equality of
respect, and equality of dignity.

He was sensitive to the notion of respect, and the notion of

community was central in his consideration. The demand for ‘fraternity’ in the French
Revolution was seen by him as a call for ‘community’. The Buddha, he argued, strove
for building commu-nities while Brahminism attempted to fragment them.

Ambedkar showed an extraordinary interest in Marxism,

particularly in the 1950s. All his major writings during this period, viz., Buddha and
the Future of his Religion, The Buddha and his Dhamma and Buddha and Karl Marx,
refer to Marx as the central figure. He identified certain crucial areas on which he
agreed with Karl Marx: the task of philosophy is to transform the world; there is
conflict between class and class; private ownership of property begets sorrow and
exploitation; and good society requires that private property be collectivized.

206
 He found that on all these four issues Buddha is in agreement
with Marx. He, however, rejected the inevitability of socialism, the economic
interpretation of history, the thesis on the pauperization of the proletariat, dictatorship
of the proletariat, withering away of the state and the strategy of violence as a means
of seize power.

He felt that the Buddhism, which called for self-control and a

moral foundation for society, could provide the missing dimensions for a socialist
project and for the purpose, called for a dialogue between Marxism and Buddhism.
Therefore, while liberal and modernist alliances of Buddhism were taking place
elsewhere, Ambedkar wanted to relocate Buddhism in the trajectory of Marxism and
vice versa.

 Religion:

A large part of Ambedkar’s writings had a direct bearing on

Hinduism, most of which remained unpublished and in the initial draft form during
his lifetime. In these studies, which he undertook mainly from the second half of the
1940s, Ambedkar argued that Buddhism, which attempted to found society on the
basis of reason and morality, was a major revolution, both social and ideological,
against the degeneration of the Aryan society.

It condemned the varna system and gave hope to the poor, the
exploited and the women. It rallied against sacrifices, priestcraft and superstition. The
Buddhist Sangha became the platform for the movement towards empowering and
ennobling the common man.

However, Brahminism struck back against the revolution

through the counter-revolution launched by Pushyamitra. Here, Ambedkar deployed a
specific terminology employed to explain mainstream European transitions of
nineteenth and twentieth centuries and he felt that the corresponding explanation was
appropriate for India too, although the periods in question were wide apart.

207
 Caste:

Ambedkar’s understanding of caste and the caste system underwent

certain significant changes over the period of his writings. Initially, he had argued that
the characteristic of caste was endogamy, super-imposed by exogamy in a shared
cultural ambience. He suggested that evils such as sati, child marriage and prohibition
on widow remarriage were the outcome of caste. He also found that the caste name is
an important feature, which keeps inequality in the normative anchor of the caste
system. Graded inequality restricts the reach of equality to members of the caste at the
most. Ambedkar thought that caste is an essential feature of the Hindu religion.

Although a few reformers may have denounced it, for the vast
majority of Hindus breaking the codes of caste in a clear violation of deeply held
religious beliefs. He found Gandhi subscribing to caste initially and later opposing it
but upholding varna instead. Gandhi’s conception of varna is the same as that of caste,
that is, assigning social agents on the basis of birth, rather than worth.

It led to upholding graded inequality and the denial of freedom and

equality, social relations that cannot beget community bonds. The solution that
Ambedkar proposed was the annihilation of caste. He suggested inter-caste marriage
and inter-dinning for the purpose although the latter by itself is too weak to forge any
enduring bonds.

 Untouchability:

Ambedkar’s engagement with untouchability, as a researcher,

intel-lectual and activist, is much more nuanced, hesitant but intimate as compared to
his viewpoint on caste, where he is prepared to offer stronger judgements and proffer
solutions. However, with untouchability, there is often a failure of words. Grief is
merged with anger.

 Identity:

As in the case of the untouchables, Ambedkar attempted to construct a

separate identity of Shudras as well and this too during the second half of the 1940s.
He identified himself with the non-Brahmins and attempted to build a non-Aryan

208
Naga identity ascribing to it the signal achievements of Indian civilization. He also
proposed to write on the clash of the Aryans and the Nagas much more elaborately
than he was to do. However, his explo-ration of the Naga identity remained quite thin.

 Economy:

Unlike in the domain of politics and religion, Ambedkar’s

inter-vention in relation to economic thought and issues was intermittent though
persistent over a long period. For his Master’s at Columbia University, Ambedkar
wrote a lengthy dissertation, which he did not eventually submit. It was entitled as
Ancient Indian Commerce and included three fascinating chapters, viz., “Commercial
Relations of India with the Middle East’,

‘Commercial Relations of India in the Middle Ages’, and ‘India on

the Eve of the Crown Government’. It projected India as a land, which has deep and
varied ties with other countries based on the nature of its economy. He portrayed very
vividly the exploitative nature of the Company’s rule in India. In The Administration
and Finance of East India Company, Ambedkar provided a lucid account of the
organization of the East India Company, its sources of revenue and items of
expenditure upto 1857.

 Colonialism and Nationalism:

Ambedkar’s critique of colonialism ranges across a whole spectrum

from the economy to the nature of the colonial discourse. In terms of the later,
Ambedkar demanded that the terms of the discourse be altered. He had no defence to
offer in favour of colonialism but he did not want power to go to those who would not
promote partisan ends in the name of the people.

Ambedkar’s considered judgment was that colonialism benefited the

untouchables least, except for the rule of law which it inaugurated, allowing some
space for them. He insisted on a responsible and accountable government based upon
adult franchise, and was one of the first top rung leaders in India to demand universal
adult franchise early on in his submission before the Simon Commission, in the
strongest possible terms.

209
 Constitutional Democracy:

The major area of Ambedkar’s work was on constitutional

democracy. He was adept at interpreting different constitutions of the world,
particularly those that mattered insofar as they were committed to democracy, along
with their constitutional develop-ments. This becomes obvious if we note the
references that he adduces to the different constitutions, in the debates of the
Constituent Assembly.

 Governance:

One of the issues that Ambedkar paid close attention to was

power and governance. He thought that governance must reflect socio-logical reality
as closely as possible lest those wielding power to their advantage suppress the
excluded groups.

Ambedkar spent a great deal of his time and energy in advancing

proposals for the purpose stressing the need to respect justice and equity. While he
was opposed to overrepresentation to Muslims as expressed in the constitutional
reforms of 1909, he did not accept that minority representation should be exactly in
proportion to its population.

He engaged in more rigorous study of Christianity in India than

of Islam. He rejected Gandhi’s opposition to conversion but felt that, given its
resources, Chris-tianity should have attracted more converts but it had not due to its
own inadequacies.

 Disadvantaged and Supportive Polity:

Ambedkar made two major contributions in terms of evolving a

polity, which would extend special considerations to the disadvan-taged. He was the
first major theoretician in India who argued that consideration for the disadvantaged
should be the constitutive basis of the state. He developed a complex set of criteria to
determine disadvantaged and attempted to specify its various gradations.

210
 His second contribution was to develop a system of safeguards
for the disadvantaged in general and the untouchables in particular, which could be
enforceable, quantifiable and accountable – a system that he evolved from early on
but found its shape at the time of his deputation before the Simon Commission.

 Disadvantaged and Preferential Treatment:

There are diverse types of disadvantages that men and women

suffer and a common yardstick cannot be applied for their amelio-ration. However,
there are common principles on the basis of which ameliorative measures to handle
disadvantages can be pursued. It is not enough that equal resources and opportunities
are assigned to people. Therefore, the disadvantaged need to be extended certain
preferences that result in giving a fair opportunity to them.

 Concept of Exploitation:

For Ambedkar, economic exploitation was a major issue to

contend against. It explains his life-long critical engagement with Marxism. However,
he felt that there are other sources of exploi-tation and marginalization besides
economic exploitation, which deprive people of those basic goods indispensable for
the consti-tution of a confident self, a life of a mutual recognition and participation in
collective affairs.

 Reason, Rights and Identity:

Ambedkar argued that it was in modern era that human

reason came into its own and extricated itself from bonding with myths, customs and
religious ideologies. There has been a reversal of the relation between myths and
traditions on one hand, and reason, on the other. He saw freedom, equality and
fraternity as essential conditions for a good life and argued that they should be
under-stood and pursued as one entity. It was only on their foundation that a
comprehensive regime of rights could be built.

211
 Privileging Buddhism:

While Ambedkar acknowledged the possibility of diverse

religious and moral standpoints that were reasonable he did not see them as equally
predisposed towards freedom, equality and fraternity. Buddhism alone cherished such
goals comprehensively and offered a complementarity to freedom, equality and
fraternity.

 Pluralism and its Limits:

Ambedkar felt that a liberal democracy has a natural tilt

towards the culture and way of life of the majority. It posits itself as the normal and
the expected. If the political society is relatively homogeneous, such a tendency may
not provoke deep resentment, but in societies which are culturally plural, it may spell
doom for the identity of minorities. Therefore, it is necessary that proper safeguards
be provided for the expression of these identities.

 Constitutionalism and Rule of Law:

Ambedkar felt that to sustain rights, to let identities thrive as

well as make them respect rights, to maintain an order favouring the disadvantaged
and to facilitate a vibrant civil society, constitutional order expressed in the rule of
law becomes imperative.

Besides, given the size of dalits, low castes and disadvantaged

in general, no political party can afford to ignore the electoral dividends that
Ambedkar as an ally can bestow. For the state to sustain a modicum of hegemony
Ambedkar has become an indis-pensable necessity today

 Medha Padkar

Medha Patkar was born as Medha Khanolkar on 01 Dec 1954

in Mumbai, Maharashtra, the daughter of Vasant Khanolkar, a freedom fighter and
labour union leader,[5] and his wife Indumati Khanolkar, a gazetted officer in the Post
and Telegraphs department.[6] She has one brother, Mahesh Khanolkar, an architect.

212
Medha Khanolkar earned an MA in Social Work from Tata Institute of Social
Sciences.

Career as activist

Medha patkar worked with voluntary organisations in Mumbai's

slums for 5 years and tribal districts of North-East districts of Gujarat for 3 years. She
worked as a member of faculty at Tata Institute of Social Sciences but left her
position to take up the field work. She was a PhD scholar at TISS, studying
Economics development and its impact on traditional societies.After working up to
M.Phil level she left her unfinished PhD when she became immersed in her work with
the tribal and Peasant communities in the Narmada valley spread over three states.

Narmada Bachao Andolan

Narmada Bachao Andolan (NBA) is a social movement protesting

against the dam on river Narmada which began in 1985 consisting of adivasis, farmers,
fish workers, labourers and others in the Narmada valley along with the intellectuals
including environmentalists, human rights activists, Scientists, academicians, artists
who stand for just and sustainable development. Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one
of the biggest dams on Narmada where the non-violent people's struggle has
questioned social and environmental costs, undemocratic planning and unjust
distribution of benefits. The struggle is still on in the Sardar Sarovar affected areas
and also other large and medium dams on Narmada and its tributaries. It has led to
thousands of project affected families receiving land based rehabilitation and
continues to fight against submergence and displacement without rehabilitation of
more than 40,000 families residing in this submergence area of Sardar Sarovar till
date. Many of its claims and critique on economic, social and environmental aspects
of Sardar Sarovar and Narmada valley development project stand vindicated today.
Patkar has also questioned the wisdom of the currently popular developmental
strategy of linking rivers in India as a means to address issues of water shortage.[7]

NBA has been running JEEVANSHALAS- schools of life, since

1992 with about 5,000 students having passed out and many graduated. Tens of them
are under training in athletics and some have won many awards. NBA also

213
successfully established and managed two micro hydral projects which got submerged
due to SS dam. It has been working in many sectors over last 30 years including
health, employment guarantee, Right to Food and PDS, rehabilitation and
environment protection.

Ghar Bachao Ghar Banao Andolan

It is a struggle for housing rights in Mumbai, started in 2005 and

continues to fight for rights of slum-dwellers and those cheated by the builders in
various rehabilitation and re-development projects. It all began when the government
of Maharashtra demolished 75,000 houses of the poor in 2005, against its own
promises before election. Strong people's movement was founded by Medha Patkar
and others when she gave the slogan in a large public meeting at Azaad Maidaan
Mumbai. It was through mass action that the communities were re-built on the same
sites and continue to assert and attain their right to shelter, water, electricity,
sanitation and livelihood. As members of working class GBGBA respects the slum-
dwellers for contribution to the life of the city and involves them in equitable and
inclusive planning for urban development.

National Alliance of People's Movements

The National Alliance of People's Movements (NAPM)

is an alliance of people's movements in India, with the stated aim of working on a
range of issues related to socio-economic justice, political justice and
equity.[8] Medha Patkar founded the National Alliance of People's Movements with
the objective of "facilitating unity and providing strength to peoples' movements in
India, fighting against oppression, further questioning the current development model
so as to work towards a just alternative". She is the national convener of the NAPM.

Tata Nano Plant Singur

Tata Motors started constructing a factory to manufacture

their $2,500 car, the Tata Nano at Singur. She protested against the setting up of the
plant at Singur, West Bengal. Patkar's convoy was assaulted, allegedly by CPI(M)
activists, at Kapaseberia in East Midnapore district while on her way to strife-torn

214
Nandigram. At the height of the agitation, Ratan Tata had made remarks questioning
the source of funds of the agitators. In October 2008 Tata announced that the factory
would not be completed and that the production of the Nano will be set up in Sanand,
Gujarat.

Nandigram land grab resistance (2007)

She participated in and initiated various supportive actions

including a fast during Diwali in Kolkata, Mass-mobilisation, complaints at various
national fora and building support of intellectuals and various citizens across the
country. The battle was ultimately won in favour of the local people who had to lay
their lives in large numbers during State Violence

Lavasa

Lavasa is a project by Hindustan Construction Corporation,

in Maharashtra. It is a yet-to be completed city. Lavasa Project is criticised by P.
Sainath for unjust use of water in a worst hit farmer suicide state.[13] Medha Patkar
with villagers of Lavasa protested for the environmental damage in Nagpur.[ She also
filed a PIL in Supreme Court against the Lavasa project.

Golibar Demolition

A demolition took place on 2 and 3 April 2013 in the Golibar

area, Mumbai, Maharashtra evicting 43 houses and displacing more than 200 people.
the whole project is to displace thousands of families and 50–100 years old
communities that are demanding in-situ and participatory housing rights. Medha
Patkar with more than 500 slum dwellers set on indefinite fast to protest against any
further demolition until the inquiry into the matter is completed.[15] Patkar has
alleged corruption and "atrocities" by builders in the city's slum rehabilitation scheme,
and called for the halting of six projects by the Slum Rehabilitation Authority, until a
proper inquiry is conducted. The inquiry was conducted giving partial solutions hence
communities continue with their struggle.

215
Save Sugar-Cooperatives Mission

To save Sugar-Cooperative sector in Maharashtra from falling

into the hands of politicians including tens of ministers in the Maharashtra cabinet till
2014, Medha Patkar organised protests. She explained that "the politicians are
interested in the prime plots of land, old equipment and machinery," of sugar co-
operatives and accused the state government of selling assets of industry at throw
away rates. A case against Girna Sugar factory at Malegaon, Nasik, Maharashtra and
members of Chhagan Bhujbal Family pending before the Supreme court of India and
the unused land of the factory is re-occupied and cultivated by the local farmers who
were the donors of the cooperative that was privatized by the former minister
purchasing it at throw away price.

Hiranandani land scam

Medha Patkar along with other activists registered PIL in the

High Court of Mumbai, alleging violations by property tycoon Niranjan
Hiranandani in building luxury flats instead of affordable houses. Hiranandani had
signed a lease for the 230 acres of land in 1986 at rate of Re 1 per hectare in a
tripartite agreement with the state and Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development
Authority.[18] Responding to PIL Maharashtra High Court judges says that" we
appreciate the elegance of the construction and the intent on creating an architecture
marvel for the city of Mumbai, we see the specific intent of wholly ignoring the most
vital, and perhaps the only, condition in tripartite agreement (to create affordable
houses of 40 and 80 sq m)".[19] If calculated according to the current market price,
the quantum of the scam will be around Rs. 450 billion.[20] The judgement of 2012
directed Hirandani to build 3,144 houses for the low income groups before any other
construction at Hirandani gardens which is yet to happen. The case is at the stage of
final hearing at HC of Mumbai.

Kovvada Nuclear project

Patkar expressed a strong opposition to the land acquisition in

Kovvada of Ranasthalam mandal in Srikakulam district, Andhra Pradesh saying that
the nuclear plant would be a disaster for ecology as well as people of region.

216
Career in politics

It is in January 2004 during the World Social Forum held

in Mumbai. Medha Patkar and other members of National Alliance of People's
Movement initiated a Political Party 'People's Political Front[22]' also called as 'Lok
Rajniti Manch'. However Medha did not participated as an active Politician, but
adhere herself in creating an atmosphere and environment by organising a Fifteen
Days Maharashtra State level Campaign. She was accompanied with two young
activists, Maju Warghese and Journalist jaspal Singh Naol (Jal). Meetings were
organised under her leadership in each district of Maharashtra. Most of the Members
had asked Patkar to stand for Election, but she denied.

It is January 2014, Medha Patkar joined the Aam Aadmi Party, a

political party led by Arvind Kejriwal. She and her organisation, National Alliance of
People's Movement, provided support to the Aam Aadmi Party during the Lok Sabha
campaign.

Patkar also contested 2014 Lok Sabha election from the North
East Mumbai constituency as an Aam Aadmi Party candidate.[24] She lost, receiving
8.9%[25] of the vote cast in North East Mumbai constituency, trailing at third position
behind Kirit Somaiya (BJP candidate, winner) and Sanjay Patil (NCP
candidate).[26] She resigned from Aam Admi Party's primary membership on 28
March 2015.[27]

It is in the year 2016 during the National Convention of National

Alliance of People's Movement held at Rashtriya Seva Dal, Pune. Dr Suresh Khairnar,
General Secretary, National Executive Committee, Rashtriya Seva Dal openly
expressed that any Political Organisation led by Medha Patkar will get full support
from Rashtriya Seva Dal, but they will limit support to her if the leader becomes a
follower.

217
Here is a list of top forty seven development programmes or schemes
adopted in India.

1. Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana (PMJDY):

Financial inclusion and access to financial services for all

households in the country is the main objective of pmjdy.

Pradhan Mantri Jan Dhan Yojana is a national mission to bring

comprehensive financial inclusion of all the households in the country. Under the
PMJDY, any individual above the age of 10 years and does not have a bank account
can open a bank account without depositing any money.

The scheme was to ensure the access to financial services such as

banking / savings & deposit Accounts, remittance, credit, debit cards, insurance and
pension in affordable manner. The scheme was mostly targeted to the people
belonging to the Below Poverty Line but is beneficial to everyone who does not have
a bank account. Jan Dhan Yojana has seen a great success, about 21 crore accounts
have been opened in just about one and half year under the scheme. Out of the total
12.87 crore in rural area and 8.13 crore accounts have been opened in urban areas.
Despite of zero minimum balance, there is 33074.89 crore rupees balance in these
accounts with 28.88% accounts opened with zero balance.

2. Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana:

The main aim of this scheme is to encourage parents to build a fund

for the future education and marriage expenses for their female child.

Sukanya Samriddhi Yojana is an ambitious small deposit savings

scheme for a girl child. Under the scheme, a saving account can be opened in the
name of girl child and deposits can be made for 14 years. After the girl reaches 18

218
years of age, she can withdraw 50% of the amount for marriage or higher study
purposes.

After the girl completes 21 years of age, the maturity amount can be
withdrawn including the interest at rates decided by Government every investments
and returns are exempt from section 80C of Indian income tax act. The maximum
investment of Rs. 1.5 Lakh per year can be made while minimum deposit is Rs.
1000/- per year. In case of more than one girl child, parents can open another account
on the different name but only for two girl child. Only exception is that the parents
have twins and another girl child.

3. Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY):

The main objective is to provide financial support for growth of

micro enterprises sector.

Pradhan Mantri MUDRA (Micro Units Development and

Refinance Agency) Yojana was launched with the purpose to provide funding to the
non-corporate small business sector. Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana (PMMY) is open
and is available from all Bank branches across the country.

The small businesses/startups or entrepreneurs can avail loans from

Rs. 50 thousand to 10 Lakh to start/grow their business under the three, Shishu,
Kishore and Tarun categories of the scheme. As per the official website of PMMY,
27,344053 numbers of loans have been sanctioned under the scheme till 26 February,
2016. The amount sanctioned has reached more than Rs. 1 Lakh Crore.

4. Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana (PMSBY):

The main objective is to provide accidental insurance cover to all

Indian citizens Pradhan Mantri Suraksha Bima Yojana which is also a government
backed accident insurance scheme in India aimed at increasing the penetration of
accidental insurance cover in India.

219
 The scheme is open and available to all Indian citizens between
the ages of 18 to 70 years. Under the scheme, the policy holder can get a life
insurance cover of Rs. 2 Lakh with an annual premium of just Rs. 12 excluding
service tax. All the Indian citizens between 18-70 years of age with a saving bank
account are eligible to avail the scheme.

5. Atal Pension Yojana (APY):

The main objective is to Increase the number of people covered

under any kind of pension scheme.

Atal Pension Yojana is one of the three Jan Suraksha schemes

launched by PM Narendra Modi. APY is aimed at increasing the number of pension
scheme beneficiaries across the country. The scheme is especially targeted to the
private unorganized sector and is open to all Indian citizens between the age of 18 to
40 years.

6. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY):

Achieve housing for all by the year 2022, 2 crore in Urban

and 3 crore homes in Rural areas is the main objective.

Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana is an ambitious scheme of

Narendra Modi Government. Under the PMAY, the government aims to provide
about 5 Crore affordable homes to the people belonging to EWS and LIG categories
by the year 2022. There is a target of building 2 crore homes in urban area and 3 crore
in rural areas across the country. Under the scheme, the government will provide
financial assistance to the poor home buyers, interest subsidy on home loan and direct
subsidy on homes bought under the scheme.

220
7. Sansad Adarsh Gram Yojana (SAGY):

Social, cultural, economic, infrastructure developments in the

villages i.e., development of model villages called “Adarsh Gram” Under the Yojana;
Members of Parliament (MPs) will be responsible for developing the socio-economic
and physical infrastructure of three villages each by 2019 and a total of eight villages
each by 2024.

Funding:

i. Funds from existing schemes, such as the Indira Awas Yojana, Pradhan Mantri
Gram Sadak Yojana, Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme, and Backward Regions Grant Fund, etc.,

ii. The Member of Parliament Local Area Development Scheme (MPLADS),

iii. The gram panchayat’s own revenue,

iv. Central and State Finance Commission Grants, and

v. Corporate Social Responsibility funds.

8. Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY):

The main aim is to provide insurance cover to Rabi and Kharif

crops and financial support to farmers in case of damage of crops.

221
 In order to make crop insurance simpler and cheaper for the
farmers and to provide them with better insurance services, a Central Sector Scheme
of Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFSY) was launched by the Government of
India replacing NAIS and MNAIS.

9. Pradhan Mantri Gram Sinchai Yojana (PMGSY):

The main objective is irrigating the field of even farmer and

improving water use efficiency to provide ‘Per Drop More Crop’.

The scheme is aimed to attract investments in irrigation system at

field level, develop and expand cultivable land in the country, enhance ranch water
use in order to minimize wastage of water, enhance crop per drop by implementing
water-saving technologies and precision irrigation. All the States and Union
Territories including North Eastern States are covered under the programme. The
government has approved Rs.50, 000 crore for the implementation of Pradhan Mantri
Krishi Sinchai Yojana for next 5 years, i.e. up to 2020.

10. Pradhan Mantri Garib Kalyan Yojanaye (PMGKY):

The main objective is to implement the pre-poor welfare schemes

in more effective way and reaches out to more poor population across the country.

Garib Kalyan Yojana is a Poverty Alleviation Scheme, which is

primarily a work shop that you can pay and attend. The effort of the campaign and
workshop is to motive and apprise the member of parliaments to help them effectively
implement the government run schemes for the welfare of poor in the country.

11. Pradhan Mantri Jan Aushadhi Yojana (PMJAY):

Providing drugs/medicines at affordable cost across the country is the

main objective.

222
 Under the scheme, over 500 medicines will be sold through Jan
Aushadhi stores at price less than the market price. Private hospitals, NGO’s, and
other social groups are eligible to open the Jan Aushadhi stores with a onetime
assistance of Rs. 2.5 Lakh from the central Government.

12. Make in India:

The main objective is to encourage multi-national, as well as

domestic companies to manufacture their products in India and create jobs and skill
enhancement in 25 sectors.

The major objective behind the initiative is to focus on job

creation and skill enhancement in 25 sectors of the economy. The initiative also aims
at high quality standards and minimising the impact on the environment. The
initiative hopes to attract capital and technological investment in India.

13. Swachh Bharat Abhiyan:

The main objective is to fulfill Mahatma Gandhi’s dream of a clean and

hygienic India.

Swachh Bharat Mission is being implemented by the Ministry of Urban

Development (UD) and by the Ministry of Drinking Water and Sanitation (DWS) for
urban and rural areas respectively.

14. Kisan Vikas Patra:

The main objective is to provide safe and secure investment avenues

to the small investors. Unlike in PPF the Kisan Vikas Patra certificates would be
available in the denominations of Rs 1,000, 5,000, 10,000 and 50,000 and there is no
upper limit on investment in KVPs.

223
15. Soil Health Card Scheme:

The main objective is to help farmers to improve productivity from

their farms by letting them know about nutrient/fertilizer requirements for their farms.

The soil health card studies and reviews the health of soil or rather we
can say a complete evaluation of the quality of soil right from its functional
characteristics, to water and nutrients content and other biological properties. It will
also contain corrective measures that a farmer should adopt to obtain a better yield.

16. Digital India:

The main objective is to deliver Government services to citizens

electronically by improving online infrastructure and by increasing Internet
connectivity.

The Digital India programme is a flagship programme of the

Government of India with a vision to transform India into a digitally empowered
society and knowledge economy. The vision of Digital India programme is to
transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.

17. Skill India:

Train over 40 crore people in India in different skills by 2022 is the main
objective. The main goal of Skill India Program is to create opportunities, space and
scope for the development of talents of the Indian youth. The scheme also targeted to
identify new sectors for skill development and develop more of those sectors.

18. Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana:

To generate awareness and improving the efficiency of welfare

services meant for women are the main objectives. The scheme is to have as focused

224
intervention and multi-section action in almost 100 districts with low Child Sex Ratio
(CSR).

19. Mission Indradhanush:

The main objective is to immunize all children as well as pregnant

women against seven vaccine preventable diseases namely diphtheria, whooping
cough (Pertussis), tetanus, polio, tuberculosis, measles and hepatitis ‘B’ by 2020.

The aim of Mission Indradhanush is to achieve full immunization in

352 districts which includes 279 mid priority districts, 33 districts from the North East
states and 40 districts from phase one where huge number of missed out children were
detected.

20. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana (DDUGJY):

Electric supply feeder separation (rural households & agricultural) and

strengthening of sub-transmission & distribution infrastructure including metering at
all levels in rural areas.

DDUGJY will help in providing round the clock power to rural

households and adequate power to agricultural consumers. The earlier scheme for
rural electrification viz. Rajiv Gandhi Grameen Vidyutikaran Yojana (RGGVY) has
been subsumed in the new scheme as its rural electrification component.

21. Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Grameen Kaushalya Yojana (DDUGKY):

Achieving inclusive growth, by developing skills and productive

capacity of the rural youth from poor families are the main objectives.

DDUGKY aims to train rural youth who are poor and provide them
with jobs is having regular monthly wages. It is one of the cluster initiatives of the

225
Ministry of Rural Development that seeks to promote rural livelihoods. It is a part of
the National Rural Livelihood Mission (NRLM) – the Mission for poverty reduction
called Aajeevika.

22. Pandit Deendayal Upadhyay Shramev Jayate Yojana (PDUSJY):

The main objective is to consolidate information of Labour Inspection

and its enforcement through a unified web portal, this will lead to transparency and
accountability in inspections.

A Unified Labour Portal, known as the Shram Suvidha portal was

launched under the scheme as a platform to facilitate the implementation of a
transparent system for information and data base management.

23. Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT):

The main aim is to provide basic services (e.g. water supply,

sewerage, urban transport) to households and build amenities in cities which will
improve the quality of life for all, especially the poor and the disadvantaged.

The purpose of Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban

Transformation (AMRUT) is to-

(i) ensure that every household has access to a tap with assured supply of water and a
sewerage connection;

(ii) increase the amenity value of cities by developing greenery and well maintained
open spaces (e.g. parks); and

226
(iii) reduce pollution by switching to public transport or constructing facilities for
non-motorized transport (e.g. walking and cycling).

24. Swadesh Darshan Yojana:

The main aim is to develop world class tourism infrastructure. As part

of the Swadesh Darshan Scheme, Theme Based Tourism Circuits (TBCT) around
specific themes such as religion, culture, ethnicity, niche, etc. are identified for
infrastructure development across the country.

25. Pilgrimage Rejuvenation and Spiritual Augmentation Drive (PRASAD):

The main aim to develop world class tourism infrastructure in

Amritsar, Ajmer, Amaravati, Dwaraka, Gaya, Kanchipuram, Kedarnath, Kamakhya,
Mathura, Puri, Varanasi and Vellankani.

PRASAD scheme aims to create spiritual centres for tourism

development within the nation. As part of mission strategy, religious destinations that
have potential to be show-cased as world-class tourism products are identified and
infrastructure is developed on a priority basis.

26. National Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana (HRIDAY):

The main objective is bringing together urban planning, economic

growth and heritage conservation in an inclusive manner to preserve the heritage
character of each Heritage City.

With duration of 27 months (completing in March 2017) and a

total outlay of INR 500 crores, the Scheme is being implemented in 12 identified
Cities namely, Ajmer, Amaravati, Amritsar, Badami, Dwarka, Gava, Kanchipuram,
Mathura, Puri, Varanasi, Velankanni and Warangal.

227
27. Udaan Scheme:

The main objective is encouraging girls for higher technical

education and aims to provide a platform that empowers girl students and provides
them with better learning opportunities.

It is a mentoring and scholarship scheme to enable meritorious girl

students to transit from schools to technical education without much difficulty and
also aims to enrich and enhance teaching and learning of mathematics and science at
senior secondary school level by providing free online resources for all.

28. National Bal Swachhta Mission:

The main objective is to provide hygienic and clean environment,

food, drinking water, toilets, schools and other surroundings to the children.

The Bal Swachhta Mission is a part of the nationwide sanitation

initiative of ‘Swachh Bharat Mission’ launched by the Prime Minister on 2nd October,
2014.

29. One Rank One Pension (OROP) Scheme:

The main objective is to provide same pension, for same rank, for
same length of service, irrespective of the date of retirement.

This is not a Modi Government scheme; however, the government

is making its efforts to implement the long pending scheme.

30. Smart City Mission:

The main objective is to develop 100 cities all over the

country making them citizen friendly and sustainable.

228
 Under the mission, the NDA Government aims to develop
smart cities equipped with basic infrastructure and offer a good quality of life through
smart solutions. Assured water and power supply, sanitation and solid waste
management, efficient urban mobility and public transport, robust IT connectivity, e-
governance and citizen participation along with safety of its citizens are some of the
likely attributes of these smart cities.

31. Gold Monetisation Schemes:

The main objective is to reduce the reliance on gold imports over

time. The programme is to lure tonnes of gold from households into the banking
system. Under the scheme, people can deposit gold into the banks and earn interest
based on the value of the gold.

32. Startup India, Standup India:

The main objective is to provide support to all start-up businesses in

all aspects of doing business in India.

Under the scheme, the start-ups will adopt self-certification to reduce

the regulatory liabilities. An online portal, in the shape of a mobile application, will
be launched to help start-up founders to easily register. The app is scheduled to be
launched on April 1.

33. Digi Locker:

The main objective is to provide a secure dedicated personal electronic

space for storing the documents of resident Indian citizens.

229
 It is a part of Digital India programme, Digital Locker has been
designed to reduce the administrative overhead of government departments and
agencies created due to paper work. It will also make it easy for the residents to
receive services by saving time and effort as their documents will now be available
anytime, anywhere and can be shared electronically.

The Government of India will provide financial support of Rs. 45,800

crore over the entire implementation period of IPDS under which strengthening of
sub-transmission network, metering, IT application, customer care Services,
provisioning of solar panels will be implemented.

34. Shyama Prasad Mukherji Rurban Mission:

The main objective is to create 300 rural clusters across the country
and strengthen financial, job, and life style facilities in rural areas.

Urban Mission is a solution for both villages and cities in the country-
that would promote growth of villages and its residents at the place where they are.
Under the mission, the government will identify and develop 300 rural clusters with
urban like facilities in the next 3 years.

35. Sagarmala Project:

The main objective is to transform the existing ports into modern world
class ports. The prime objective of the Sagarmala project is to promote port-led direct
and indirect development and to provide infrastructure to transport goods to and from
ports quickly, efficiently and cost effectively. The Sagarmala Project, aimed at port-
led development in coastal areas, is bound to boost the country’s economy and the
government has lined up about Rs 70,000 crore for its 12 major ports only

230
36. ‘Prakash Path’ – ‘Way to Light’ – The National LED Programme:

The main objective is to distribute LED bulbs and decrease the power
consumption. This is one of the many schemes launched by Narendra Modi
government India. The programme has been launched to distribute and encourage the
use of LED light bulbs to save both cost and consumption.

37. UJWAL Discom Assurance Yojana (UDAY):

The main objective is to obtain operational and financial turnaround

of State owned Power Distribution Companies (DISCOMs). The Scheme aims to
reduce the interest burden, reduce the cost of power, reduce power losses in
Distribution sector, and improve operational efficiency of DISCOMs.

38. Vikalp Scheme:

The main objective is to provide confirmed accommodation in next

alternative train for the wait listed passengers.

Vikalp scheme is available only for the tickets booked through internet
for six months and option will be limited to mail and express trains running on Delhi-
Lucknow and Delhi-Jammu sectors.

39. National Sports Talent Search Scheme (NSTSS):

The main objective is to identify sporting talent among students in the

age group of 8-12 years. The scheme is being implemented by the Sports Authority of
India (SAI), under the Ministry of Youth Affairs & Sports for spotting talented young
children in the age group of 8-14 years from schools and nurturing them by providing
scientific training.

231
40. Rashtriya Gokul Mission:

The main objective is to conserve and develop indigenous bovine breeds.

Rashtriya Gokul Mission aims to conserve and develop indigenous breeds in a
focused and scientific manner. It is a focused project under National Programme for
Bovine Breeding and Dairy Development, with an outlay of Rs 500 crore during the
12th Five Year Plan.

41. PAHAL-Direct Benefits Transfer for LPG (DBTL) Consumers Scheme:

The main objective is to send the subsidy money of LPG cylinders

directly into the bank accounts of the consumers and increase efficiency &
transparency in the whole system.

Under the scheme, the LPG consumer can now receive subsidy in
his bank account by two methods. Such a consumer will be called CTC (Cash
Transfer Compliant) once he joins the scheme and is ready to receive subsidy in the
bank account.

42. The National Institution for Transforming India (NITI AAYOG):

The main objective is to foster involvement and participation in

the economic policy-making process by the State Governments of India.

The National Institution for Transforming India (NITI) which

replaced 65 year old Planning Commission will act more like a think tank or forum, in
contrast with the Commission which imposed five- year-plans and allocated resources
to hit set economic targets.

232
43. Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY):

The main objective is to Safeguard Health, Environment and

Economic Conditions of the Tribal’s.

Pradhan Mantri Khanij Kshetra Kalyan Yojana (PMKKKY) is

meant to provide for the welfare of areas and people affected by mining related
operations, using the funds generated by District Mineral Foundations (DMFs).

44. Namami Gange Project:

The main objective is to integrates the efforts to clean and protect the
Ganga River in a comprehensive manner.

Namami Gange approaches Ganga Rejuvenation by consolidating the

existing ongoing efforts and planning for a concrete action plan for future. The
interventions at Ghats and River fronts will facilitate better citizen connect and set the
tone for river centric urban planning process.

45. Setu Bharatam Project:

The main objective is to free all national highways from railway

level crossings and renovate the old bridges on national highways by 2019.

Setu Bharatam is an ambitious programme with an investment of Rs.

50,000 crore to build bridges for safe and seamless travel on National Highways. 208
new “road over bridges / road under bridges” are envisaged for construction, while
1500 bridges will be widened, rehabilitated or replaced.

46. Pradhan Mantri Ujjwala Yojana:

The main objective is to distribute free LPG connections to the

women belonging to 5 Crore BPL families across the country.

233
 According the estimates, about 1.50 Crore BPL families will be
benefitted under the scheme in the year 2016-17. The scheme will cover 3.5 Crore
more BPL families in the next two years. The scheme provides a financial support of
Rs 1600 for each LPG connection to the BPL households. This is the first ever
welfare scheme by the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas which would benefit
crores of women belonging to the poorest households.

47. Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan:

The main objective is to help Panchayat Raj Institutions deliver

Sustainable Development Goals.

It is a new proposed scheme announced in the union financial budget

2016-17 by the Finance Minister Mr. Arun Jaitley. Rashtriya Gram Swaraj Abhiyan
has been proposed with allocation of Rs. 655 crore.

234