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CAPACITORS AND DIELECTRICS

A capacitor is a device that stores energy in an electrostatic field. A flash bulb, for example, requires a short
burst of electric energy that exceeds what a battery can generally provide. We can draw energy relatively
slowly (over several seconds) from battery into the capacitor which releases the energy rapidly (within
milliseconds) through the bulb. Much larger capacitors are used to provide intense laser pulses in attempts to
induce thermonuclear fusion in tiny pellets of hydrogen. In this case the power level is about but it last
for only about
Capacitors can also be used to produce electric fields, such as the parallel plate device that deflects beam of
charged particles.
In this chapter, we consider the electrostatic field and stored energy of capacitor.
Capacitors have other important functions in electronic circuits, especially for time varying voltages and
currents. For transmitting and receiving radio and TV signals, capacitors are fundamental components of b
electromagnetic oscillators.

5.1 CAPACITOR

Capacitor is a device winch is used to store charge. A simple capacitor consists of two conductors
which are separated a small distance. There may be vacuum or some dielectric medium between the conductors
of a capacitor.
When the plates of a capacitor are connected with the terminals of the battery of emf V, then the
charge
q is stored in the capacitor. This charge stored is directly proportional to the potential difference applied
between the plates.

Here C is constant of proportionality, called the capacitance of a capacitor. The capacitance of a

capacitor is its ability to store electrical charge. The SI unit of capacitance is farad which can be defined as “If
one coulomb of charge given to the plates to produce a potential difference of one volt, then capacitance of the
capacitor is one farad”.

Example-11. A storage capacitor on a random access memory (VRAM) chip has a capacitance of 55 fF.
If it is charged to 5.3 V, how many excess electronsdare there on its negative plate?

Solution:

C = 55 fF = 55×10-15 F
V = 5.3 V
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q=?

For case of a capacitor,

Number of electrons
As

5.1.1 Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor

Let the two plates of a parallel plate capacitor has area , and charge on them. The plates are separated by a
distance . Suppose that the length of plate is very large as compared to the distance between the plates. So,
inside the plates of the capacitor is uniform. We want to find out the expression of electric field between the
plates of capacitor.

For this we consider a box shaped Gaussian surface which encloses positive charge on the top plate. We can
write

The equation is expression of electric fiel d intensity inside the plates of capacitor.

Now potential difference between the plates

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Hence the capacitance between the plates,

This is the expression for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with the free space between the plates.

5.1.2 Capacitance with Dielectrics

Consider a parallel plate capacitor which is connected with a battery of emf . Let is the area
of each plate and is the separation between the plates.
If charge is stored in the capacitor when there is vacuum or air as medium between the plates, then

Where is the capacitance of the capacitor, which, for the case of parallel plate capacitor is expressed as

Micheal Faraday, in 1937, investigated that if the space between the plates of a parallel plate capacitor
is filled with some dielectric medium, then the charge stored in the capacitor increased to . And, hence, the
capacitance of the capacitor also increases to .
Therefore, the relation between the stored charges in the capacitor to the capacitance will become

The factor by which the capacitance of capacitor increases as compared to the capacitance with air as the
medium is called the dielectric constant . The dielectric constant is a dimensionless quantity. It is also
called relative permittivity of the medium. The dielectric constant is described mathematically as:

So, by a factor of -

5.1.3 Effects of Dielectric Medium

 When a dielectric medium, having dielectric constant , is placed between the point charges, then
the electrical force between two point charges decreases by a factor of . The expression of
electrical force between two point charges and , when the dielectric medium is place between
them, is
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 The electrical field intensity due to a point charge between two point charges decreases, in the
presence of a dielectric medium. If , is the dielectric constant of the corresponding dielectric
medium, then the electric field intensity at any point due to point charge will be

 The electric field near the surface of charged conductor, which is immersed in a dielectric medium of
dielectric constant is

where is the uniform charge density of conductor.

5.1.4 Dielectrics: An Atomic View

Dielectrics are the insulating materials through which the electric current cannot pass easily, because
these materials have very high value of electrical resistance. For example, paper, pyrex, polystyrence,
transformer oil, pure water, silicon etc. There are two types is dielectrics
(i) Polar Dielectrics
(ii) Non-Polar Dielectrics

5.1.4.1 Polar Dielectrics

The dielectric materials which have permanent electric dipoles moment are called polar dielectrics.
These materials consist of molecules which are permanent dipoles.
In the absence of external electric field, the polar molecules are randomly oriented. As the result, these
materials have no net dipole moment.
When the external electric field is applied, then all dipoles tend to align themselves with external
electric field. But the thermal agitation tends to keep the dipoles randomly oriented. Hence the partial
alignment of electric dipoles is produced in a polar dielectric medium for specific electric field strength.
However, the alignment of dipoles can be increased by increasing the external electric field and decreasing
the temperature.
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5.1.4.2 Non-Polar Dielectrics

The dielectric materials which don't have permanent dipole moments are called non-polar dielectrics. In the
absence of external electric field, the centers of positive and negative charges coincide. When the electric field of
strength ′𝐸0′ is applied, then it tends to separate to positive and negative charges on the atoms of molecules. As
the result, the atoms and molecules of dielectric become dipoles, called induced dipoles and this process is called
electric polarization.

5.1.5 Effect of Electric Polarization on Capacitance of Capacitor

• If the dielectric material is placed in an electric field having strength , then another electric field is
produced due to the polarization of medium. The electric field produce due to the polarization of dielectric
is always opposite to the direction of external electric field. So, the net electric field in the region is
Hence, the net electric field is reduced due to polarization of dielectric medium.

• The reduction of strength of electric field results in decrease in potential difference between plates of
capacitor as electric field is directly proportional to potential difference (For Parallel Plate Capacitor
)

• As potential difference between conducting plates of capacitor is inversely proportional to capacitance of

capacitor, as described by formula:
So, decrease in potential difference will result in increase in capacitance of capacitor.
Hence, due to electric polarization of dielectric, the capacitance of capacitor increases.
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CURRENT AND RESISTANCE
In this chapter we shall study electric currents, i.e., of charges in motion. Example of electric currents
abound, ranging from large currents that constitute lightning strokes to the tiny nerve current that regulate
our muscular activity. We are familiar with currents resulting from charges flowing through solids
conductors (household wiring, light bulbs), semiconductors (integrated circuits), gases (fluorescent lamps),
liquids (automobile batteries), and even evacuated spaces (TV picture tubes)

6.1 ELECTRIC CURRENT

The time rate of flow of charge through a conductor is called current. If a charge flows through

any cross-section of a conductor in time , then the current I is given by

The SI unit of current is Ampere, which can be defined as, “when one coulomb charge flows through

a cross-section in one second, then the current flowing is one ampere”.

Example-12. A current of 4.82A exist in a resistor for 4.6 minutes. (a) Find out charge, (b) How many
electrons pass through resistor in this time?

Solution.

(b) As,

6.1.1 DIRECTION OF CURRENT

In metals, the charge carriers are electrons. But in electrolytes, the current flow due to motion of
negative and positive ions. A positive charge moving in one direction is equivalent in all external effects to a
negative charge moving in the opposite the opposite direction. Hence for simplicity and algebraic consistency,
we adopt the following convention:
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The direction of current is the direction that positive charges would move, even if the actual charge
carriers are negative. Thus, the direction of current is taken from the point of higher potential to the point of
lower potential.
Even though we assign a direction, current is a scalar quantity, not a vector. The arrow that we draw
to indicate the direction of current merely show the sense of charge flow through the wire and is not be taken
as a vector. Current does not obey the law of vector addition. Changing the direction of wires does not change
the way the currents are added.

6.2 OHM’S LAW

It states that
“The current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the applied potential difference
if all physical states remain same.”
If is the potential difference between the ends of conductor and is the current flowing through it, then the
Ohm’s law is described mathematically as:

‘ ’

resistance of the conductor. It is described as the opposition offered by conductor to the flow
of current. In system international, its unit is ohm. It is a macroscopic quantity. Its corresponding microscopic
quantity is resistivity.

6.3 Kirchhoff’s Law

Kirchhoff’s First Law/Current law:

Kirchhoff’s current law states that:

‘The algebraic sum of the currents meeting at any junction in a circuit is zero’.

The convention is that, the current flowing towards a junction is positive and the current flowing away from
the junction is negative.

Let be the currents passing through the conductors

respectively. According to Kirchhoff’s first law.
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i.e., the sum of the currents entering the junction is equal to the sum of the currents leaving the junction.

Kirchhoff’s Second Law/Voltage law:

Kirchhoff’s Voltage rule is a particular way of stating the law of conservation of energy for a charge
carrier travelling in a closed circuit. The Kirchhoff’s second rule is described as:
“The algebraic sum of all differences in potential around a complete circuit loop is zero”.
Mathematically,

[Our sign convention for applying signs to the voltage polarities in our KVL equations will be as follows: when traversing
the loop, if the negative terminal of a voltage difference is encountered before the positive terminal, the voltage difference
will be interpreted as positive in the KVL equation. If the positive terminal is encountered first, the voltage difference will
be interpreted as negative in the KVL equation. We use this sign convention for convenience; it is not required for proper
application of KVL, as long as the signs on the voltage differences are treated consistently.]

Let’s apply the Kirchhoff’s voltage law for the single circuit loop shown in
figure below:

Since the two resistors, R1 and R2 are wired together in a series connection,
they are both part of the same loop so the same current must flow through
each resistor.

Thus, the voltage drop across resistor, and the voltage drop
across resistor, . Now, by KVL:

This expression gives the current flow through a circuit containing single loop.

Example-13. Find the current through each battery in the circuit shown below.
Solution:
st law on junction b;
Applying Kirchhoff’s 1
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 = 0

∴ 𝐼3 = −(𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )
nd law across the loop abcda;
Applying Kirchhoff’s 2
9 − 18 𝐼1 + 3 𝐼3 = 0
. ⇒ 9 − 18 𝐼1 + 3 (−𝐼1 − 𝐼2 ) = 0
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. ⇒ 21 𝐼1 + 3𝐼2 = 9 − − − −(𝑖)

Applying Kirchhoff’s 2nd law across the loop dbcd;

3 − 6 𝐼2 + 3 𝐼3 = 0

⇒ 3 − 6 𝐼2 + 3 (−𝐼1 − 𝐼2) = 0

⇒ 3 𝐼1 + 9 𝐼2 = 3 − − − (𝑖𝑖)
Now,

7 × (𝑖𝑖) − (𝑖) ⇒ 60 𝐼2 = 12

⇒ 𝐼2 = 0.2 𝐴
And,

3 × (𝑖) − (𝑖𝑖) ⇒ 60 𝐼1 = 24

⇒ 𝐼1 = 0.4 𝐴

7.1 RC CIRCUIT (CHARGING OF A CAPACITOR)

A circuit containing a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor is called an 𝑅𝐶 circuit. Consider an 𝑅𝐶
circuit in series with the battery of emf 𝜀 as shown in figure below:

When the switch 𝑆 is closed , the capacitor starts charging. By using Kirchhoff’s 2 nd rule, we get:

ℰ − 𝑉 𝑅 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0

Where, 𝑉𝑅 → 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉𝐶 → 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑟.

Now, as , therefore, equation (1) becomes,

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Integrating, we get;

Where 𝐴 is the constant of integration. To find 𝐴, we make use of initial conditions.

At 𝑡 = 0; 𝑞 = 0, we have from (2),

− ln(ℰ𝐶) = 𝐴

Now the equation (2) will become,

This equation shows that at 𝑡 = ∞; 𝑞 = ℰ𝐶 = 𝑞 0, where 𝑞0is the

maximum value of charge on the capacitor. Therefore,

This equation gives the growth of charge in an 𝑅𝐶 circuit. The

equation shows that the charge 𝑞 goes on increasing and
ultimately attains the maximum value 𝑞0 after a long time.

Capacitive Time Constant:

In the equation (3), the factor 𝑅𝐶 has the dimensions of time and is called capacitive time constant. It is denoted
by 𝜏𝑐.
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Hence, the equation (3) is written as:

Special Cases:

• At 𝑡 = 0; 𝑞=0

• At 𝑡 = ∞; 𝑞 = 𝑞0 = ℰ𝐶

• At

. ⇒ 𝑞 = 0.63 𝑞 0

So, the capacitive time constant is the time after which the charge on the capacitor grows to 63% of its
maximum value.

Example-14. A 𝟏𝟓𝟎𝑭 capacitor is connected through a 𝟓𝟎𝟎 resistor to 𝟒𝟎𝑽 battery. (a) What is the
time constant of the circuit? (b) What is the final charge 𝒒𝟎 on a capacitor plate? (c) How long does it
take for the charge on a capacitor plate to reach 𝟎. 𝟖𝒒𝟎?

Solution:

(a) 𝜏𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶 = 500 × 150 × 10−6 = 75 × 10−3 𝑠𝑒𝑐 = 75 𝑚𝑠

(b) 𝑞0 = ℰ𝐶 = 40 × 150 × 10−6 = 6 × 10−3 = 6 𝑚𝐶

(c) 𝑞 = 𝑞0 (1 − 𝑒−𝑡/𝑅𝐶)

or, 0.

or, 0.

or, or,

or, −𝑡 = −1.6 × 𝑅𝐶 or,

𝑡 = 1.6 × 75 × 10−3

∴ 𝑡 = 120 × 10−3 sec = 120 𝑚𝑠

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Example-15. A resistor 𝑹 = 𝟔. 𝟐𝑴𝛀 and a capacitor 𝑪 = 𝟐.𝟒𝝁𝑭 are connected in series and a 12V
battery of negligible internal resistance is connected across their combination. (a) What is capacitive
time constant of this circuit. (b) At what time after the battery is connected does the potential difference
across the capacitor equal to 5.6 V.

Solution:

𝑅 = 6.2𝑀Ω = 6.2 × 106 Ω

𝐶 = 2.4 𝜇𝐹 = 2.4 × 10−6 𝐹

ℰ = 12 𝑉

(a) 𝜏𝑐 = 𝑅𝐶 = 6.2 × 106 × 2.4 × 10−6 = 15 𝑠𝑒𝑐

(b) Potential across capacitor,

As,

7.2 DECAY OF CHARGE IN AN RC CIRCUIT (DISCHARGING)

Consider the circuit which consists of a capacitor carrying an initial charge 𝑞, a resistor 𝑅, and a switch 𝑆 as
shown in figure below:
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When the switch is open, a potential difference exists across the capacitor and 𝑉𝑅 = 0 because 𝑖 = 0. If
the switch is closed at 𝑡 = 0, the capacitor begins to discharge through the resistor. Applying Kirchhoff’s rule:

−𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝐶 = 0

Integrating both sides, we obtain

By applying the initial conditions, 𝑎𝑡 𝑡 = 0; 𝑞 = 𝑞0,𝑤𝑒 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 (1)

𝐴 = ln 𝑞0 The

equation (1) implies:

This is the expression for the decay of charge of capacitor in an 𝑅𝐶 circuit.

Capacitive Time Constant:

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The factor 𝑅𝐶 = 𝜏𝑐 is called the capacitive time constant. The equation (2) will become:

Special Cases:

• At 𝑡 = 0; 𝑞 = 𝑞0  At 𝑡 = ∞; 𝑞=0

• At

So, after time 𝝉𝒄, the charge of capacitor reduces to 𝟑𝟕% of the initial value.

Example-16. A capacitor 𝑪 discharge through a resistor 𝑹. (a) After how many time constant does its
charge fall to one half of its initial value?

Solution: As we know,

As we want to find out the time in which . Therefore,

⇒ 𝑡 = 𝜏 ln(2) = 0.693 𝜏
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7.3 Energy Stored in an Electric Field

Consider a capacitor with the capacitance C, which is connected to the battery of emf V. If dq
charge is transferred from one plate to other, then the work done dW will be,
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞

This work done is stored in the form of electric potential energy dU

𝑑𝑈 = 𝑉𝑑𝑞

When the capacitor is fully charged then the total energy stored is,
𝑞

𝑈 = ∫ 𝑑𝑈 = ∫ 𝑉𝑑𝑞
0

As,

Again as, 𝑞 = 𝐶𝑉, we can write,

The energy stored in the capacitor is the energy store in the electric field between its plates. So, the
energy stored can be expressed in terms of electric filed strength 𝐸.

As, , therefore,
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This is the expression of energy stored in the electric filed between the plates of capacitor.

Energy Density:

The energy density ′𝑢′ is described as the energy stored ′𝑈′ per unit volume ′𝑉′.

Mathematically,