See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/236030420

Insights into the genesis and diversity of epigenetic Cu-Au mineralisation in

the Cloncurry district, Mt Isa Inlier, Northwest Queensland

Data  in  Australian Journal of Earth Sciences · February 2006

DOI: 10.1080/08120090500434583

CITATIONS READS

33 1,147

3 authors, including:

Glessmen Mark Nicholas Harrie Stuart Oliver

Good Samaritan Hospital Los Angeles James Cook University
44 PUBLICATIONS   2,106 CITATIONS    152 PUBLICATIONS   5,311 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Wireframe modelling of nuggety gold deposits View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Nicholas Harrie Stuart Oliver on 20 May 2014.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Australian Journal of Earth Sciences (2006) 53, (109 – 124)

Insights into the genesis and diversity of epigenetic

Cu – Au mineralisation in the Cloncurry district,
Mt Isa Inlier, northwest Queensland
G. MARK1,2*, N. H. S. OLIVER2 AND M. J. CAREW2
1
Australian Crustal Research Centre, School of Geosciences, Monash University, Vic. 3168, Australia.
2
Economic Geology Research Unit, School of Earth Sciences, James Cook University, Townsville, Qld 4811,
Australia.

The Proterozoic rocks of the Cloncurry district preserve the effects of some of the world’s largest
hydrothermal systems associated with extensive albitisation, brecciation and Na – Ca alteration. These
hydrothermal systems are broadly coeval with magmatism, and also host numerous structurally
controlled Fe oxide and Cu – Au deposits (ca 1.60 Ga, 1.55 – 1.50 Ga). Fluid-inclusion, stable-isotope,
and geochemical data from Cu – Au deposits indicate that the ore-forming fluids were high-T
(4300 – 5008C), highly saline (426 – 70 wt % NaClequiv), typically CO2-bearing, and are mainly
considered to be sourced by crystallising intrusions with contributions from other fluid sources and/
or host rocks. Fe oxide and Cu – Au mineralisation in the district exhibit a range of interrelationships
based upon the metal endowment, relative timing of Fe oxides and sulfides, and Cu:Au ratio. These
interrelationships may be divided into four categories: (i) barren magnetite and/or hematite
ironstones; (ii) Fe oxide-hosted Cu – Au mineralisation, where relatively Au-rich ore associated with
pyrite and hematite overprints older magnetite-rich rocks; (iii) Fe oxide Cu – Au mineralisation, where
both Fe oxides and Cu – Au mineralisation are cogenetically deposited; and (iv) Fe oxide-poor
Cu – Au mineralisation, where relative Cu-rich mineralisation is associated with pyrrhotite and rare
magnetite, and is hosted in relatively reduced rocks such as carbonaceous metasedimentary rocks.
These categories reflect variations in fluid redox, f S, aFe, and temperature, as well as host-rock
composition. The spectrum from Cu-rich to Au-rich mineralisation is a common phenomenon in Fe
oxide – Cu – Au districts and predominantly reflects an increase in the redox of the ore-forming system.
The apparent relationship between pH and metal solubility at different redox conditions suggests that
Cu – Au mineralisation occurred as a result of decreasing fluid acidity by wall-rock reaction at the site
of ore deposition, or potentially by mixing of fluids of different acidity. Fluid mixing provides an
effective means to produce high-grade ore deposits via changing pH, cooling, and dilution in
hydrothermal systems involving little wall-rock interaction.
KEY WORDS: Fe oxide Cu – Au mineralisation, hematite, hydrothermal fluids, ironstones, magnetite,
Na – Ca alteration, Proterozoic.

INTRODUCTION dominate the group (Goad et al. 2000) (Table 1), although
significant resources were formed during the Archaean
The Fe oxide (Cu – Au) family of deposits provides an (e.g. Salobo deposit) and the Mesozoic (e.g. Candelaria).
attractive target for exploration given the large deposit Deposits included in this suite of ore occurrences exhibit a
size (e.g. 100 Mt to 41000 Mt) and diverse range of range of styles, and mineralogical (e.g. magnetite and
commodities. This style of mineralisation contains a hematite) and chemical (e.g. Fe, Cu, Au, Mo, and U)
spectrum of deposits (e.g. Olympic Dam, Candelaria and associations (Williams & Pollard 2003). Within this suite of
Starra), most of which are hosted by Precambrian rocks occurrences, the individual ore deposits preserve a
[e.g. Cloncurry district, Gawler–Curnamona Cratons variability in the timing and genetic relations between
and Tennant Creek, Australia (Johnson & Cross 1995; Cu and Au (and other metals) mineralisation and iron
Perkins & Wyborn 1998; Williams & Skirrow 2000; oxide deposition (Oreskes & Einaudi 1990; Cliff & Rickard
Gauthier et al. 2001; Skirrow & Walshe 2002); SE Missouri, 1992; Davidson 1992; Gow et al. 1994; Rotherham et al. 1998;
USA (Seeger 2000); Norrbotten, Sweden (Bergman Mark et al. 2000; Skirrow & Walshe 2002; Edfelt &
et al. 2001); Wernecke Mountains and Great Bear Bath- Martinsson 2003).
olith, Canada (Goad et al. 2000; Thorkelson et al. 2001); The genesis of these deposits is controversial, and
Carajas district, Brazil (Requia et al. 2003)] (Figure 1). hydrothermal models invoked for the origin of the
Late Palaeoproterozoic to Early Mesoproterozoic deposits ligands, sulfur and metals include both magmatic

*Corresponding author: [email protected]

ISSN 0812-0099 print/ISSN 1440-0952 online Ó Geological Society of Australia

DOI: 10.1080/08120090500434583
110 G. Mark et al.

Figure 1 Geology and mineral deposits of the Cloncurry district (after Williams 1998). See Figure 2 for published age
determinations of igneous intrusions, mineralisation and alteration.
Table 1 Characteristics of selected Cu – Au deposits in the Cloncurry district.

Deposits Size and grade Element associations Age (Ma) Host rocks Alteration Structure References
mineralogy
Fe oxide Cu – Au
Ernest Henry 166 Mt @ 1.1% Cu, Fe, Mo, As, Co, K, Ba, 41510 K-feldspar affected Kfs, Mag, Bio, Sps, Hydrothermal breccia Craske 1995; Ryan 1998;
0.54 Au, 180 ppm F, U, Ag and brecciated Hem, Py, Bar, sericitic system bound by shear Twyerould 1997; Mark
Mo meta-andesitic rocks Ms, Scp zones et al. 2000
Osborne 15.2 Mt @ 3.0% Cu, Fe, Co, Bi, W, Se, Hg, 1600 – 1540 Qtz-Mag and Hem Mag, Bio, Ab, Ms, Ab, Ductile shear zones Davidson et al. 1989a, b;
1.05 g/t Au Te, Cl, Sn, Mo, P, B ironstone, ironstone Qtz, Py, Po, Hem, in or near tight fold Adshead 1995;
schist within Amph, Cal structures? Adshead et al. 1998;
feldspathic arenite Gauthier et al. 2001
and pelite
Mt Elliott 3.3 Mt @ 3.6% Cu; F, P, Co, Ni, LREE, Mo 1505 Amphibolite, Dio, Scp, Mag, Py, Po, Veining and breccia Little 1997; Williams &
1.8 g/t Au carbonaceous schist Cpy in dilational jog: Skirrow 2000; Wang &
steep–moderate Williams 2001
dipping shear zones
Fe oxide-hosted Cu – Au
Starra 3.5 Mt @ 1.98% Cu, Fe, Co, W, Sn, F, Mo, 1505 Mag-Hem-Qtz altered Mag, Hem, Bar, Ab, Ductile shearing Davidson et al. 1989a, b;
5.0 g/t Au Y, REE and brecciated, Bio, Cal, Py, Act, Scp and brecciation Rotherham 1997;
Alb-Act altered Adshead-Bell 1998;
biotite schist Rotherham et al. 1998
Fe oxide-poor Cu – Au
Eloise 3.1 Mt @ 5.5% Cu, Co, Ni, As, Bi 1530 – 1514 Siliciclastic Po, Cpy, Chl, Act, Py, Veining/alteration Baker 1998; Baker &
1.4 g/t Au, 16 g/t Ag metasedimentary rocks Mag, Mus, Qtz in jog associated with Laing 1998; Baker
and amphibolite shear zones et al. 2001
Lady Clayre 5.0 Mt @ 1% Cu, Co, Ag, Ni, Bi, Mo, U 1540 – 1500 Albitised carbonaceous Qtz, Cal, Kfs, Dol, Chl, Veining Steep- Habermann 1999
0.5 g/t Au schist and siltstone Po, Py, Cpy moderate
dipping faults

Mineral abbreviations after Kretz (1983).

Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry
111
112 G. Mark et al.

(Rotherham et al. 1998; Mark et al. 2000; Williams & relationships between Fe oxide and Cu – Au mineralisa-
Skirrow 2000; Pollard 2001), and amagmatic variants tion of these deposits most likely reflects differences in
(Barton & Johnson 1996, 2000). This controversy is due their derivation from diverse fluid sources and/or
in part to the close temporal (and commonly spatial) interaction with compositionally distinct host rocks
association between intrusive activity, regional hydro- (Williams et al. 1999; Hitzman 2000). The geological
thermal alteration systems (Barton & Johnson 1996; arguments for the range in characteristics, particularly
Mark et al. 2004a), and C u– Au mineralisation (Hitzman the temporal and genetic relations between Fe oxide and
et al. 1992; Gow et al. 1994; Williams et al. 1995; Baker Cu – Au mineralisation, need to be rationalised to
et al. 2001; Oliver et al. 2004). improve classifications of this deposit style (Williams
A classification of Fe oxide – (Cu – Au–U–REE) depos- & Pollard 2003). This section will describe the broad
its by Hitzman et al. (1992) linked magnetite–apatite relationships between Cu – Au sulfide and Fe oxide
deposits and Cu – Au-mineralised Fe oxide deposits, but mineralisation using a selected group of deposits and
in a recent reappraisal, Hitzman (2000) concluded that hydrothermal systems in the Cloncurry district, and
the two represent essentially unrelated hydrothermal will discuss the significance of these for the ore genesis,
processes. In many ore systems, spatially overlapping ore grade, and geochemical character.
early Fe oxide and later Fe sulfide mineralisation
formed during different metallogenic periods separated
by as much as ten to over hundreds of million years
CLONCURRY DISTRICT
(Cliff & Rickard 1992; Skirrow 2000; Williams & Skirrow
2000; Skirrow & Walshe 2002; Sillitoe 2003). However, the Geological setting
occurrence of ironstones with and without Cu – Au
mineralisation in the same regions, arguably formed Forming the eastern exposed margin of the Mt Isa Inlier,
at the same time, has led to interpretation of an the Cloncurry district contains Fe oxide (Cu – Au)
underlying genetic relationship between the two types deposits (Figures 1, 2) hosted in felsic and mafic meta-
of deposit style (Oliver et al. 2004). This relationship may igneous rocks, and siliciclastic metasedimentary of
take the form of barren ironstones as the reactive hosts Palaeoproterozoic age (ca 1.74 – 1.66 Ga: Page & Sun
to later Cu – Au mineralisation (Starra Au – Cu and 1998; Giles & Nutman 2003). The district is composed
selected Tennant Creek deposits: Davidson 1992; Huston largely of two cover sequences (cover sequences 2 and 3)
et al. 1993; Rotherham 1997; Skirrow & Walshe 2002) or deposited during periods of rifting ca 1.74 Ga and ca
mineralised ironstones in which Fe-bearing fluids 1.67 – 1.61 Ga, respectively (Blake 1987; Pearson et al.
reacted with other (S-bearing) fluids to cause coprecipi- 1992; Page et al. 2000; Giles & Nutman 2003). These cover
tation of oxides and sulfides via fluid mixing (e.g. sequences underwent a protracted period of deforma-
Olympic Dam, Ernest Henry, and Sue Dianne). The tion and metamorphism during the Isan Orogeny (ca
diversity in the mineralogy, geochemistry and timing 1.60 – 1.50 Ga: Rubenach & Barker 1998; Davis et al. 2001;

Figure 2 Simplified representation of the temporal distribution of magmatism, tectonism, metamorphism, alteration and Cu –
Au mineralisation in the Cloncurry district. The relative ages of individual periods of alteration are constrained by their
relationship to various tectonic, metamorphic and magmatic events (Twyerould 1997; Mark 1998; Page & Sun 1998; Perkins &
Wyborn 1998; Pollard et al. 1998; Baker et al. 2001; Davis et al. 2001; Giles & Nutman 2002).
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 113

Giles & Nutman 2002). Regional greenschist to upper

Cu – Au mineralisation
amphibolite facies metamorphism peaked at ca 1.60 –
1.58 Ga (Rubenach et al. 2001; Giles & Nutman 2002), and Recent Ar–Ar (Twyerould 1997; Perkins & Wyborn 1998;
was followed by numerous periods of locally significant Baker et al. 2001; Wang & Williams 2001), U – Pb (Page &
episodic metamorphism between 1.55 and 1.50 Ga Sun 1998; Davis et al. 2001; Gauthier et al. 2001; Giles and
(Rubenach & Lewthwaite 2002; Foster 2003). A regional Nutman 2002, 2003; Oliver et al. 2004), and Re – Os
association between localised post-peak metamorphic (Gauthier et al. 2001) age dating studies of the timing
corridors of intense deformation and Fe – Cu – Au miner- of Cu – Au mineralisation, regional alteration, magma-
alisation has been recognised by many workers in the tism, and peak of metamorphism in the Cloncurry
Cloncurry district (Rotherham 1997; Adshead-Bell 1998; district have shown that the Cu – Au deposits were
Baker & Laing 1998; Mark et al. 2000). However, the age formed after the metamorphic peak and were mainly
and relative timing of the syn-ore fabrics with respect to produced coincident with the emplacement of the
the local structural evolution vary throughout the younger phases of the Williams and Naraku
district. Batholiths (ca 1.55 – 1.50 Ga). However, the Osborne
deposit represents an outliner to the other deposits,
where U – PbTitanite and Re – OsMolybdenite ages (Gauthier
Intrusions
et al. 2001) show a close temporal relationship between
The cover sequence rocks were intruded by a number of sodic alteration and Cu – Au mineralisation ca 1.60 – 1.59
geochemically distinct suites of post-peak metamorphic Ga in the absence of coeval batholith-scale magmatism.
intrusions that comprise the Williams and Naraku A dominant magmatic/metamorphic signature for the
Batholiths. These intrusions were largely emplaced fluids associated with many of Cu – Au deposits in the
between 1.55 and 1.50 Ga, and are dominated by Cloncurry district is recorded in their stable-isotope and
metaluminous, potassic, magnetite-bearing intrusive fluid-inclusion record (Davidson & Dixon 1992; Adshead
rocks (Page & Sun 1998; Pollard et al. 1998; Davis et al. 1996; Baker 1998; Rotherham 1997; Twyerould 1997;
2001). Y-depleted, sodium-rich tonalite – trondhjemite – Rotherham et al. 1998; Baker et al. 2001; Mark et al.
granodiorite-series intrusions are locally significant 2005). However, the degree to which isotope resetting by
and were emplaced during east – west subhorizontal leaching along the fluid path masks the nature of the
compression ca 1.55 Ga (Page & Sun 1998). The main original fluid(s) is controversial (Haynes 2000), which
(potassic) phases of the batholiths are composed of indicates that further geochemical work using less
alkaline to subalkaline granitoids (Pollard et al. 1998; reactive tracers is required to fingerprint the likely
Wyborn 1998) that typically plot as ‘Within-plate’ and source(s) of the fluids and understand their impact on
‘A-type’ on granite tectonic discrimination diagrams ore system geochemistry and mineralogy.
(Pollard et al. 1998; Mark 1999). These younger intru-
sions are typically more oxidised than compositionally
similar older (ca 1.67 Ga) granitoids west of Mt Isa, EXAMPLES OF Fe OXIDE (Cu – Au)
where the few intrusive masses of intermediate compo- MINERALISATION
sition correspond to localised magma mingling and
exhibit an apparent bimodal compositional distribution, The aim of this section is to outline the geology and
ranging from diorite to syenogranite. hydrothermal characteristics of a selected group of
deposits and regional hydrothermal associations that
represent the spectrum of relations between Fe
Regional alteration
oxide and Cu – Au mineralisation formed during the
Region-wide (hundreds of square kilometres) Na and Isan Orogeny.
Na – Ca alteration in the Cloncurry district formed
broadly synchronous with the emplacement of the
Magnetite-rich ironstone deposits
Williams and Naraku Batholiths (Oliver et al. 2004),
although older volumetrically significant albitisation The Cloncurry district is endowed with numerous,
has been documented at Osborne (ca 1595 Ma: Rube- largely magnetite-dominant, ironstones of both synsedi-
nach et al. 2001) and in other psammo-pelitic rocks mentary (e.g. Monakoff ironstone and Weatherly Creek
elsewhere (Rubenach & Lewthwaite 2002). Na – Ca iron-formation: Davidson 1998; Davidson et al. 2002;
alteration produced magnetite-bearing, albitic plagio- Hatton & Davidson 2004) and post-peak metamorphic
clase, diopside and actinolite-rich mineral associations origin (e.g. Starra ironstones: Rotherham 1997). The
that affected all rock types. Fe, K and Ba, and post-peak metamorphic ironstones are more common
commonly Cu, are typically lost during the alteration and are the focus of this section, although the synsedi-
process (Williams 1994; Mark 1998; Oliver et al. 2004), mentary ironstones commonly exhibit spatial
although Fe, mainly as magnetite, is present in the associations with Cu – Au mineralisation (e.g. Mt Freda
vein and breccia networks (Mark 1996). Most Cu – Au and Monakoff deposits: Davidson et al. 1989a, b, 2002;
mineralisation is hosted in rocks previously affected by Davidson 1998; Hatton & Davidson 2004).
albitisation, the latter being essentially indistinguish- Generally, hydrothermally derived ironstones occur as
able from regionally extensive Na – Ca hydrothermal either lenticular or vertical bodies associated with dila-
alteration (Adshead 1996; Baker 1996; Mark 1998; tion within, or intersection between, fault/shear zones
Rotherham et al. 1998; Rubenach & Barker 1998; Mark (Valenta 2000). Ironstones are hosted in a range of rock
et al. 2000, 2004a; Oliver et al. 2004). types (e.g. calc-silicate, siliciclastic metasedimentary
114 G. Mark et al.

rocks, and mafic and felsic meta-igneous rocks), and Au – Cu mineralisation preferentially occurring in iron-
typically form as metasomatic replacement and/or hydro- stones, Au-only, Cu-only and barren ironstones also
thermal infill. These bodies are predominantly composed exist (Rotherham 1997).
of magnetite, although hematite can be locally significant
(e.g. the Eastern hematite ironstones near the Starra Au –
Ernest Henry Cu – Au deposit
Cu deposit: Davidson 1992; Rotherham et al. 1998) with
lesser amounts of quartz, albitic plagioclase, scapolite, The Ernest Henry Cu – Au deposit is hosted in Palaeo-
low-Al amphibole, apatite, diopside, and other accessory proterozoic plagioclase phyric meta-andesites (ca 1.74
minerals. Evidence for a direct magmatic origin for at Ga: Page & Sun 1998) that are unconformably overlain
least some of the magnetite ironstones is preserved in the by 30 m of Mesozoic cover. The orebody is bound by two
carapace of some K-rich intrusions of the Williams and northeast-trending shear zones that dip (*508) towards
Naraku Batholiths, where large magnetite ironstones (up the southeast. Cu – Au mineralisation is hosted largely
to 3000 Mt: Perring et al. 2001) formed in association with in a pipe-like breccia body that extends 41400 m
the production and exsolution of Fe-, Cu- and Ba-rich downdip. The transition from matrix-supported breccia
hypersaline fluids (Perring et al. 2000) late in the intru- to peripheral crackle veining is typically sharp (1 – 5 m)
sion’s evolution. and largely marks the edge of the mining resource.
The host-rock sequence around the Ernest Henry
deposit has been affected by multiple stages of hydro-
Starra Au – Cu deposit
thermal alteration produced during three main stages of
The Starra orebodies represent the only Au-rich member post-peak metamorphic hydrothermal alteration miner-
of the Cu – Au occurrences associated with ironstone als, which progressed temporally from: (i) Na – Ca
mineralisation in the Eastern Fold Belt, although the alteration; (ii) Pre-ore K, Fe, Mn, and Ba alteration; to
Tick Hill Au deposit (Forrestal et al. 1998a, b) may also (iii) Cu – Au mineralisation and K alteration. The
share a similar association. The Starra orebodies are sequence of pre- to syn-ore events also marks the
hosted in the Staveley Formation metasedimentary rocks progression from magnetite- to hematite-stable condi-
of the Mary Kathleen Group. Amphibolite bodies are also tions with the transition approximating the time of ore
common inclusions in the metasedimentary units, and formation.
both are significantly affected locally by intense post-peak Stage 1 Na and Na – Ca alteration is associated with
metamorphic albitisation. The magnetite-rich ironstones extensive albitisation along northeast-trending shear
hosting Au – Cu mineralisation are referred to as zones, near to, and including, the footwall and hanging-
the Western ironstones (Davidson et al. 1989a, b), and are wall shear zones. These hydrothermal stages are
composed of coarse- to medium-grained magnetite þ identical to styles of veining and alteration associated
quartz + biotite, and where mineralised also contain with regional Na – Ca alteration prevalent throughout
fine-grained hematite + calcite + native gold + pyrite + the Cloncurry district (Oliver et al. 2004). The shear
chalcopyrite + chlorite (Rotherham 1997). zones are characterised by albitic plagioclase-, magne-
The Western ironstones occur in the Starra shear tite-, clinopyroxene- and amphibole-rich veining, fault-
zone, a major north–south-striking structural feature related breccia-fill and associated alteration.
that is expressed as a 1-km-wide high-strain zone in the Stage 2 F, Fe, Mn, and Ba alteration is typified by
mine area that developed towards the end of the Isan K-feldspar-, biotite-, amphibole-, magnetite-, garnet- and
Orogeny (Adshead-Bell 1998). Au – Cu mineralisation is carbonate-bearing veins and minor breccia that extends
generally confined to the ironstones, although the foot- for *1.5 km from the orebody. Similar mineralogical
wall rocks contain weakly Au-mineralised breccias and associations also occur at the other Cu – Au and Pb – Zn
chlorite – magnetite schists. The timing of ironstone deposits in the district, with aspects of the mineralogical
formation has been controversial (Davidson et al. and geochemical halo around the Monakoff Cu – Au
1989a, b; Davidson 1994; Rotherham 1997), although a deposit bearing the closest affinity to Ernest Henry ore-
postulated post-peak metamorphic timing for ironstone related alteration, although it lacks a K-feldspar halo
formation is most consistent with the paragenetic and (Davidson et al. 2002). Temperature constraints for
structural arguments (Rotherham 1997; Adshead-Bell alteration fall between 400 and 5508C (Twyerould 1997;
1998), and the ca 1503 Ma age for ore formation (Perkins Mark et al. 2000).
& Wyborn 1998). Stage 3 veining, breccia, and alteration is broadly
The evolution of the hydrothermal system is inter- coincident with Cu – Au mineralisation and the
preted to have occurred in three stages: (i) early Na – Ca major tectonic fabric that defines the bounding foot-
alteration (albitic plagioclase, actinolite) of metamor- wall and hangingwall contacts. The stage is marked
phosed metasedimentary rocks; (ii) Fe – K metasoma- by early extensive potassic alteration of the host
tism (magnetite, biotite, hematite) associated with rocks, which is most intense nearer to the ore.
the formation of magnetite and/or hematite-rich The main body of economic mineralisation is hosted
massive to breccia-hosted ironstones along the by infill-supported breccia that consists of rounded to
Selwyn high-strain zone (ca 1503 Ma); and (iii) Au – Cu subrounded clasts of K-feldspar-altered meta-andesite.
mineralisation (pyrite, gold, chalcopyrite, barite, hema- The infill to the clasts is typically fine- to medium-
tite, calcite, anhydrite, magnetite) associated with grained, is commonly extensively recrystallised, and
selective hematisation of stage 2 magnetite-rich typically contains primary magnetite, calcite, biotite,
ironstones. Gold occurs as inclusions in chalcopyrite chalcopyrite, pyrite, K-feldspar, quartz, barite, and
and hematite as well as fine grains in calcite. Despite fluorite.
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 115

fault movement along the main bounding faults (Garrett

Osborne Cu – Au
1992; Little 1997) and is associated with variable
The Osborne deposit is concealed beneath 20 – 40 m of magnetite content, with amphibolite-hosted Cu – Au
Mesozoic cover, and is hosted by a sequence of multiply mineralisation being relatively magnetite-rich, whereas
deformed and metamorphosed Proterozoic metasedi- metasedimentary-hosted mineralisation is relatively
mentary rocks and mafic meta-igneous rocks of the magnetite-poor (Little 1997). Garrett (1992) also noted a
Soldiers Cap Group. Feldspathic psammite and pelite systematic change in the sulfide–oxide mineral assem-
are the dominant host rocks, and are broadly similar in blage of the ore from magnetite- to pyrite–pyrrhotite- to
character to the ca 1.68 – 1.66 Ga host rocks (Giles & pyrrhotite-rich with increasing proximity to the carbo-
Nutman 2003) to the Cannington Ag–Pb – Zn deposit. naceous host rocks. An apparent host-rock control in
Osborne is divided into the Western and Eastern gangue mineralogy is consistent with the observations
domains by the near-vertical, post-mineralisation Awe- of Haynes (2000), and shows that this deposit preserves
some Fault. Most of the Cu – Au mineralisation occurs mineralogical characteristics directly associated with
along the contacts between the upper banded ironstone the redox of the host rocks. Similar redox associations
and the feldspathic psammite. The origin of the may also be manifest at the Greenmont Cu – Au deposit
magnetite ironstones at Osborne, particularly the finely (Krcmarov & Stewart 1998).
banded examples, are controversial, and interpretations
include synsedimentary to post-peak metamorphic-
epigenetic origins (Davidson et al. 1989a, b; Adshead
Eloise Cu – Au
1995). 40Ar/39Ar dating of secondary hornblende that
paragenetically pre-dates, but is closely temporally The Eloise Cu – Au deposit is largely hosted in meta-
associated with, the deposition of copper and gold gave arkose, quartz–biotite schist and amphibolite of cover
an age ca 1540 Ma (Perkins & Wyborn 1998). This is sequence 3. The Eloise Cu – Au system formed during
significantly younger than ages obtained from amphi- the waning periods of the Isan Orogeny and is bound
bole (ca 1595 Ma) and biotite (ca 1568 Ma) that were by parts of the Levuka and Southern Shear Zones
interpreted as metamorphic (Perkins & Wyborn 1998). within a dilational feature known as the Levuka jog
These ages, together with paragenetic criteria, were (Baker & Laing 1998). Magnetic highs are spatially
used to suggest Cu – Au mineralisation occurred after related to portions of these structural features, but
the metamorphic peak (Adshead et al. 1998). However, Cu – Au mineralisation is mainly distal to zones of
Re – Os ages of molybdenite associated with Cu – Au highest magnetic intensity. The Levuka jog represents
mineralisation indicate ore formation may have oc- the major fluid channel, where alteration and Cu – Au
curred much earlier ca 1.60 – 1.59 Ga (1595 + 5, 1600 + 6 mineralisation occurred synchronously with ductile–
Ma: Gauthier et al. 2001), and immediately post-dated the brittle deformation, and were emplaced variously in
metamorphic peak (Rubenach et al. 2001). ductile shear zones, cleavage, brittle stockworks and
Despite most Cu – Au mineralisation occurring in the faults (Baker & Laing 1998). The most intense and
western domain, a discrete body of mineralisation also widespread alteration occurs in and adjacent to a splay
occurs in the eastern domain. It is not spatially related in the Levuka Shear Zone, a bend in the Southern Shear
to magnetite ironstones (Adshead et al. 1998), and is Zone, and along a coincident D3 fold hinge (Baker &
hosted within extensively silicified rocks. These do- Laing 1998).
mains contain more reduced associations of pyrrhotite– The majority of the deposit is contained in the Elrose
magnetite + pyrite compared with the more oxidised and Levuka lodes that have relatively narrow alteration
hematite–magnetite–pyrite altered ironstone in the haloes compared with the more intense and widespread
western domain. alteration in the Southern Shear Zone. These lodes have
a north–south strike, steep to vertical dip and moderate
south plunge, and are associated with highly strained
and altered rocks that form part of the Eloise Shear Zone
Mt Elliott Cu – Au
(Baker 1998). The lodes are largely composed of chalco-
The Mt Elliott Cu – Au deposit is hosted in multiply pyrite and are pyrrhotite-rich, with minor magnetite þ
deformed and extensively skarn-altered metasedimen- pyrite. The paragenesis of alteration and Cu – Au
tary rocks (e.g. schist and carbonaceous phyllite) and mineralisation comprises three volumetrically signifi-
amphibolite of Palaeoproterozoic age (Garrett 1992; cant stages: (i) extensive albitisation probably
Little 1997; Wang & Williams 2001). The hydrothermally associated with early post-peak metamorphic regional
altered rocks that host the deposit preserve four main alteration widely observed in the Cloncurry district
stages of alteration that cut peak-metamorphic amphi- (Baker & Laing 1998); (ii) high-temperature (44508C)
bolite–facies rocks: (i) early silicification; (ii) hornblende-, biotite-, magnetite- and quartz-bearing
albitisation; (iii) diopside-, scapolite- and actinolite-rich veining and wall-rock alteration (ca 1530 Ma: Baker
skarn-like alteration; and (iv) Cu – Au mineralisation et al. 2001); and (iii) Cu – Au mineralisation mainly
associated with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, magnetite, associated with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite
pyrite and calcite. Albitised rocks commonly host stages (200 – 4508C) in veins that overprint the earlier products
(iii) and (iv) mineralisation (Little 1997), which were of stage (ii) veins. Gangue mineral assemblages of
largely formed in association with extensive brecciation quartz + calcite + chlorite + muscovite + actinolite im-
and vein formation (Garrett 1992; Wang & Williams ply Cu – Au mineralisation during the retrograde fluid
2001). Cu – Au mineralisation is associated with reverse flow (Baker 1998; Baker et al. 2001).
116 G. Mark et al.

(and Cu) during Na – Ca metasomatism and their gain

Lady Clayre Cu – Au
during subsequent, structurally controlled Cu – Au
The Lady Clayre Cu – Au deposit is a structurally mineralisation (Williams 1994; Barton & Johnson 1996;
controlled, post-peak metamorphic hydrothermal sys- Mark & de Jong 1996; Oliver et al. 2004). A link between
tem hosted in carbonaceous schist and calcareous magmas and Na – Ca metasomatism was described by
feldspathic metasiltstone of cover sequence 2 rocks. Perring et al. (2000) in the magmatic–hydrothermal
The Lady Clayre hydrothermal system, which is sequence at the Lightning Creek prospect (Figure 3)
essentially Fe oxide deficient, is largely represented and the Mt Angelay igneous complex (Mark et al.
by four main post-peak metamorphic hydrothermal 2004a). This relationship is preserved in several
stages: (i) vein-controlled albitisation; (ii) biotite- and localities where the magmatic–hydrothermal transition
scapolite-rich Na – Cl – K – Fe – Ca – Mg metasomatism; in the intrusion’s carapace consists of highly
(iii) localised albite–K-feldspar-rich veining; and evolved magmatic differentiates intergrown with
(iv) Cu – Au mineralisation that is mainly associated high-temperature (45008C), hydrothermally derived
with chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and pyrite, as well as albite, amphibole, clinopyroxene and apatite (Nunn
carbonate vein fill and muscovite-rich mineralisation 1995; Tolman 1998; Mark & Foster 2000; Perring et al.
(Habermann 1999). Sulfide mineralisation (ca 375 – 2000; Mark et al. 2004a).
3008C) is largely structurally controlled and occurs in Comparisons of stable-isotope data from ore-stage
dilational veins and breccias associated with brittle sulfides, oxides and silicates indicate that most
deformation of alkali feldspar altered host rocks, Cloncurry deposits, excluding those deposits hosted
and was deposited from moderately hot (*375 – in sulfide-bearing metasedimentary rocks, were
3008C), highly saline fluids (426 wt% NaClequiv) formed from fluids with relatively restricted ranges
(Habermann 1999). in d18O and d34S. Calculated d18Ofluid of the ore-stage
fluids and d34S of ore chalcopyrite mainly range
between þ 6 and þ 11% and – 3 to þ 3%, respectively
Similar Cu – rich deposits
(Figure 5) (Davidson & Dixon 1992; Adshead 1995;
Other examples of Cu – Au systems include the Mt Twyerould 1997; Rotherham et al. 1998; Mark et al.
Freda, Greenmont, Young Australia and Mt Dore 2000; Baker et al. 2001). Whilst there is a significant
deposits, which also occur in carbonaceous and calcar- range in d18Ofluid between the deposits, most indivi-
eous host rocks (Cannel & Davidson 1998; Davidson 1998; dual occurrences exhibit much smaller ranges (53%).
Krcmarov & Stewart 1998; Williams 1998). The Osborne deposit represents one major exception
and exhibits a 46% spread in magnetite alone.
This spread is manifest as two compositionally
distinct populations where the magnetite ironstones
DISCUSSION
represent a group with low d18Ofluid (þ 5.7 to þ 8.9%,
Fluid affinities avg. 6.8 + 1.0%), whereas magnetite associated with
Cu – Au mineralisation and late silica flowing form
The broadly contemporaneous relationship between a population with a relatively high d18Ofluid (þ 8.6 to
the emplacement of the younger phases of the þ 12.0%, avg. 10.0 + 1.1%: data from Adshead 1995).
Williams and Naraku Batholiths (1.55 – 1.50 Ga), regio- Temperature variation alone cannot explain the
nal alteration (1.59 – 1.50 Ga: Oliver et al. 2004), and compositional differences between the two popula-
Cu – Au + Fe oxide mineralisation (1.60 Ga, 1.54 – tions, and indicate that they originated from
1.50 Ga) suggests that the younger magmatic intru- dissimilar sources. The magnetite ironstones may
sions played a significant role in the generation of have been derived from mafic igneous rocks, meta-
large-scale alteration systems associated with consid- morphic fluids, meteoric waters and/or seawater,
erable mass transfer, and localised sulfide and Fe whereas the second population may have been ex-
oxide mineralisation (Figure 3). These associations are solved from felsic igneous rocks and/or surrounding
commonly reported in Fe oxide Cu – Au terranes metamorphic country rocks. No such compositional
(Hitzman et al. 1992; Williams et al. 1995; Barton & distinction is apparent in the d18Ofluid between the
Johnson 1996), where the main contention between magnetite ironstones (avg. 8.2 + 1.0%: data from
different geological models relate to the provenance of Rotherham et al. 1998) and magnetite in veins (avg.
fluids (e.g. igneous, metamorphic or basinal) and fluid 8.2 + 0.4%: data from Rotherham et al. 1998) at the
salinity, as well as the primary origin and distribution Starra deposit. However, considered together, fluids in
of base and precious metals, and sulfur (Davidson & most of the deposits record isotopic signals of a
Dixon 1992; Davidson 1998; Barton & Johnson 2000; dominant magmatic component, with potential host
Hitzman 2000; Pollard 2001). rock or metamorphic fluid contribution to the ore-
The paragenesis of the Cu – Au mineralised systems forming fluids (Figures 5a, 6). This conclusion is
in the Cloncurry district shows that the majority of largely supported by the d34S data, although the spread
deposits record Na and/or Na – Ca metasomatism prior to relatively low d34S for chalcopyrite at the Mt Elliott,
to, but not after, Cu – Au mineralisation (Figures 2 – 4). Starra and Mt Roseby indicates that shale-derived
This observation has been made in most deposits within sulfur may have made a more significant contribution
the global iron oxide Cu – Au suite of occurrences to the total sulfur budget at these deposits (Davidson &
(Hitzman et al. 1992; Hitzman 2000) and is commonly Dixon 1992; Garrett 1992; Rotherham et al. 1998; Baker
used to indicate a causal link between the loss of Fe, K et al. 2001).
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 117

Figure 3 Schematic geological diagram of the relationship between rock types, regional alteration, magmatism, Fe oxide and
Cu – Au mineralisation in the Cloncurry district (adapted from Williams et al. 1995; Adshead et al. 1998; Baker 1998; Davidson
1998; Rotherham et al. 1998; Williams 1998; Mark et al. 2000).

Controls on ore deposition nant in the vicinity of the ore deposit. K-feldspar is also
associated with Cu – Au mineralisation at the relatively
STRUCTURAL ASPECTS
Fe oxide-deficient Lady Clayre and Mt Dore deposits,
In the majority of deposits in the Cloncurry district, although it is by and large volumetrically insignificant.
albitisation is the dominant style of alkali alteration, The typical effects of extensive alkali alteration,
although at Ernest Henry, K-feldspathisation is domi- whether they be sodic or potassic, are to produce
118 G. Mark et al.

Figure 4 Schematic diagram showing the timing and spatial relationships of hydrothermal alteration, Fe oxides and sulfide
minerals deposited with variable Cu – Au endowments: (a) Cu – Au deposits (e.g. Ernest Henry). (b) Au-rich deposits (e.g.
Starra). (c) Cu-rich deposits (e.g. Eloise).

competent bodies of rock that facilitate dilation during between feldspathic and phyllosilicate- or carbonate-
later tectonism, with dilatant sites acting as subsequent rich rocks. These rheological heterogeneities, whether
conduits for ore-forming fluids (Garrett 1992; Adshead- primary or related to early alteration, are important
Bell 1998; Davidson 1998; Mark 1998; Habermann 1999). controls at most deposits in the district (Adshead-Bell
All deposits in the Cloncurry district are structurally 1998; Baker 1998; Baker & Laing 1998; Krcmarov &
controlled and occur in dilational sites within shear Stewart 1998; Mark et al. 2000). However, even though
zones of variable dip and orientation. However, most of these features were probably crucial for the localisation
the larger deposits (e.g. Ernest Henry, Osborne, Mt of ore fluids, other factors [e.g. age and orientation of the
Elliott, Starra and Eloise) are associated with steep to host structure; age and composition of proximal intru-
moderately dipping northwest – southeast- to northeast – sions; ore fluid(s) composition, pH and redox; host-rock
southwest-trending shear/fault zones that occur as composition; proximity to source; and degree of fluid
splays off larger fault systems (Garrett 1992; Adshead- mixing or unmixing] also control the ore-forming
Bell 1998; Valenta 2000). The host structures at each of process.
these deposits also preserve a protracted period of
hydrothermal activity, which largely progresses from
CHEMICAL – MINERALOGICAL ASPECTS
early Na and/or Na – Ca metasomatism to ore-related
hydrothermal mineral associations (Little 1997; Rother- The Cu – Au systems in the Cloncurry district display
ham 1997; Adshead et al. 1998; Baker 1998; Cannel & mineralogical and geochemical diversity, but never-
Davidson 1998; Mark et al. 2000) (Figure 4). theless the ore fluids probably had broadly comparable
It thus appears that extensive alkali alteration and initial d18O and d34S. This characteristic indicates that,
later coincident brittle failure are common at most Cu – on the whole, the ore systems formed from similar
Au deposits in the Cloncurry district, and are associated sources and that their variance reflects changes in:
with heterogeneity in the mechanical behaviour (i) the composition or oxidation state of the source
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 119

Figure 5 (a) Distribution of the calculated d18Ofluid composition using magnetite associated with selected Cu – Au deposits and
regional alteration in the Cloncurry district (Adshead 1996; Baker 1996; Little 1997; Twyerould 1997; Rotherham et al. 1998;
Mark et al. 2000, 2004a). The fractionation constant of Zheng and Simon (1991) was used to calculate d18Ofluid from the
interpreted temperatures of ore formation and/or alteration. Osborne qtz fl., Osborne silica flooding; Osborne irons.,
Osborne ironstone. (b) Distribution of the d34S of chalcopyrite at the Eloise, Ernest Henry, Magnet, Mt Elliott, Osborne,
Roseby and Starra Cu – Au deposits in the Cloncurry district (Davidson & Dixon 1992; Adshead 1996; Baker 1996; Little 1997;
Twyerould 1997; Rotherham et al. 1998; Mark et al. 2000).

rocks; (ii) changes in the conditions (e.g. T, P, f O2) of ore ironstones could be formed by post-depositional hydro-
formation; (iii) mass exchange with country rocks en thermal modification, or produced directly as hydro-
route to the site of deposition (Haynes 2000); or (iv) fluid thermal products of either of the aforementioned
mixing (Garrett 1992; Mark et al. 2000; Williams et al. fluids, or in some cases by the interaction of two or
2001). Combinations of these processes have been more fluids (e.g. Ernest Henry: Mark et al. 2000). Both
implicated in the ore-forming process and character of sets of fluids may have contributed to the overall fluid
the ore at several of the Cloncurry district’s Cu – Au budget linked to ore deposition.
deposits (Adshead 1995; Little 1997; Baker et al. 2001; Despite the global diversity of the iron oxide Cu – Au
Davidson 1998; Rotherham et al. 1998; Williams et al. family (Haynes 2000; Hitzman 2000; Williams & Skirrow
2001). 2000) detailed work by numerous workers in the
Cloncurry district and the geologically similar Olary
Province in South Australia (Williams & Skirrow 2000;
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CONTROLS ON THE RELATIONSHIPS
Williams & Pollard 2003) has shown that deposits of
BETWEEN Fe OXIDE AND Cu – Au MINERALISATION
broadly the same age and tectonic setting exhibit a
All of the above parameters affect the timing, concen- range in mineralogical and geochemical characteristics,
tration, and type of Fe oxides associated with which for simplicity can be grouped into four cate-
mineralisation. However, the main relationships to gories. These are discussed here in the context of the
consider are changes in f S2, T, fluid salinity, f O2, pH, Cloncurry district systems (Figure 3).
and P, which affect the stability and solubility of Fe Category 1 mineralisation brings together a group of
oxides and Fe sulfides in hydrothermal systems (Chou & Fe oxide-rich rocks devoid of sulfide mineralisation and
Eugster 1977; Hemley et al. 1992; McPhail 1993; Sver- formed by hydrothermal processes mainly between 300
jensky et al. 1997). There are two main possibilities for and 4 5008C (Adshead 1995; Perring et al. 2000; Rother-
the origin of the Fe in these hydrothermal systems: (i) ham et al. 1998). These deposit types are linked to
magmatic-derived Fe-rich fluids (Perring et al. 2000); and regional hydrothermal alteration systems and range
(ii) Fe-rich fluids associated with Na – Ca metasomatism from magnetite- through to hematite-rich, although only
of the country rocks (Williams 1994; Mark 1998; magnetite-rich systems contain apatite, amphibole, and
Oliver et al. 2004). Barren magnetite and/or hematite diopside.
120 G. Mark et al.

Figure 6 d18OH2O vs dDH2O plot

presenting the relations between
the fluids associated with Cu – Au
mineralisation (filled squares),
regional Na – Ca hydrothermal al-
teration and late epithermal-style
quartz veining (modified after
Mark et al. 2004b). The fields are
after Rollinson (1993), in addition
to those for high-temperature vol-
canic vapours (Giggenbach 1992)
and felsic magmas (Taylor 1992).

Category 2 mineralisation essentially describes de- deposits in this category are interpreted to have formed
posits formed by preferential oxidation of relatively via mixing of two or more fluids [e.g. Ernest Henry
reduced magnetite ironstones by oxidised (hematite- (Mark et al. 2000); Monakoff (Davidson et al. 2002)] and
stable) fluids associated with Cu – Au mineralisation. are easily discernible as they are enriched in a range of
This mechanism for Cu – Au mineralisation is invoked alkali, alkaline earth, siderophile, and chalcophile
for deposits in the Cloncurry district (e.g. Starra) and elements not usually preserved at other deposits
Tennant Creek field (e.g. Gecko and White Devil) and (e.g. U, REE, Ag, Co, As, Mo, W, Sn, Ba, K, F, C and
need not require a common source for Fe oxide and Cu – Ca) (Figure 4a). In particular, the presence of abundant
Au mineralisation. However, a genetic link has been barite and fluorite—both minerals with vanishingly low
proposed for the Starra and Osborne deposits (Adshead solubility under most hydrothermal conditions—in late-
1995; Rotherham et al. 1998) (Figure 4b, c). stage ore parageneses at Ernest Henry and Starra
Category 3 mineralisation (e.g. Ernest Henry, suggests an important role for fluid mixing in ore
Osborne, and Mt Elliott) describes deposits where most deposition. Because barium and calcium chlorides
of the Fe oxides associated with the ore-forming have been identified from fluid-inclusion populations
hydrothermal system were deposited with Cu – Au (Williams et al. 2001), the implication is that sulfur was
mineralisation. This implies that rapid changes in the probably carried in fluids other than those carrying Ba
intrinsic parameters (e.g. cooling, depressurisation and and Ca. The strong association of barite and sulfide
fluid mixing) of the ore-stage fluids were associated with minerals at Ernest Henry is thus strongly supportive of
the concentration of minerals with different solubility the mixing of two distinctive fluids (Mark et al. 2000;
characteristics. This style of mineralisation is typically Oliver et al. 2004).
associated with dilation developed during syn-ore move- Category 4 mineralisation (e.g. Lady Clayre, Mt Dore,
ment along small- to large-scale fault/shear zones. Many Eloise and Mt Elliott) has an ore mineralogical char-
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 121

acter that is typically governed by the reduced redox of

the host rocks (Figure 4c). Interaction between the fluid
and the host rocks (e.g. carbonaceous shale
or amphibolite: Garrett 1992; Baker 1998; Cannel &
Davidson 1998) inhibited the deposition of iron oxides,
and instead the ore-forming fluids deposited reduced
gangue minerals, which preferentially altered silicates
and oxides in the host sequence (Davidson 1998). The
implied fluid reduction by rock suggests relatively
lower fluid/rock ratios for these systems and hence a
small deposit size: no very large examples are known in
the Cloncurry district. Cu – Au mineralisation is typi-
cally structurally controlled and is hosted in brittle –
ductile vein associations (Krcmarov & Stewart 1998;
Habermann 1999). This deposit type has been described
as the iron sulfide – copper(– gold) variant of the Fe oxide
Cu – Au family by Haynes (2000).

ROLE OF REDOX AND pH

The Cloncurry district deposits exhibit a range in Cu:Au

ratios, which in general, increase from category 2 to 4,
and are broadly reflected in the mineralogy of the ore
assemblage. Category 2 oxidised hematite- and pyrite-
stable replacement-style deposits have high Au:Cu;
category 3 magnetite-, pyrite- + pyrrhotite- stable depos-
its have intermediate Au:Cu; and category 4 reduced
pyrrhotite-rich deposits have low Au:Cu ratios. This
consistent mineralogical association is interpreted as Figure 7 pH vs log f O2 diagram outlining the stability
largely a reflection of ore fluid f O2, where more oxidised relations between minerals in the Fe – S – O system at 4508C
fluids deposit ore with higher Au:Cu. Similar associa- and 200 MPa. The solubility relationships of Cu and Au in
tions were also discussed for the distribution of metals saline, high-temperature solutions show how the Au:Cu
in Mt Freda-style Cu – Au deposits in the Cloncurry tenor of the ore tends to lower values with decreasing f O2
(cf. Huston & Large 1989; Bastrakov et al. 2004; Cheverley &
district, and selected Au – Cu deposits in Tennant Creek
Oliver 2005; Mark et al. 2005).
by Davidson (1998) and Huston et al. (1993), respectively.
The interpretation for the Cloncurry district is consis-
tent with the high-T (300 – 5008C) and high salinity
character (426 to 70 wt% NaClequiv) of ore-stage fluids suggests that local wall-rock interaction at the site of
in the Cu – Au deposits. Copper was probably carried Cu – Au mineralisation may play a significant role in the
mostly as chloride complexes and gold as both chloride localisation of ore. With this in mind most systems
and hydroxide species, such that the two metals display should exhibit close correlations between ore tenor and
different solubilities under various redox conditions the degree of rock interaction, where tenor is largest in
(Figure 7). The dominant magmatic character of the ore- regions experiencing the greatest host-rock interaction.
stage fluids can be used to indicate that the differences However, most of the deposits, and in particular the
in the redox values probably reflects a combination of larger examples, show that the ore predominantly
the oxidation state of the fluid source and that of the occurs in areas of greatest dilation (e.g. veins and
host rocks at the location of ore deposition. The breccias) and thus the smallest host-rock influence.
prevalence of high-T, magnetite-stable Cu – Au miner- Consequently, coincident changes in metal solubility
alisation in the Cloncurry district systems is also and fluid pH within these dilational zones may have
consistent with the dominantly magnetite-bearing char- resulted by fluid mixing. This interpretation is consis-
acter of the 1.55 – 1.50 Ga intrusions of the Williams and tent with the presence of more than one primary
Naraku Batholiths (Pollard et al. 1998; Wyborn 1998). fluid type involved in Cu – Au mineralisation in the
However, even though this broad association holds at a Cloncurry district (Baker 1998; Mark et al. 2000;
deposit-scale for a number of larger occurrences, which Williams et al. 2001), and may also indicate that fluid
is likely to indicate that the source fluids carried Cu and mixing was an important process in ore deposition that
Au in similar proportions to that preserved in the involved changing pH, cooling, and dilution.
deposits, significant internal spread in Cu:Au ratios
within systems reflects local variations in fluid compo-
sition, degree of fluid–rock interaction, and/or intrinsic ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
parameters (e.g. T, P, pH, redox, f S) that affected metal
solubility during ore deposition. GM is a Logan Fellow at Monash University. This work
The apparent association between ore deposition and was made possible by financial support provided by
increasing pH at different redox conditions (Figure 7) Ernest Henry Mining Pty Ltd, MIM Exploration and
122 G. Mark et al.

Australian Research Council SPIRT grants to Oliver, CHOU I-M. & EUGSTER H. P. 1977. Solubility of magnetite in
supercritical chloride solutions. American Journal of Science
Mark, Valenta, Downs, Williams, Rubenach, Pollard,
277, 1296 – 1314.
McNaughton and Baker, and to Williams and Oliver. CLEVERLEY J. S. & OLIVER N. H. S. 2005. Comparing closed system,
Garry Davidson and Brett Davis are gratefully acknowl- flow-through and fluid infiltration geochemical modelling:
edged for their reviews of this paper. We would like to examples from K-alteration in the Ernest Henry Fe – oxide –
thank Timothy Baker, Peter Pollard, Michael Rubenach, Cu – Au system. Geofluids 5, 289 – 307.
CLIFF R. A. & RICKARD D. 1992. Isotope systematics of the
Patrick Williams and Kevin Blake for providing stimu- Kiruna magnetite ores, Sweden: Part 2. Evidence for a secondary
lating discussions on the general topic of Fe oxide Cu – event 400 m.y. after ore formation. Economic Geology 87, 1121 –
Au mineralisation, regional alteration, and magmatism. 1129.
We also acknowledge the assistance to this work by CRASKE T. E. 1995. Geological aspects of the discovery of the Ernest
Henry Cu – Au deposit, northwest Queensland. Australian In-
Richard Crookes, Max Ayliffe, Max Tuesley, Joshua
stitute of Geoscientists Bulletin 16, 95 – 109.
Bryant, Perry Collier and Dwyane Povey from Ernest DAVIDSON G. J. 1992. Hydrothermal geochemistry and ore genesis of
Henry Mining Pty Ltd, and Paul Gow, Chris Salt, Rick sea-floor volcanogenic copper-bearing oxide ores. Economic
Valenta, Dugi Wilson and Dan Johnson from Xstrata Geology 87, 889 – 912.
Copper Australia (formerly MIM Exploration). Damien DAVIDSON G. J. 1994. Host rocks to the stratabound iron-formation-
hosted Starra gold – copper deposit, Australia. I. Sodic litholo-
Foster is also thanked for comments on earlier versions gies. Mineralium Deposita 29, 237 – 249.
of this manuscript. DAVIDSON G. J. 1998. Variation in copper – gold styles through time
in the Proterozoic Cloncurry Goldfield, Mt Isa Inlier: a recon-
naissance view. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 445 –
462.
REFERENCES DAVIDSON G. J., DAVIS B. K. & GARNER A. 2002. Structural and
geochemical constraints on the emplacement of the Monakoff
ADSHEAD N. D. 1995. Geology, alteration and geochemistry of the oxide Cu – Au (– Co – U – REE – Ag – Zn – Pb) deposit, Mt Isa Inlier.
Osborne Cu – Au deposit, Cloncurry district, NW Queensland: In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper – Gold and
PhD thesis, James Cook University, Townsville (unpubl.). Related Deposits: A Global Perspective 2, pp. 49 – 76. PCG Publish-
ADSHEAD N. D. 1996. The role of hypersaline hydrothermal fluids in ing, Adelaide.
the formation of the Osborne Cu – Au deposit, Cloncurry district, DAVIDSON G. J. & DIXON G. H. 1992. Two sulphur isotope provinces
NW Queensland. James Cook University Economic Geology deduced from ores in the Mount Isa eastern succession,
Research Unit Contribution 55, 1 – 4. Australia. Mineralium Deposita 27, 30 – 41.
ADSHEAD N. D., VOULGARIS P. & MUSCIO V. N. 1998. Osborne DAVIDSON G. J., LARGE R. R., KARY G. L. & OSBORNE R. 1989a. The
copper-gold deposit. In: Berkman D. A. & Mackenzie D. H. eds. deformed Iron-formation-hosted Starra and Trough Tank Au –
Geology of Australian and Papua New Guinean Mineral Deposits, Cu mineralization: a new association from the Proterozoic
pp. 793 – 799. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Eastern Succession of Mount Isa, Australia. Economic Geology
Monograph 22. Monograph 6, 135 – 150.
ADSHEAD-BELL N. A. 1998. Evolution of the Starra and Selwyn high DAVIDSON G. J., LARGE R. R., KARY G. L. & OSBORNE R. 1989b. The BIF-
strain zones, Eastern Fold Belt, Mount Isa Inlier: implications hosted Starra and Trough Tank Au – Cu mineralization: a new
for Au – Cu mineralisation. Economic Geology 93, 1450 – 1462. stratiform association from the Proterozoic Eastern succession of
BAKER T. 1996. Ore fluid chemistry and conditions at the Eloise Mt. Isa, Australia. Economic Geology Monograph 6, 135 – 150.
Cu – Au deposit, NW Queensland. James Cook University DAVIS B. K., POLLARD P. J., LALLY J. H., MCNAUGHTON N. J., BLAKE K. &
Economic Geology Research Unit Contribution 55, 10 – 13. WILLIAMS P. J. 2001. Deformation history of the Naraku Batholith,
BAKER T. 1998. Alteration, mineralisation and fluid evolution at the Mt Isa Inlier, Australia: implication for pluton ages and geometries
Eloise Cu – Au deposit, Cloncurry district, NW Queensland. from structural study of the Dipvale Granodiorite and Levian
Economic Geology 93, 1213 – 1236. Granite. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 48, 113 – 129.
BAKER T. & LAING W. P. 1998. Eloise Cu – Au deposit, east Mt Isa EDFELT Å. & MARTINSSON O. 2003. The Tjarrojakka Fe-oxide Cu
Block: structural environment and structural controls on ore. (– Au) occurrence, Kiruna area, northern Sweden. In: Eliopoulos
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 429 – 444. D. ed. Mineral Exploration and Sustainable Development,
BAKER T., PERKINS C., BLAKE K. L. & WILLIAMS P. J. 2001. Radiogenic pp. 1069 – 1072. Millpress, Rotterdam.
and stable isotope constraints on the genesis of the Eloise Cu – FORRESTAL P. J., PEARSON P. J., COUGHLIN T. & SCHUBERT C. J. 1998.
Au deposit, Cloncurry district, NW Queensland. Economic Tick Hill Gold deposit. In: Berkman D. A. & Mackenzie D. H. eds.
Geology 96, 723 – 742. Geology of Australian and Papua New Guinean Mineral Deposits,
BARTON M. D. & JOHNSON D. A. 1996. Evaporitic-source model for pp. 699 – 705. Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
igneous-related Fe oxide – (REE – Cu – Au – U) mineralisation. Monograph 22.
Geology 24, 259 – 262. FOSTER D. R. W. 2003. Proterozoic low-pressure metamorphism in
BARTON M. D. & JOHNSON D. A. 2000. Alternative brine sources for Fe the Mount Isa Inlier, northwest Queensland, Australia, with
oxide(– Cu – Au) systems: implication for hydrothermal altera- particular emphasis on the use of calcic amphibole chemistry as
tion and metals. In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide temperature – pressure indicators. PhD thesis, James Cook
Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, pp. 27 – University, Townsville (unpubl.).
42. PCG Publishing, Adelaide. GARRETT S. M. 1992. The geology and geochemistry of the Mt Elliott
BASTRAKOV E. N., SKIRROW R. G., DIREEN N. G., MERNAGH T. P. & copper – gold deposit, northwest Queensland: MSc thesis,
WYBORN L. A. I. 2004. Coupling geochemical and geophysical University of Tasmania, Hobart (unpubl.).
modeling to detect mineral systems undercover: an example GAUTHIER L., HALL G., STEIN H. & SCHALTEGGER U. 2001. The
from the Gawler Craton. Geological Society of Austrlia Abstracts Osborne deposit, Cloncurry district: a 1595 Ma Cu – Au skarn
Series 73, 52. deposit. In: Williams P. J. ed. A Hydrothermal Odyssey, New
BERGMAN S., KÜBLER L. & MARTINSSON O. 2001. Description of Developments in Metalliferous Hydrothermal Systems Research,
regional geological and geophysical maps of northern Norrbot- pp. 58 – 59. James Cook University Economic Geology Research
ten county (east of Caledonian orogen). Sveriges Geologiska Unit Contribution 59.
Undersökning Serie Ba 56. GIGGENBACH W. F. 1992. Isotopic shifts in waters from geochemical
BLAKE D. H. 1987. Geology of the Mount Isa Inlier and environs. and volcanic systems along convergent plate boundaries. Earth
Bureau of Mineral Resources Bulletin 225. and Planetary Science Letters 113, 495 – 510.
CANNEL J. & DAVIDSON G. J. 1998. A carbonate-dominated copper – GILES D. & NUTMAN A. P. 2002. SHRIMP U – Pb monazite dating of
cobalt breccia – vein system at the Great Australia deposit, 1600 – 1580 Ma amphibolite facies metamorphism in the south-
Mount Isa Eastern Succession. Economic Geology 93, 1406 – eastern Mt Isa Block, Australia. Australian Journal of Earth
1421. Sciences 49, 455 – 465.
 Fe oxide–sulfide interplays, Cloncurry 123

GILES D. & NUTMAN A. P. 2003. SHRIMP U – Pb zircon dating of the MARK G., OLIVER N. H. S., WILLIAMS P. J., VALENTA R. K. & CROOKES
host rocks of the Cannington Ag – Pb – Zn deposit, southeastern R. A. 2000. The evolution of the Ernest Henry hydrothermal
Mt Isa Block, Australia. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 50, system. In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper –
295 – 309. Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, pp. 123 – 136.
GOAD R. E., HAMID MUMIN A., DUKE N. A., NEALE K. L. & MULLIGAN PCG Publishing, Adelaide.
D. L. 2000. Geology of the Proterozoic iron oxide-hosted, MARK G., WILDE A., OLIVER N. H. S. & WILLIAMS P. J. 2005.
NICO cobalt – gold – bismuth, and Sue – Dianne copper – silver Geochemical modelling of outflow from the Ernest Henry Fe
deposits, Southern Great Bear Magmatic Zone, Northwest oxide Cu – Au deposit: implication for ore genesis and explora-
Territories, Canada. In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron tion. Journal of Geochemical Exploration 85, 31 – 46.
Oxide Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, MARK G., WILLIAMS P. J. & BOYCE A. J. 2004b. Low-latitude meteoric
pp. 249 – 268. PCG Publishing, Adelaide. fluid flow along the Cloncurry Fault, Cloncurry District, NW
GOW P. A., WALL V. J., OLIVER N. H. S. & VALENTA R. K. 1994. Queensland, Australia: geodynamic and metallogenic implica-
Proterozoic iron oxide (Cu – Fe – Au – REE) deposits: further tions. Chemical Geology 207, 133 – 148.
evidence of hydrothermal origins. Geology 22, 633 – 636. MCPHAIL D. C. 1993. The behavior of iron in high temperature
HABERMANN P. 1999. Alteration and mineralisation at the Lady chloride brines. Geological Society of Australia Abstracts 34, 50 –
Clayre Cu – Au prospect, Mount Isa, Eastern Succession 51.
NW Queensland. BSc (Hons) thesis, James Cook University, NUNN A. J. 1995. The relationship between texturally complex
Townsville (unpubl.). granitic dykes and Cu – Au mineralisation at the Lightning
HATTON O. J. & DAVIDSON G. J. 2004. Soldiers Cap Group iron- Creek Prospect, Selwyn Region, Northwest Queensland. BSc
formations, Mt Isa Inlier, Australia, as windows into the (Hons) thesis James Cook University, Townsville (unpubl.).
hydrothermal evolution of a base-metal-bearing Proterozoic rift OLIVER N. H. S., CLEVERLEY J. S., MARK G., POLLARD P. J., RUBENACH
basin. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 51, 85 – 106. M. J., MARSHALL L. J., WILLIAMS P. J. & BAKER T. 2004.
HAYNES G. 2000. Iron oxide copper (– gold) deposits: their position Geochemistry and geochemical modeling of fluid – rock interac-
in the ore deposit spectrum and modes of origin. In: Porter T. M. tion in the eastern Mt Isa Block, Australia: the role of sodic
ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: alteration in the genesis of iron oxide – copper – gold deposits.
A Global Perspective, pp. 321 – 329. PCG Publishing, Adelaide. Economic Geology 99, 1145 – 1176.
HEMLEY J. J., CYGAN G. L., FEIN J. B., ROBINSON G. R. & D’ANGELO W. ORESKES N. & EINAUDI M. T. 1990. Origin of rare earth element-enriched
M. 1992. Hydrothermal ore-forming processes in the light of hematite breccias at the Olympic Dam Cu – U – Au – Ag deposit,
studies in rock buffered systems: 1. iron – copper – zinc – lead Roxby Downs, South Australia. Economic Geology 85, 64 – 90.
sulphide solubility relations. Economic Geology 87, 1 – 22. PAGE R. W., JACKSON M. J. & KRASSAY A. A. 2000. Constraining
HITZMAN M. W. 2000. Iron oxide – Cu – Au deposits: what, where, sequence stratigraphy in north Australian basins: SHRIMP U –
when and Why. In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Pb zircon geochronology between Mt Isa and McArthur River.
Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, pp. 9 – Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 47, 431 – 460.
26. PCG Publishing, Adelaide. PAGE R. W. & SUN S-S. 1998. Aspects of geochronology and crustal
HITZMAN M. W., ORESKES N. & EINAUDI M. T. 1992. Geological evolution in the Eastern Fold Belt, Mount Isa Inlier. Australian
characteristics and tectonic setting of Proterozoic iron oxide Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 343 – 362.
(Cu – U – Au – REE) deposits. Precambrian Research 58, 241 – 287. PEARSON P. J., HOLCOMBE R. J. & PAGE R. W. 1992. Synkinematic
HUSTON D. L., BOLGER C. & COZENS G. 1993. A comparison of mineral emplacement of the Middle Proterozoic Wonga Batholith into a
deposits at the Gecko and White Devil deposits: implications for mid-crustal extensional shear zone, Mount Isa Inlier, Queens-
ore genesis in the Tennant Creek District, Northern Territory, land, Australia. In: Stewart A. J. & Blake D. H. eds. Detailed
Australia. Economic Geology 88, 1198 – 1225. Studies of the Mount Isa Inlier, pp. 289 – 328. Australian Geologi-
HUSTON D. L. & LARGE R. R. 1989. A chemical model for the cal Survey Organisation Bulletin 243.
concentration of gold in volanogenic massive sulphide deposits. PERKINS C. & WYBORN L. A. I. 1998. Age of Cu – Au mineralisation,
Ore Geology Reviews 4, 171 – 200. Cloncurry district, Mt Isa Inlier, as determined by 40Ar/39Ar
JOHNSON J. P. & CROSS K. C. 1995. U – Pb geochronological dating. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 233 – 246.
constraints on the genesis of the Olympic Dam Cu – U – Au – Ag PERRING C. S., POLLARD P. J., DONG G., NUNN A. J. & BLAKE K. L.
deposit, South Australia. Economic Geology 90, 1046 – 1063. 2000. The Lightning creek sill complex, Cloncurry district, north-
KRCMAROV R. L. & STEWART J. I. 1998. Geology and mineralisation of west Queensland: a source of fluids for Fe oxide Cu – Au
the Greenmont Cu – Au – Co deposit, southeastern Marimo Basin. mineralisation and sodic – calcic alteration. Economic Geology
Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 463 – 482. 95, 1067 – 1089.
KRETZ R. 1983. Symbols for rock-forming minerals. American PERRING C. S., POLLARD P. J. & NUNN A. J. 2001. Petrogenesis
Mineralogist 68, 277 – 279. of the Squirrel Hills granite and associated magnetite-rich
LITTLE G. A. 1997. Structural evolution and paragenesis of alteration sill and vein complex: Lightning Creek prospect, Cloncurry
and mineralisation at Mount Elliot Cu – Au mine, Northwest district, Northwest Queensland. Precambrian Research 106,
Queensland. BSc (Hons) thesis, James Cook University, Towns- 213 – 238.
ville (unpubl.). POLLARD P. J. 2001. Sodic(– calcic) alteration associated with Fe-oxide –
MARK G. 1996. Regional episodic Na – Ca alteration; its relationships Cu – Au deposits: an origin via unmixing of magmatic-derived
to Fe – (Cu – Au) mineralisation and shoshonitic granitoids in the H2O – CO2-salt fluids. Mineralium Deposita 36, 93 – 100.
Cloncurry district, NW Queensland, Australia. Geological So- POLLARD P. J., MARK G. & MITCHELL L. C. 1998. Geochemistry of
ciety of America Abstracts with Programs 28, 268. post-1540 granites spatially associated within regional sodic –
MARK G. 1998. Albitite formation by selective pervasive sodic- calcic alteration and Cu – Au – Co mineralisation, Cloncurry
alteration of tonalite plutons in the Cloncurry district, Queens- district, northwest Queensland. Economic Geology 93, 1330 –
land. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 765 – 774. 1344.
MARK G. 1999. Petrogenesis of Mesoproterozoic K-rich granitoids, REQUIA K., STEIN H., FONTBOTÉ L. & CHIARADIA M. 2003. Re – Os and
southern Mt Angelay igneous complex, Cloncurry district, north- Pb – Pb geochronology of the Archean Salobo iron oxide copper –
west Queensland. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 933 – 949. gold deposit, Caraja’s mineral province, northern Brazil. Miner-
MARK G. & DE JONG G. 1996. Synchronous granitoid emplacement alium Deposita 38, 727 – 738.
and episodic sodic-calcic alteration in the Cloncurry district: ROLLINSON H. R. 1993. Using Geochemical Data: Evaluation, Pre-
styles, timing and metallogenic significance. James Cook Uni- sentation, Interpretation. Longman Scientific and Technical,
versity Economic Geology Research Unit Contribution 55, 81 – 84. Harlow, UK.
MARK G. & FOSTER D. R. W. 2000. Magmatic albite – actinolite – ROTHERHAM J. F. 1997. A metasomatic origin for the iron-oxide
apatite-rich rocks from the Cloncurry district, Northwest Au – Cu Starra Orebodies, Eastern foldbelt, Mount Isa Inlier.
Queensland, Australia. Lithos 51, 223 – 245. Mineralium Deposita 32, 205 – 218.
MARK G., FOSTER D. R. W., POLLARD P. J., WILLIAMS P. J., TOLMAN J., ROTHERHAM J. F., BLAKE K. L., CARTWRIGHT I. & WILLIAMS P. J.
DARVALL M. & BLAKE K. L. 2004a. Magmatic fluid input during 1998. Stable isotope evidence for the origin of the Starra Au –
large-scale Na – Ca alteration in the Cloncurry district, NW Cu deposit, Cloncurry district. Economic Geology 93, 1435 –
Queensland, Australia. Terra Nova 16, 54 – 61. 1449.
 124 G. Mark et al.

RUBENACH M. J., ADSHEAD N. D., OLIVER N. H. S., TULLEMANS F., TWYEROULD S. C. 1997. The geology and genesis of the Ernest Henry
ESSER D. & STEIN H. 2001. The Osborne Cu – Au deposit: Fe – Cu – Au deposit, northwest Queensland, Australia. PhD
geochronology, and genesis of mineralization in relation to host thesis, University of Oregon, Eugene (unpubl.).
albitites and ironstones. In: Williams P. J. ed. A Hydrothermal VALENTA R. K. 2000. Structural controls on localization of ironstone-
Odyssey, New Developments in Metalliferous Hydrothermal Sys- hosted Cu – Au deposits in the Australian Proterozoic. In:
tems Research, pp. 172 – 173. James Cook University Economic Roberts M. & Fairclough M. eds. Extended Abstracts Volume
Geology Research Unit Contribution 59. for the Mark Barton Symposium: Fe-oxide – (Cu – Au) Deposits,
RUBENACH M. J. & BARKER A. J. 1998. Metamorphic and metasomatic pp. 67 – 69. James Cook University Economic Geology Research
evolution of the Snake Creek Anticline, Eastern Succession, Unit Contribution 61.
Mt Isa Inlier. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences 45, 363 – WANG S. & WILLIAMS P. J. 2001. Geochemistry and origin of
372. Proterozoic skarns at the Mount Elliott Cu – Au(– Co – Ni)
RUBENACH M. J. & LEWTHWAITE K. A. 2002. Metasomatic albitites and deposit, Cloncurry district, NW Queensland, Australia. Miner-
related biotite-rich schists from a low-pressure polymeta- alium Deposita 35, 109 – 125.
morphic terrane, Snake Creek Anticline, Mount Isa Inlier, WILLIAMS P. J. 1994. Iron mobility during synmetamorphic altera-
north-eastern Australia. microstructures and P – T – d paths. tion in the Selwyn Range area, NW Queensland: implications
Journal of Metamorphic Geology 20, 191 – 202. for the origin of ironstone-hosted Au – Cu deposits. Mineralium
RYAN A. 1998. Ernest Henry copper – gold deposit. In: Berkman D. A. Deposita 29, 250 – 260.
& Mackenzie D. H. eds. Geology of Australian and Papua New WILLIAMS P. J. 1998. Metalliferous economic geology of the Mt Isa
Guinean Mineral Deposits, pp. 759 – 768. Australasian Institute of Eastern Succession, Queensland. Australian Journal of Earth
Mining and Metallurgy Monograph 22. Sciences 45, 329 – 342.
SEEGER C. M. 2000. Southeast Missouri iron metallogenic province: WILLIAMS P. J., ADSHEAD N. D., BLAKE K. L., DE JONG G., MARK G. &
characteristics and general chemistry. In: Porter T. M. ed. ROTHERHAM J. F. 1995. Magnetite – Cu – Au deposits in deeply eroded
Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: A magmatic arcs: lessons from Proterozoic terrains. Australasian
Global Perspective, pp. 237 – 248. PCG Publishing, Adelaide. Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Publication Series 9/95, 631 – 636.
SILLITOE R. H. 2003. Iron oxide – copper – gold deposits: an Andean WILLIAMS P. J., DONG G., POLLARD P. J., PERRING C. S., RYAN C. G. &
view. Mineralium Deposita 38, 787 – 812. MERNAGH T. P. 1999. Fluid inclusion geochemistry of Cloncurry
SKIRROW R. G. 2000. Gold-Copper-Bismuth deposits of the Tennant (Fe) – Cu – Au deposits. In: Stanley C. J. ed. Mineral Deposits:
Creek district, Australia: a reappraisal of diverse high-grade Processes to Processing, pp. 111 – 114. Balkema, Rotterdam.
systems. In: Porter T. M. ed. Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper – WILLIAMS P. J., DONG G., RYAN C. G., POLLARD P. J., ROTHERHAM J.,
Gold and Related Deposits: A Global Perspective, pp. 149 – 160. MERNAGH T. P. & CHAPMAN L. H. 2001. Geochemistry of
Australian Mineral Foundation. hypersaline fluid inclusions from the Starra (Fe oxide) – Cu –
SKIRROW R. G. & WALSHE J. L. 2002. Reduced and oxidised Au – Cu – Au deposit, Cloncurry district, Queensland. Economic Geology
Bi iron oxide deposits of the Tennant Creek Inlier, Australia: an 96, 875 – 884.
integrated geological and chemical model. Economic Geology 97, WILLIAMS P. J. & POLLARD P. J. 2003. Australian Proterozoic iron
1167 – 1202. oxide – Cu – Au deposits: an overview with new metallogenic and
SVERJENSKY D. A., SHOCK E. L. & HELGESON H. C. 1997. Prediction exploration data from the Cloncurry district, Northwest Queens-
of the thermodynamic properties of aqueous metal com- land. Exploration and Mining Geology 10, 191 – 213.
plexes to 10008C and 5 kb. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 61, WILLIAMS P. J. & SKIRROW R. G. 2000. Overview of iron oxide –
1359 – 1412. copper – gold deposits in the Curnamona Province and Cloncurry
TAYLOR B. E. 1992. Degassing of H2O from rhyolite magma during district (Eastern Mount Isa Block), Australia. In: Porter T. M. ed.
eruption and shallow intrusion, and the isotopic composition Hydrothermal Iron Oxide Copper – Gold and Related Deposits: A
of magmatic water in hydrothermal systems. In: Hedenquist Global Perspective, pp. 105 – 122. PCG Publishing, Adelaide.
J. W. ed. Magmatic Contributions to Hydrothermal Systems, WYBORN L. A. I. 1998. The younger ca 1500 Ma granites of the
pp. 190 – 194. Geological Survey of Japan Report 279. Williams and Naraku Batholiths, Cloncurry district, eastern
THORKELSON D. J., MORTENSEN J. K., DAVIDSON G. J., CREASER R. A., Mt Isa Inlier: geochemistry, origin, metallogenic significance
PEREZ W. A. & ABBOTT J. G. 2001. Early Mesoproterozoic and exploration indicators. Australian Journal of Earth Sciences
intrusive breccias in Yukon, Canada: the role of hydrothermal 45, 397 – 412.
systems in reconstructions of North America and Australia. ZHENG Y-F. & SIMON K. 1991. Oxygen isotope fractionation in
Precambrian Research 111, 31 – 55. hematite and magnetite: a theoretical calculation and applica-
TOLMAN J. L. 1998. Origin and formation of complexly textured albite-, tion to geothermometry of metamorphic iron-formations.
actinolite-, apatite-rich rocks within the Central Mount Angelay European Journal of Mineralogy 3, 877 – 886.
igneous complex, Cloncurry district, Northwest Queensland. BSc
(Hons) thesis, James Cook University, Townsville (unpubl.). Received 18 July 2003; accepted 6 September 2005

View publication stats