CALCULUS III

Ma. Isabel Rigay Toga

 Table of Contents

Module 1: Derivatives 1
Introduction 1
Learning Objectives 1
Lesson 1. Review of Derivation 3
Lesson 2. Derivative Rules

Module 2: Integration Techniques 13

Introduction 13
Learning Objectives 13
Lesson 1. Review of Integration 14
Lesson 2. Rules of Integration 15
Lesson 3. Definite Integral 19

Module 3: Integration by Substitution and Integration by Parts 26

Introduction 26
Learning Objectives 26
Lesson 1. Integration by Substitution 27
Lesson 2. Integration by Parts 29

Module 4: Trigonometric Integration

35
Introduction 35
Learning Objectives 35
Lesson 1. Trigonometric Identities 36
Lesson 2. Trigonometric Integrals 39

2
Course Code: MC 110

Course Description: The course aims to provide the students with an

understanding of the application of differentiation and integration in sequences,
infinite series, power series as well as multiple integration for functions in several
variables. Moreover, students will be able to apply these concepts to problem solving.

Course Intended Learning Outcomes (CILO):

At the end of the course, students should be able to:
1. Identify an appropriate method and apply the following techniques to find
antiderivatives and evaluate definite integrals
2. Understand the notation and concept of summation (especially adding up an
infinite number of terms in a sequence -- e.g. a limit, a series); and
3. Apply the concepts of multiple integrals in solving problems.

Course Requirements:
 Assessment Tasks - 60%
 Major Exams - 40%
_________
Periodic Grade 100%

Final Grade = Total CS + Final Exam x 70% + 30% of the

Midterm

MODULE 1
 DERIVATIVES

Introduction

In this module, we will look back at one of the major topics in Calculus – the derivatives.
We will be looking at one application of them in this module. Also, we will recall the definition
of the derivative, give various notations for the derivative, and work a few problems illustrating
how to use the definition of the derivative to actually compute the derivative of a function. And
lastly, you will learn most of the general derivative formulas and properties used when taking
the derivative of a function. Examples in this section concentrate mostly on polynomials, roots
and more generally variables raised to powers.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the concepts of derivation;

2. Apply the appropriate rules of derivation in finding the derivative of a function; and
3. Find the derivative of a function.

Lesson 1. Review of Derivation

Pierce (2017) emphasizes that finding the derivative is like all about slope -- slope is
about the change in y over the change in x (see Figure 1). We can find the average slope
between two points (see Figure 1.2). But how do we find the slope at a point (see Figure 1.2)?
There is nothing to measure. But with derivatives we use a small difference, have it shrink
towards zero (see Figure 1.3).

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 Figure 1. Slope (m) of a Line Figure 1.1. Average Slope

Figure 1.2 Undefined Slope Figure 1.3. Change in Slope

To find the derivative of a function = 𝑓(𝑥) , we use the slope formula:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑦 ∆𝑦
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = ∆𝑥

and from Figure 2 we can see that

x changes from 𝑥 to 𝑥 + ∆𝑥
y changes from 𝑓(𝑥) to 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥)
∆𝑦 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
then, ∆𝑥
= ∆𝑥
Figure 2. Change in x
and y

simplify it as best as you can and make ∆𝑥 shrinks towards zero.

Example. Given function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

We know 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 , and we can calculate 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥):

𝑓 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2

Expand (𝑥 + ∆𝑥)2 : 𝑓 (𝑥 + ∆𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 ∆𝑥 + (∆𝑥)2

3
 𝑓(𝑥+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)
The Slope Formula is: = ∆𝑥

𝑥 2+2𝑥 ∆𝑥+(∆𝑥 )2−𝑥 2

Put in 𝑓(𝑥 + ∆𝑥) and 𝑓(𝑥): = ∆𝑥

2𝑥 ∆𝑥+(∆𝑥)2
Simplify: = ∆𝑥

= 2𝑥 + ∆𝑥
Then as ∆𝑥 heads towards 0 we get: = 2𝑥
The derivative of 𝑥 2 is 2𝑥. In other word, the slope at 𝑥 is 2𝑥.

Smith and Minton (2008) express the derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 as the function
𝑓′(𝑥) and is denoted as,
𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

A function 𝑓(𝑥) is differentiable at 𝑥 = 𝑎 if 𝑓′(𝑎) exists and 𝑓(𝑥) is called differentiable

on an interval if the derivative exists for each point in that interval.

Lesson 2. Derivative Rules

The derivative of a function represents an infinitesimal change in the function with

respect to one of its variables. The "simple" derivative of a function 𝑓 with respect to a variable
𝑑𝑓
𝑥 is denoted either 𝑓′(𝑥) or 𝑑𝑥 (Weisstein, n.d.).

According to Pierce (2019), there are rules we can follow to find many derivatives. For
example: The slope of a constant value (like 3) is always 0; the slope of a line like 2x is 2, or
3x is 3 and so on. Here are useful rules to find the derivatives of many functions (see Table
1).

4
Table 1. Rules of Derivation
Common Functions Function Derivative
Constant 𝐶 0

Line 𝑥 1
𝑎𝑥 𝑎

Square 𝑥2 2𝑥
1 1⁄
Square Root √𝑥 ( ) 𝑥−
2
2

Exponential 𝑒𝑥 𝑒𝑥
𝑎𝑥 ln(𝑎) 𝑎 𝑥

Logarithms ln(𝑥) 1⁄
𝑥
log 𝑎 (𝑥) 1⁄
(𝑥 ln(𝑎))
Trigonometry (x is in radians) sin(𝑥) cos(𝑥)
cos(𝑥) −sin(𝑥)
tan(𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑥)

Inverse Trigonometry 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑥) 1

⁄√(1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (𝑥) − 1⁄
√(1 − 𝑥 2 )
𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑥) 1
⁄√(1 + 𝑥 2 )

Rules Function Derivative

Multiplication by Constant 𝑐𝑓 𝑐𝑓′

Power Rule 𝑥𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1

Sum Rule 𝑓+𝑔 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′

Difference Rule 𝑓−𝑔 𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′

Product Rule 𝑓𝑔 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑓′𝑔

Quotient Rule 𝑓⁄ (𝑓 ′ 𝑔 − 𝑔′𝑓)

𝑔 ⁄𝑔2

Reciprocal Rule 1⁄ −𝑓′

𝑓 ⁄𝑓 2

Chain Rule (Composition of 𝑓) 𝑓∘𝑔 (𝑓 ′ ∘ 𝑔)𝑔′

Chain Rule (using ′ ) 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′ (𝑥)

𝑑 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Chain Rule (using ) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

5
Example 1. What is the derivative of 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)?
From the table above it is listed as 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥). It can be written as:

𝑑
sin(𝑥) = cos(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
Power Rule
𝑑
Example 2. What is 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 3 ?
The question is asking what is the derivative of 𝑥 3 ?
We use power rule where n=3,
𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 3
𝑥 = 3𝑥 3−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 3
𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
Example 3. What is 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 )?
1
( ) is also 𝑥 −1
𝑥

We can use power rule where n=-1,

𝑑 𝑛
𝑥 = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1
𝑥 = −1𝑥 −1−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1
𝑥 = −𝑥 −2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1 −1
𝑥 = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑥

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Multiplication by Constant
𝑑
Example 4. What is 𝑑𝑥 5𝑥 3 ?
the derivative of 𝑐𝑓 = 𝑐𝑓’ so the derivative of 5𝑓 = 5𝑓’

𝑑
Using power rule, 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 3 = 3𝑥 3−1 = 3𝑥 2

𝑑 𝑑
So: 𝑑𝑥
5𝑥 3 = 5 𝑑𝑥 3𝑥 2 = 5(3𝑥 2 )

𝑑
5𝑥 3 = 15𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

Sum Rule
Example 5. What is the derivative of 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 ?
The Sum Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓 + 𝑔 = 𝑓 ′ + 𝑔′
So we can work on each derivative separately and then add them.
Using the Power Rule:
𝑑 2
𝑥 = 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 3
𝑥 = 3𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
And so,

(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 )′ = 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2

Difference Rule
Example 6. What is the derivative of 𝑣 5 − 𝑥 4 ?

The Difference Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓 − 𝑔 = 𝑓 ′ − 𝑔′

So we can work on each derivative separately and then subtract them.

Using the Power Rule:

𝑑 5
𝑣 = 5𝑣 4
𝑑𝑣

𝑑 4
𝑣 = 4𝑣 3
𝑑𝑣

7
And so,

(𝑣 5 − 𝑣 4 )′ = 5𝑣 4 − 4𝑣 3

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication and Power Rules

𝑑
Example 7. What is the (5𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 − 7𝑧 4 )?
𝑑𝑧
Using the Power Rule:
𝑑
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 2 = 2𝑧

𝑑
𝑑𝑧
𝑧 3 = 3𝑧 2

𝑑
𝑧 4 = 4𝑧 3
𝑑𝑧

𝑑
then, (5𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 − 7𝑧 4 ) = 5(2𝑧) + 3𝑧 2 − 7(4𝑧 3 )
𝑑𝑧

𝑑
𝑑𝑧
(5𝑧 2 + 𝑧 3 − 7𝑧 4 ) = 10𝑧 + 3𝑧 2 − 28𝑧 3

Product Rule
𝑑
Example 8. What is the cos(𝑥) sin(𝑥)?
𝑑𝑥

The Product Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓𝑔 = 𝑓𝑔′ + 𝑓′𝑔

In our case:
𝑓 = cos(𝑥) 𝑔 = sin(𝑥)

from the table above,

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
cos(𝑥) = − sin(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
sin(x) = cos(𝑥)
So,
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
cos(𝑥) sin(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) cos(𝑥) − sin(𝑥) sin(𝑥)

𝑑
𝑑𝑥
cos(𝑥) sin(𝑥) = cos2 (𝑥) − sin2 (𝑥)

8
Quotient Rule
𝑑 cos(𝑥)
Example 9. What is the 𝑑𝑥 𝑥
?

𝑓 𝑔𝑓 ′ −𝑓𝑔′
The Quotient Rule says: the derivative of =
𝑔 𝑔2
In our case:
𝑓 = cos(𝑥) 𝑔=𝑥
from the table above,
𝑓 ′ = −sin(𝑥)

𝑔′ = 1

So,
𝑑 cos(𝑥) x(− sin(x))−cos(x)(1)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑥2

𝑑 cos(𝑥) xsin(x)+cos(x)
𝑑𝑥 𝑥
= 𝑥2

Reciprocal Rule
𝑑 1
Example 10. What is the 𝑑𝑥 (𝑥 )?
1 −𝑓′
The Quotient Rule says: the derivative of =
𝑓 𝑓2

With 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥, we know that 𝑓′(𝑥) = 1

1 −1
So the derivative of =
𝑥 𝑥2

Which is the same result we got using the Power Rule.

Chain Rule
𝑑
Example 11. What is the sin(𝑥 2 )?
𝑑𝑥

sin(𝑥 2 ) is made up of sin( ) and 𝑥 2 .

𝑓(𝑔) = sin(𝑔)
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2

The Chain Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)

9
The individual derivatives are:

𝑓′(𝑔) = cos(𝑔)
𝑔′(𝑥) = 2𝑥
so,
𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = cos(𝑔(𝑥))(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥 cos(𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
Another way of writing a Chain Rule is: 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Let’s do the previous example using this formula:

𝑑
What is the sin(𝑥 2 )?
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Have 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 , so 𝑦 = sin(𝑢):

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = sin(𝑢) 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥

Differentiate each:
𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = 𝑐𝑜 𝑠(𝑢) 2𝑥
𝑑𝑥

Substitute back 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 and simplify:

𝑑
sin(𝑥 2 ) = 2𝑥 cos(𝑥 2 )
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
Example 12. What is the ( )?
𝑑𝑥 cos(𝑥)

1 1
cos(𝑥)
is made up of g
and cos( ):

1
𝑓(𝑔) =
g

10
 𝑔(𝑥) = cos(𝑥)

The Chain Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)

The individual derivatives are:

−1
𝑓′(𝑔) = (g2 )

𝑔′ (𝑥) = −sin(𝑥)
so,
′
1 −1
( ) = (− sin(𝑥))
cos(𝑥) (g(x))2

′
1 sin(𝑥)
( ) =
cos(𝑥) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥)

sin(𝑥) tan (𝑥)

Note: 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 (𝑥) is also 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥), or many other form.

𝑑
Example 13. What is the 𝑑𝑥 (5𝑥 − 2)3 ?

(5𝑥 − 2)3 is made up of 𝑔3 and (5𝑥 − 2):

𝑓(𝑔) = 𝑔3
𝑔(𝑥) = (5𝑥 − 2)

The Chain Rule says: the derivative of 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓′(𝑔(𝑥))𝑔′(𝑥)

The individual derivatives are:

𝑓′(𝑔) = 3𝑔2 (by Power Rule)

𝑔′ (𝑥) = 5
so,
𝑑
(5𝑥 − 2)3 = 3𝑔(𝑥)2 (5)
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
(5𝑥 − 2)3 = 15(5𝑥 − 2)2
𝑑𝑥

11
 Assessment Task 1-1

I. Find the general derivative of the following:

1. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1

2. 𝑓 (𝑡) = 3𝑡 3 − 2√𝑡

3
3. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 − 8𝑥 + 1

4. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 9 − 3𝑥 5 + 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥

3 1
5. 𝑓(𝑠) = 2𝑠 2 − 3𝑠 −3

3𝑥−2
6. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 5𝑥+1

7. 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 3)(𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 + 1)

8. 𝑓 (𝑥) = 𝑥 cos 5𝑥 2

sin 𝑥 2
9. 𝑓 (𝑥) =
𝑥2

10. 𝑓 (𝑥) = (𝑥 3 − 1)2 using the Chain Rule

Summary

The derivative is the first of the two main tools of calculus (the second being the
integral). The derivative is the instantaneous rate of change of a function at a point in its
domain. ... Given a function 𝑓, we can define a derivative function f' to take on the value of the
derivative of 𝑓 at each point in the domain.

12
 The derivative of 𝑓(𝑥) with respect to 𝑥 is the function 𝑓′(𝑥) and is defined as,

𝑓 (𝑥 + ℎ ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ

The Derivatives Formulas:

References

Pierce, R. (20 Dec 2019). Derivative Rules. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun. com/calculus/derivatives-rules.html

Pierce, R. (18 Dec 2017). Introduction to Derivatives. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/derivatives-introduction.html

Smith, R.T. and Minton, R.B. (2008) Calculus. 3rd ed. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Weisstein, E. W. Derivative. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. Retrieved from

https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Derivative.html

13
 MODULE 2

INTEGRATION TECHNIQUES

Introduction

In this chapter we are going to be looking at various integration techniques. There are
a fair number of them and some will be easier than others. The point of the chapter is to teach
you these techniques and so this chapter assumes that you’ve got a fairly good working
knowledge of basic integration as well as substitutions with integrals. Also, most of the
integrals done in this chapter will be indefinite integrals. It is also assumed that once you can
do the indefinite integrals you can also do the definite integrals and so to conserve space we
concentrate mostly on indefinite integrals.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

4. Understand the concepts of integration;

5. Apply the appropriate rules of integration in finding the integral of a function; and
6. Evaluate definite integrals.
Lesson 1. Review of Integration

Pierce (2019) states that integration could be used to find areas, volumes, central
points and many useful things. But it is easiest to start with finding the area under the curve
of a function (see Figure 1).

Figure 1. Area of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)

We could calculate the function at a few points and add up slices of width 𝛥𝑥 (see
second graph in Figure 1) but the answer won't be very accurate;

We can make 𝛥𝑥 a lot smaller and add up many small slices (see third graph in Figure
1) answer is getting better;

And as the slices approach zero in width, the answer approaches the true answer (see
fourth graph in Figure 1).

We now write 𝑑𝑥 to mean the 𝛥𝑥 slices are approaching zero in width. Adding up all
the slices is a lot of works to do, but we don’t have to add them up, as there is a shortcut
because finding an Integral is the reverse of finding a Derivative (Pierce, 2019).

Example. What is an integral of 2x? We know that the derivative of 𝑥 2 is 2x, so an integral of
2x is 𝑥 2 (see Figure 2).

Figure 2. Integration of 2x

14
Notation

According to Stover and Weisstein (n.d.), the symbol for "Integral" is a stylish "S" (for
"Sum", the idea of summing slices) see Figure 2. After the Integral Symbol we put the function
we want to find the integral of (called the Integrand), and then finish with 𝑑𝑥 to mean the slices
go in the 𝑥 direction (and approach zero in width).

And here is how we write the answer:

∫ 𝟐𝒙 𝒅𝒙 = 𝒙𝟐 + 𝑪

Plus 𝐶 is the “Constant of Integration”. It is there because of all the functions whose
derivative is 2x (see Figure 2).

The derivative of 𝑥 2 + 4 is 2x, and the derivative of 𝑥 2 + 99 is also 2x, and so on

because derivative of a constant is zero. So when we reverse the operation (to find the
integral) we only know 2x, but there could have been a constant of any value. So we wrap up
the idea by just writing + C at the end.

Lesson 2. Rules of Integration

The Riemann integral is the simplest integral definition and one of the only usually
encountered in physics and elementary calculus (Stover & Weisstein, n.d.). The Riemann
integral of the function 𝑓(𝑥) over 𝑥 from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is written

𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎

Pierce (2019) maintains that the integral of many functions are well known, and there
are useful rules to work out the integral of more complicated functions, many of which are
shown here.

15
 Table 1. Rules of Integration

Common Functions Function Integral

Constant 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥

Variable 𝑥 2⁄ + 𝐶
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 2
Square 𝑥 3⁄ + 𝐶
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 3
Reciprocal ln |𝑥| + 𝐶
∫(1⁄𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥

Exponential 𝑒𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2⁄
∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 ln(𝑎) + 𝐶
𝑥 ln(𝑥) − 𝑥 + 𝐶
∫ ln(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Trigonometry (x in radians) sin(𝑥) + 𝐶

∫ cos(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−cos(𝑥) + 𝐶
∫ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
tan(𝑥) + 𝐶
∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Rules Function Integral

Multiplication by Constant ∫ 𝐶𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝐶 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Power Rule (𝑛 ≠ −1) 𝑥 𝑛+1

∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑛+1
Sum Rule ∫(𝑓 + 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥

Difference Rule ∫(𝑓 − 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥

Integration by Parts See Integration by Parts

Substitution Rule See Integration by Substitution

Example 1: What is the integral of 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥)?

From the table above it is listed as being −𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑥) + 𝐶. It is written as:

∫ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − cos(𝑥) + 𝐶

16
 1
Example 2: What is the integral of 𝑥 ?

From the table above it is listed as being ln|𝑥| + 𝐶. It is written as:

1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥

The vertical bars either side of 𝑥 mean absolute value, because we don’t want to give
negative values to the natural logarithm function ln.

Power Rule

Example 3. What is ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥?

The question is asking “what is the integral of 3”? We can now use the Power Rule,
where n=3:

𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
𝑥 3+1
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
3+1
𝑥4
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
4

Example 4. What is ∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥?

The question is asking, “What is the integral of √𝑥”? We can now use the Power Rule,
1
where 𝑛 = 2; √𝑥 is also 𝑥 0.5

𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑛+1
𝑥 0.5+1
∫ 𝑥 0.5 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
0.5 + 1
𝑥1.5
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
1.5

17
Multiplication by Constant

Example 5. What is ∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥?

We can now move the 6 outside the integral:

∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 6 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

And now use the Power Rule on 𝑥 2 :

𝑥3
=6 +𝐶
3

Simplify,

∫ 6𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 + 𝐶

Sum Rule

Example 6. What is ∫ cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥?

Use the Sum Rule:

∫(𝑓 + 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥

∫ cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

work out the integral of each (using the table above):

𝑥2
∫ cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + +𝐶
2

Difference Rule

Example 7. What is ∫ 𝑒 𝑤 − 3𝑑𝑤?

Use the Difference Rule:

∫(𝑓 − 𝑔) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑔 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑤 − 3𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑤 𝑑𝑤 − ∫ 3 𝑑𝑤

18
 work out the integral of each (using the table above):

∫ 𝑒 𝑤 − 3𝑑𝑤 = ∫ 𝑒 𝑤 − 3𝑤 + 𝐶

Sum, Difference, Constant Multiplication and Power Rules

Example 8. What is ∫ 8𝑧 + 4𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧?

Use the Sum and Difference Rule:

∫ 8𝑧 + 4𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = ∫ 8𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 4𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 − ∫ 6𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

Constant Multiplication:

= 8 ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑧 + 4 ∫ 𝑧 3 𝑑𝑧 − 6 ∫ 𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧

Power Rule:

8𝑧 2 4𝑧 4 6𝑧 3
= 2
+ 4
− 3
+𝐶

Simplify: ∫ 8𝑧 + 4𝑧 3 − 6𝑧 2 𝑑𝑧 = 4𝑧 2 + 𝑧 4 − 2𝑧 3 + 𝐶

Lesson 3. Definite Integration

A Definite Integral has start and end values: in other words there is an interval [𝑎, 𝑏].
𝑎 and 𝑏 (called limits, bounds or boundaries) are put at the bottom and top of the "S" (see
Figure 3) (Pierce, 2019).

Figure 3. Definite Integral (from a to b) Figure 3.1 Indefinite Integral (no specific values)

19
 Smith and Minton (2008) state that given a function 𝑓(𝑥) that is continuous on the
interval [𝑎, 𝑏] we divide the interval into 𝑛 subintervals of equal width, ∆𝑥, and from each
interval choose a point, 𝑥𝑖∗ , then the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑎 to 𝑏 is

𝑏 𝑛

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑥𝑖∗ )∆𝑥

𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑖=1

There is also a little bit of terminology that we should get out of the way here. The
number “𝑎” that is at the bottom of the integral sign is called the lower limit of the integral and
the number “𝑏” at the top of the integral sign is called the upper limit of the integral. Also,
despite the fact that 𝑎 and 𝑏 were given as an interval the lower limit does not necessarily
need to be smaller than the upper limit. Collectively we’ll often call 𝑎 and 𝑏 the interval of
integration.

Suppose 𝑓(𝑥) is a continuous function on [𝑎, 𝑏] and also suppose the 𝐹(𝑥) is any anti-
derivative for 𝑓(𝑥), then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏𝑎 = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎

Example 1. Using the definition of the definite integral compute the

2 2
1
∫ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥|
0 3 0

1 1
= (2)3 + 2 − ( (0)3 + 0)
3 3
14
=
3

Properties of Definite Integration (Smith & Minton, 2008)

𝑏 𝑎
1. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫𝑏 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. We can interchange the limits on any definite integral; all that
we need to do is tack a minus sign onto the integral when we do.

20
 𝑎
2. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 0. If the upper and lower limits are the same then there is no work to do,
the integral is zero.
𝑏 𝑏
3. ∫𝑎 𝑐𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑐 is any number. So, as with limits, derivatives, and
indefinite integrals we can factor out a constant.
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ± ∫𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. We can break up definite integrals across
sum or difference.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
5. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫𝑐 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑐 is any number. This property is more
important than we might realize at first. One of the main uses of this property is to tell
us how we can integrate a function over the adjacent intervals, [𝑎, 𝑐] and [𝑐, 𝑏]. Note
however that 𝑐 doesn’t need to be between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
𝑏 𝑏
6. ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡. The point of this property is to notice that as long as the function
and limits are the same the variable of integration that we use in the definite integral
won’t affect the answer.

Example 2. Use the result from the first example to evaluate each of the following:
0
a) ∫2 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥

Solution: In this case the only difference between the two is that the limits have
interchanged. So, using the first property gives,

0 2
∫ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
2 0
14
=−
3

2
b) ∫0 10𝑥 2 + 10 𝑑𝑥

Solution: For this part, notice that we can factor a 10 out of both terms and then out of
the integral using the third property.

2 2
∫ 10𝑥 2 + 10 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 10(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥
0 0

21
 2
= 10 ∫ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥
0
14
= 10 ( )
3
140
=
3
2
c) ∫0 𝑡 2 + 1 𝑑𝑡

Solution: In this case the only difference is the letter used and so this is just going to
use property 6.

2 2
14
∫ 𝑡 + 1 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑥 2 + 1 𝑑𝑥 =
2
0 0 3

Example 3. Evaluate the definite integral

130
𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + cos(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
130 𝑥2 + 1

Solution: There really isn’t anything to do with this integral once we notice that the limits are
the same. Using the second property this is,
130
𝑥 3 − 𝑥𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥) + cos(𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 0
130 𝑥2 + 1

−10 6
Example 4. Given that ∫6 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 23 and ∫10 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −9, determine the value of
6
∫ 2𝑓 (𝑥) − 10𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−10

Solution: We will first need to use the fourth property to break up the integral and the third
property to factor out the constants.
6 6 6
∫ 2𝑓 (𝑥) − 10𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 10𝑔 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−10 −10 −10

6 6
= 2 ∫−10 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − 10 ∫−10 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

22
Now notice that the limits on the first integral are interchanged with the limits on the given
integral so switch them using the first property above (and adding a minus sign of course).
Once this is done we can plug in the known values of the integrals.
6 −10 6
∫ 2𝑓 (𝑥) − 10𝑔 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = −2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 − 10 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
−10 6 −10

= −2(23) − 10(−9)

= 44

Assessment Task 1-1

I. Find the general antiderivative/integral of the following:

1. ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫(𝑥 + 2)𝑑𝑥

3. ∫(𝑥 3 − 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

4. ∫(3𝑥 4 − 3𝑥)𝑑𝑥

5. ∫(2 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥)𝑑𝑥

1
6. ∫ (3√𝑥 − 𝑥 4) 𝑑𝑥

7. ∫ 5𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

8. ∫ 3 sin 𝑥 + 4𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥

3
9. ∫(5𝑥 − 𝑥 2)𝑑𝑥

1
10. ∫(2𝑥 −2 + )𝑑𝑥
√𝑥

23
 II. Evaluate the following definite integrals:

3 1
1. ∫2 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

1
2. ∫−3 6𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 2 𝑑𝑥

0
3. ∫4 √𝑥(𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥

1
4. ∫0 4𝑥 − 6√𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
3

4 2𝑤 5−𝑤+3
5. ∫4 𝑤2
𝑑𝑥

Summary

The function 𝐹(𝑥) is an antiderivative of the function 𝑓(𝑥) on an interval 𝐼 if 𝐹 ′ (𝑥) =

𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in 𝐼.

24
Integration Rules

References

Pierce,R. (23 Jun 2019). Introduction to Integration. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/integration-introduction.html

Pierce,R. (23 Jun 2019). Integration Rules. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun. com/calculus/integration-rules.html

Smith, R.T. and Minton, R.B. (2008) Calculus. 3rd ed. NY: McGraw-Hill.

Stover, C. and Weisstein, E. W. Integral. From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Integral.html

25
 MODULE 3

INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION AND

INTEGRATION BY PARTS

Introduction

In this section, we expand our ability to compute antiderivatives by developing a useful

technique called integration by substitution and integration by parts. These methods give us
a process for helping to recognize a whole range of new antiderivatives. Of all the techniques
we’ll be looking at in this integral these are the techniques that students are most likely to run
into down the road in other integrals. We also give a derivation of the integration by parts
formula. The new techniques of integration introduced in this chapter provide us with a broad
range of tools used to solve countless problems of interest to engineers, mathematicians, and
scientists.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the concepts of integration by substitution and integration by parts;

2. Apply the appropriate properties and formulas in integrating functions; and
3. Integrate functions by substitution and by parts.
Lesson 1. Integration by Substitution

Pierce (2019) defines integration by substitution (also called "u-Substitution" or "The

Reverse Chain Rule") as a method to find an integral, but only when it can be set up in a
special way. The first and most vital step is to be able to write our integral in this form:

∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Note that we have g(x) and its derivative g’(x). Like in this example:

∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

here 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠, and we have 𝑔 = 𝑥 2 and its derivative is 2x. When our integral is set up like
that, we can do this substitution:
∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

Then we can integrate 𝑓 (𝑢) and finish by putting 𝑔(𝑥) back as 𝑢.

Example 1. What is ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥?

We know (from above) that it is in the right form to do the substitution:

∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

∫ cos(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

Now integrate: ∫ cos(𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = sin(𝑢) + 𝐶

And finally put 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 back again: ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶

But this method only works on some integrals of course, and it may need rearranging:

Example 2. What is ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥?

It is 6x, not 2x like before. What we are going to do here is rearrange the integral like this:
∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

We can pull constant multipliers outside the integration (see Rules of Integration). Then,

27
 3 ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 sin 𝑢 + 𝐶

Now put 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 back again: 3 ∫ cos(𝑥 2 ) 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 3 sin(𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶

𝑥
Example 3. What is ∫ 𝑑𝑥?
(𝑥 2 +1)

The derivative of 𝑥 2 + 1 is 2x, so we rearrange it like this:

𝑥 1 2𝑥
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 1) 2 (𝑥 + 1)

1 1
Then we have: = 2 ∫ (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢

1 1 1
Then integrate: 2
∫ (𝑢) 𝑑𝑢 = 2 ln(𝑢) + 𝐶

𝑥 1
Now put 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 1 back again: ∫ (𝑥 2+1) 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ln(𝑥 2 + 1 ) + 𝐶

Example 4. What is ∫(𝑥 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥?

The derivative of 𝑥 + 1 is simply 1. So we can have,

∫(𝑥 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑥 + 1)3 ∙ 1 𝑑𝑥

Then we have:
= ∫(𝑢)3 𝑑𝑢

Then integrate:
(𝑢4 )
∫(𝑢)3 𝑑𝑢 = 4
+𝐶

Now put 𝑢 = 𝑥 + 1 back again:

(𝑥 + 1)4
∫(𝑥 + 1)3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
4

28
Example 5. What is ∫(5𝑥 + 2)7 𝑑𝑥?

If this was in this form we could do it:

∫(5𝑥 + 2)7 5 𝑑𝑥

So let’s make it by doing this:

1
∫(5𝑥 + 2)7 5 𝑑𝑥
5

1
The 5 and 5 can be divided out. And now we can have 𝑢 = 5𝑥 + 2

1
∫(𝑢)7 𝑑𝑢
5

And then integrate:

1 1 𝑢8
∫ 𝑢7 𝑑𝑢 = ( ) ( ) + 𝐶
5 5 8

Now put 𝑢 = 5𝑥 + 2 back again:

(5𝑥 + 2)8
∫(5𝑥 + 2)7 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
40

Lesson 2. Integration by Parts

Pierce (2019) describes integration by parts as a special method of integration that is

often useful when two functions are multiplied together, but is also helpful in other ways. It is
based on the product rule for derivatives. The rule of integration is (see Figure 1):

∫ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑢′ (∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

29
Figure 1. Rule of Integration

𝑢 is the function 𝑢(𝑥)

𝑣 is the function 𝑣(𝑥)

𝑢′ is the derivative of the function 𝑢(𝑥)

Follow these steps:

1. Choose u and v
2. Differentiate u: u'
3. Integrate v: ∫v dx
4. Put u, u' and ∫v dx into: u∫v dx −∫u' (∫v dx) dx
5. Simplify and solve

Example 1. What is ∫ 𝑥 cos(𝑥)𝑑𝑥?

Here 𝑥 is multiplied by 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑥, so integration by parts is a good choice. First choose

which functions for 𝑢 and 𝑣:

𝑢=𝑥
𝑣 = cos(𝑥)

So now it is in the format ∫ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥, we can proceed:

Differentiate 𝑢: 𝑢′ = 𝑥′

30
 𝑥′ = 1

Integrate 𝑣: ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ cos(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥

Now we can put it all together: = 𝑥 sin(𝑥) − ∫ 1(sin(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥

Simplify and solve: = 𝑥 sin(𝑥) − ∫ sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑥 cos(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 sin(𝑥) + cos 𝑥 + 𝐶

ln(𝑥)
Example 2. What is ∫ 𝑥2
𝑑𝑥?

First choose which functions for 𝑢 and 𝑣:

𝑢 = ln(𝑥)
1
𝑣=
𝑥2
1
Differentiate 𝑢: ln(𝑥)′ =
𝑥

1
Integrate 𝑣: ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 −2 𝑑𝑥

= −𝑥 −1
−1
= 𝑥
(by power rule)

−1 1 −1
Now put it together: = ln 𝑥 ( ) − ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

− ln 𝑥 −1
Simplify and solve: =( )−∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2

− ln 𝑥 1
=( )− +𝐶
𝑥 𝑥
ln(𝑥) −(ln 𝑥+1)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
𝑥2 𝑥

Example 3. What is ∫ ln(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥?

First choose which functions for 𝑢 and 𝑣:

31
 𝑢 = ln(𝑥)
𝑣=1
1
Differentiate 𝑢: ln(𝑥)′ = 𝑥

Integrate 𝑣: ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1
Now put it together: = ln 𝑥 (𝑥) − ∫ 𝑥 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Simplify and solve: = 𝑥 ln(𝑥) − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥

∫ ln(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ln(𝑥) − 𝑥 + 𝐶

Example 4. What is ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥?

First choose which functions for 𝑢 and 𝑣:

𝑢 = 𝑒𝑥

𝑣=𝑥

Differentiate 𝑢: (𝑒 𝑥 )′ = 𝑒 𝑥

𝑥2
Integrate 𝑣: ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 2

Now put it together:

𝑥2 𝑥2
= 𝑒 𝑥 ( ) − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ( ) 𝑑𝑥
2 2

Now, it just got more complicated!

Maybe, we could choose a different 𝑢 and 𝑣:

𝑢=𝑥
𝑣 = 𝑒𝑥

Differentiate 𝑢: 𝑥′ = 1

Integrate 𝑣: ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥

32
Now put it together: = 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑥 ) − ∫ 1 (𝑒 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

Simplify and solve: = 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= 𝑥𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) + 𝐶

Assessment Task 1-1

I. Evaluate the integrals using integration by substitution.

1. ∫ cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥

2. ∫ sin(𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑥 √𝑥 + 3 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫(3𝑥 + 2)2 𝑑𝑥

I. Evaluate the integrals using integration by parts.

5. ∫ 𝑥 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

6. ∫ 𝑥 2 ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

7. ∫ 𝑥 𝑒 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

ln 𝑥
8. ∫ 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

9. ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥

10. ∫ 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

33
Summary

∫ 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) 𝑔′(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

This is the formula used to integrate functions by substitution (Pierce, 2019).

Substitution is a technique that simplifies the integration of functions that are the result of a
chain-rule derivative. The term ‘substitution’ refers to changing variables or substituting the
variable u and du for appropriate expressions in the integrand.

∫ 𝑢 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑢 ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑢′ (∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

This is the formula known as integration by parts (Smith & Minton, 2008). The formula
replaces one integral (that on the left) with another (that on the right); the intention is that the
one on the right is a simpler integral to evaluate. Through the method of Integration by Parts,
we can evaluate indefinite integrals that involve products of basic functions such as R x sin(x)
dx and R x ln(x) dx through a substitution that enables us to effectively trade one of the
functions in the product for its derivative, and the other for its antiderivative, in an effort to find
a different product of functions that is easier to integrate.

References

Pierce,R. (26 May 2019). Integration by Parts. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/integration-by-parts.html

Pierce, R. (22 May 2018). Integration by Substitution. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/calculus/integration-by-substitution.html

Smith, R.T. and Minton, R.B. (2008) Calculus. 3rd ed. NY: McGraw-Hill.

34
 MODULE 4

TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRATION

Introduction

Functions are systematic ways to associate an element of one set with exactly one
element of another set. The trigonometric functions are the basis of all trigonometries. They
assign real numbers to angle measures based on certain ratios. There are six trigonometric
functions: sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent. This module describes
several techniques for finding antiderivatives of certain combinations of trigonometric
functions.

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Identify the different trigonometric identities;

2. Apply the appropriate trigonometric identities in integrating trigonometric functions; and
3. Evaluate the integral of trigonometric functions.
Lesson 1. Trigonometric Identities (Pierce, 2019)

In mathematics, an "identity" is an equation that is always true. These can be "trivially"

true, like "x = x" or usefully true, such as the Pythagorean Theorem's "𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 𝑐 2 " for right
triangles. There are loads of trigonometric identities, but the following are the ones you're
most likely to see and use.

The three main functions in trigonometry are Sine, Cosine and Tangent. They are just
the length of one side divided by another. For a right triangle with an angle 𝜃:
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
sin(𝜃) = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 cos(𝜃) = ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 tan(𝜃) = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

when we divide Sine by Cosine we get:

sin(𝜃) 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒/ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

= = = tan(𝜃)
cos(𝜃) 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡/ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
sin(𝜃)
tan(𝜃) =
cos(𝜃)

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒
We can also divide the other way around (such as instead of ):
𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
Cosecant Function: csc(𝜃) = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

ℎ𝑦𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑠𝑒
Secant Function: sec(𝜃) = 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡
Cotangent Function: cot(𝜃) = 𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒

Basic Pythagorean Identities

1 1
sin(𝑥) = csc(𝑥) csc(𝑥) = sin(𝑥)

1 1
cos(𝑥) = sec (𝑥) sec 𝑥 = cos 𝑥

36
 1 sin(𝑥) 1 cos(𝑥)
tan(𝑥) = cot(𝑥) = cos(𝑥) cot(𝑥) = tan(𝑥) = sin(𝑥)

Notice how a "co-(something)" trig ratio is always the reciprocal of some "non-co"
ratio. You can use this fact to help you keep straight that cosecant goes with sine and
secant goes with cosine.

The following (particularly the first of the three below) are called "Pythagorean" identities.

𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃) + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) = 1 or 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃) = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) or 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) = 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)

𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃) + 1 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝜃) or 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 (𝜃) − 1

1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝜃) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (𝜃) or 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 (𝜃) = 𝑐𝑠𝑐 2 (𝜃) − 1

Note that the identities above all involve squaring and the number 1. You can see the
Pythagorean-Theorem relationship clearly if you consider the unit circle, where the angle is 𝜃,
the "opposite" side is sin(𝜃) = y, the "adjacent" side is cos(𝜃) = x, and the hypotenuse is 1.

Opposite Angle Identities

sin(−𝜃) = − sin(𝜃)
cos(−𝜃) = − cos(𝜃)
tan(−𝜃) = − tan(𝜃)

Double Angle Identities

sin(2𝜃) = 2 sin(𝜃) cos(𝜃)

2 tan(𝜃)
=
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃)

37
 cos(2𝜃) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)

= 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝜃) − 1

= 1 − 2𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝜃)

1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃)
=
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃)

2 tan(𝜃)
tan(2𝜃) =
1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝜃)

Half-Angle Identities

x 1 − cos(x)
sin ( ) = ±√
2 2

x 1 + cos(x)
cos ( ) = ±√
2 2

x 1 − cos(x) 1 − cos(𝑥) sin(𝑥)

tan ( ) = ±√ = = = csc(𝑥) − cot(𝑥)
2 1 + cos(x) sin(𝑥) 1 + cos(𝑥)

The above identities can be re-stated by squaring each side and doubling all of the angle
measures. The results are as follow:

1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) = [1 − cos(2𝑥)]
2
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) = [1 + cos(2𝑥)]
2
1 − cos(2𝑥)
𝑡𝑎𝑛2 (𝑥) =
1 + cos(2𝑥)

Sum Identities

x+y x−y
sin(x) + sin(y) = 2sin ( ) cos ( )
2 2
x+y x−y
sin(x) − sin(y) = 2cos ( ) sin ( )
2 2
x+y x−y
cos(x) + cos(y) = 2cos ( ) cos ( )
2 2

38
 x+y x−y
cos(x) − cos(y) = −2sin ( ) sin ( )
2 2

Product Identities

1
sin(x)cos(y) = [sin(x + y) + sin(x − y)]
2
1
cos(x)sin(y) = [sin(x + y) − sin(x − y)]
2
1
cos(x)cos(y) = [cos(x − y) + cos(x + y)]
2
1
sin(x)sin(y) = [cos(x − y) − cos(x + y)]
2

Lesson 2. Trigonometric Integrals (Stewart, 2016)

In this section we look at how to integrate a variety of products of trigonometric

functions. These integrals are called trigonometric integrals. They are an important part of the
integration technique called trigonometric substitution, which is featured in Trigonometric
Substitution. We will use trigonometric identities to integrate certain combinations of
trigonometric functions. We start with powers of sine and cosine.

Example 1. Evaluate ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution: Simply substituting 𝑢 = cos(𝑥) isn’t helpful, since 𝑑𝑢 = − sin(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥. In order to
integrate powers of cosine, we would need an extra sin 𝑥 factor. Similarly, a power of sine
would require an extra cos 𝑥 factor. Thus, here we can separate one cosine factor and convert
the remaining 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 factor to an expression involving sine using the identity 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
1:

𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 = (1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) cos 𝑥

We can then evaluate the integral by substituting 𝑢 = sin 𝑥, so 𝑑𝑢 = cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and

∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 ∙ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥 𝑑 = ∫(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥) cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

39
 1
= ∫(1 − 𝑢2 ) 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑢 − 𝑢3 + 𝐶
3
1
= sin 𝑥 − sin3 𝑥 + 𝐶
3

Example 2. Find ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 (𝑥)𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

Solution: We could convert 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) to 1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥, but we would be left with an expression in
terms of sin 𝑥 with no extra cos 𝑥 factor. Instead, we separate a single sine factor and rewrite
the remaining 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 factor in terms of cos 𝑥:

𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥

Substituting 𝑢 = cos 𝑥, we have 𝑑𝑢 = − sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 and so

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= (1 − 𝑢2 )2 𝑢2 (−𝑑𝑢) = − ∫(𝑢2 − 2𝑢4 + 𝑢6 )𝑑𝑢

𝑢3 𝑢5 𝑢7
= −( −2 + ) +𝐶
3 5 7
1 2 1
= − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 7 𝑥 + 𝐶
3 5 7

𝜋
Example 3. Find ∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: If we write 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥, the integral is no simpler to evaluate. Using the half-
angle formula for 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥, however, we have
𝜋
1 𝜋 1 1 𝜋
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (1 − cos 2𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = [ (𝑥 − sin 2𝑥)]
0 2 0 2 2 0

1 1 1 1 1
= (𝜋 − sin 2𝜋) − (0 − sin 0) = 𝜋
2 2 2 2 2

Example 4. Find ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥

40
Solution: We write 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = (𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 and use the half-angle formula:

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)2 𝑑𝑥

1 − cos 2𝑥) 2
= ∫( ) 𝑑𝑥
2
1
= ∫(1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4

Since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 occurs, we must use another half-angle formula:

1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2𝑥 = (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥)
2

This gives

1 1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ [1 − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + (1 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
4 2
1 3 1
= ∫ ( − 2𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑥 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠4𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
4 2 2
1 3 1
= ( 𝑥 − sin 2𝑥 + sin 4𝑥) + 𝐶
4 2 8

To summarize, here is the guidelines to follow when evaluating integrals of the form
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥, where 𝑚 ≥ 0 and 𝑛 ≥ 0 are integers.

Strategy for Evaluating ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a. If the power of cosine is odd (𝑛 = 2𝑘 + 1), save one cosine factor and use 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 =
1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 to express the remaining factors in terms of sine:

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 2𝑘+1 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥(𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥)𝑘 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑚 𝑥(1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 )𝑘 cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Then substitute 𝑢 = sin 𝑥

b. If the power of sine is odd (𝑚 = 2𝑘 + 1), save one sine factor and use 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥 = 1 −
𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 to express the remaining factors in terms of cosine:

∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑘+1 𝑥𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝑥)𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 )𝑘 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

41
 Then substitute 𝑢 = cos 𝑥.
Note that if the power of both sine and cosine are odd, either (a) or (b) can be used.

c. If the power of both sine and cosine are even, use the half-angle identities
1 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛2 (𝑥) = [1 − cos(2𝑥)] 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 (𝑥) = [1 + cos(2𝑥)]
2 2

It is sometimes helpful to use the identity

1
sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 = sin 𝑥
2

We can use a similar strategy to evaluate integrals of the form ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑑𝑥. Since
𝑑
tan 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥, we can separate a 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 factor and convert the remaining (even) power of
𝑑𝑥
secant to an expression involving tangent using the identity 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥. Or, since
𝑑
𝑑𝑥
sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥, we can separate a sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 factor and convert the remaining (even)
power of tangent to secant.

Example 5. Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution: If we separate one 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 factor, we can express the remaining 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 factor in terms
of tangent using the identity 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥. We can then evaluate the integral by
substituting 𝑢 = tan 𝑥 with 𝑑𝑢 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥:

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛6 𝑥(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥) 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑢6 (1 + 𝑢2 )𝑑𝑢 = ∫(𝑢6 + 𝑢8 )𝑑𝑢

𝑢7 𝑢9
= + +𝐶
7 9
1 1
= 𝑡𝑎𝑛7 𝑥 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛9 𝑥 + 𝐶
7 9

Example 6. Evaluate ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 7 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

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Solution: If we separate one 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 factor, as in the preceding example, we are left with a
𝑠𝑒𝑐 5 𝜃 factor, which isn’t easily converted to tangent. However, if we separate a sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃
factor, we convert the remaining power of tangent to an expression involving only secant using
the identity 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝜃 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1. We can then evaluate the integral by substituting 𝑢 = sec 𝜃, so
𝑑𝑢 = sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃:

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 7 𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛4 𝜃 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝜃 − 1)2 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝜃 sec 𝜃 tan 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

= ∫(𝑢2 − 1)2 𝑢6 𝑑𝑢 = ∫(𝑢10 − 2𝑢8 + 𝑢6 )𝑑𝑢

𝑢11 𝑢9 𝑢7
= −2 + +𝐶
11 9 7
1 2 1
= 𝑠𝑒𝑐11 𝜃 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐 9 𝜃 + 𝑠𝑒𝑐 7 𝜃 + 𝐶
11 9 7

Strategy for Evaluating ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

a) If the power of secant is even (𝑛 = 2𝑘, 𝑘 ≥ 2), save a factor of 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 and use 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 to express the remaining factors in terms of tan 𝑥:

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 2𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥)𝑘−1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

= ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑚 𝑥(1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥)𝑘−1 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥

then substitute 𝑢 = tan 𝑥.

b) If the power of tangent is odd (𝑚 = 2𝑘 + 1, save a factor of sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 and use 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 =
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1 to express the remaining factors in terms of sec 𝑥:

∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝑘+1 𝑥𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥)𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛−1 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

= ∫(𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥 − 1)𝑘 𝑠𝑒𝑐 𝑛−1 𝑥 sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

then substitute 𝑢 = sec 𝑥.

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 Assessment Task 1-1

I. Find the integral of the following trigonometric functions. Use the appropriate
trigonometric identities.
𝜋
1. ∫0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃 𝑑𝜃

2. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠 5 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

4. ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛4 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

3𝜋⁄
5. ∫𝜋⁄ 4 𝑠𝑖𝑛5 𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝑥𝜃 𝑑𝜃
2

6. ∫(1 + cos 𝜃)2 𝑑𝜃

7. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

8. ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 6 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

9. ∫ 𝑡𝑎𝑛5 𝑥 𝑠𝑒𝑐 4 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

10. ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑡 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Summary

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 In getting the integral of any trigonometric functions, it is better to recall first all the
definitions of trigonometric functions and identities. Some integrals involving trigonometric
functions can be evaluated using trigonometric identities. It requires also careful and precise
use of the rules of differentiation and substitution.

References

Pierce, R. (17 Sep 2019). Trigonometric Identities. Math Is Fun. Retrieved from
http://www.mathsisfun.com/algebra/trigonometric-identities.html

Stewart, J. (2016). Calculus. 8th ed. Retrieved from https://www.stewartcalculus.

com/data/CALCULUS%20Concepts%20and%20Contexts/upfiles/3c3-Trigonomet
Integrals_Stu.pdf

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