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Electrical engineering

Unit: Circuit analysis

Circuit elements

Resistor circuits

Series and parallel resistors

DC circuit analysis

Natural and forced response

AC circuit analysis

About this unit

Circuit analysis is the process of finding all the currents and voltages in a network of connected
components. We look at the basic elements used to build circuits, and find out what happens when
elements are connected together into a circuit.

Go to lesson page | Circuit terminologyCircuit terminology

We are developing methods for analyzing a circuit. So far we've defined the most common components
(resistor, capacitor, and inductor) and sources (voltage and current). Now we need a crisp vocabulary to
talk about circuits. This article is a glossary of terms and concepts we use in circuit analysis and design.

Circuit
Circuit comes from the word circle. A circuit is a collection of real components, power sources, and
signal sources, all connected so current can flow in a complete circle.

Closed circuit – A circuit is closed if the circle is complete, if all currents have a path back to where they
came from.

Open circuit – A circuit is open if the circle is not complete, if there is a gap or opening in the path.

Short circuit – A short happens when a path of low resistance is connected (usually by mistake) to a
component. The resistor shown below is the intended path for current, and the curved wire going
around it is the short. Current is diverted away from its intended path, sometimes with damaging
results. The wire shorts out the resistor by providing a low-resistance path for current (probably not
what the designer intended).

Make or Break – You make a circuit by closing the current path, such as when you close a switch.
Breaking a circuit is the opposite. Opening a switch breaks the circuit.

Schematic

A schematic is a drawing of a circuit. A schematic represents circuit elements with symbols and
connections as lines.

Elements – The term elements means "components and sources."

Symbols – Elements are represented in schematics by symbols. Symbols for common 2-terminal
elements are shown here,

Lines – Connections between elements are drawn as lines, which we often think of as "wires". On a
schematic, these lines represent perfect conductors with zero resistance. Every component or source
terminal touched by a line is at the same voltage.

Dots – Connections between lines can be indicated by dots. Dots are an unambiguous indication that
lines are connected. If the connection is obvious, you don't have to use a dot.

(a) and (b) are both good

(c) no dot indicates no connection

(d) also indicates no connection; the horizontal wire "hops" over the vertical wire. (d) is very clear but
takes extra effort and space to draw.
(e) for crossing connected lines, (e) is acceptable, but risks looking too much like (c), so (f) is the better
practice.

Reference designator – When you place a component in a schematic you often give it a unique name,
known as a reference designator. Examples of reference designators are \text{R1}R1start text, R, 1, end
text, \text{C6}C6start text, C, 6, end text, and \text{V}_\text{BAT}V

BAT

start text, V, end text, start subscript, start text, B, A, T, end text, end subscript. The 111 in \
text{R1}R1start text, R, 1, end text is part of the name, and does not indicate the resistance value.
Reference designators are by definition unique for each schematic. They let you identify components by
name even if some of them have the same value. It is okay to use reference designators in equations. \
text{R1}R1start text, R, 1, end text can be assigned a resistance value, \text{R1} = 4.7\,\text k\
OmegaR1=4.7kΩstart text, R, 1, end text, equals, 4, point, 7, start text, k, end text, \Omega, and it can
be used as a variable in expressions, as in \text{R2} \cdot \text{C6} = 4.7\,\text k\Omega \cdot 2\,\mu\
text FR2⋅C6=4.7kΩ⋅2μFstart text, R, 2, end text, dot, start text, C, 6, end text, equals, 4, point, 7, start
text, k, end text, \Omega, dot, 2, mu, start text, F, end text.

Reference designators give components unique names, even if their values are the same.

Node – A junction where 222 or more elements connect is called a node. The schematic below shows a
single node (the black dot) formed by the junction of five elements (abstractly represented by orange
rectangles).

Since lines on a schematic represent perfect zero-resistance conductors, there is no rule that says lines
from multiple elements are required to meet in a single point junction. We can draw the same node as a
distributed node like the one in the schematic below. These two representations of the node mean
exactly the same thing.

A distributed node might be all spread out, with lots of line segments, elbows, and dots. Don't be
distracted, it is all just one single node. Connecting schematic elements with perfect conductors means
the voltage everywhere on a distributed node is the same.

Here is a realistic-looking schematic with the distributed nodes labeled:

PROBLEM 1
How many nodes are in this schematic?

Choose 1 answer:

Choose 1 answer:

Hide explanation

There are 444 nodes in the circuit.

\goldC{\text{Node}\,1}Node1start color #ff9c39, start text, N, o, d, e, end text, 1, end color #ff9c39 is the
junction between the voltage source, \text V0V0start text, V, end text, 0, and the bottom of \text R3, \
text R4R3,R4start text, R, end text, 3, comma, start text, R, end text, 4, and \text R5R5start text, R, end
text, 5.

\purpleC{\text{Node}\, 2}Node2start color #aa87ff, start text, N, o, d, e, end text, 2, end color #aa87ff is
the junction between the voltage source, \text V0V0start text, V, end text, 0, and resistor \text
R1R1start text, R, end text, 1.

\redB{\text{Node} \, 3}Node3start color #ff8482, start text, N, o, d, e, end text, 3, end color #ff8482 is
the junction between resistors \text R1, \text R2R1,R2start text, R, end text, 1, comma, start text, R, end
text, 2, and \text R3R3start text, R, end text, 3.

\greenE{\text{Node}\,4}Node4start color #0d923f, start text, N, o, d, e, end text, 4, end color #0d923f is
the junction between resistors \text R2, \text R4R2,R4start text, R, end text, 2, comma, start text, R, end
text, 4, and \text R5R5start text, R, end text, 5.

hide

Depending on your circuit analysis textbook or web resource, you may come across different definitions
for the term node. Authors choose slightly different ways to teach circuit analysis. The goal is to come up
with an organized approach for generating a system of independent simultaneous equations (we will do
this in an upcoming article). There are a few ways to do this, and they all achieve the same goal, with
slight variations in jargon.

In some texts, a node is defined to be the junction between 333 or more elements. In this teaching style,
all nodes are included in a full circuit analysis.

Another term you may come across is essential node. This also means a node with 333 or more
connected elements. So in this teaching style, nodes have 222 or more connections, and essential nodes
have 333 or more. Essential nodes must be included in a full circuit analysis.
At Khan Academy, we use the definition where a node is the junction between 222 or more elements.
With this definition, some nodes may be redundant (i.e. not independent).

The 222-element definition is used by circuit simulation programs like SPICE, which require every
junction to have a unique name. That's one reason to use the term "node" for all junctions.

All these shades of meaning have the same objective. There's no need to worry about which way is
"right". If you use another reference alongside Khan Academy, check the specific definition of node to
see if it's the same as the one we use here.

Branch – Branches are the connections between nodes. A branch is an element (resistor, capacitor,
source, etc.). The number of branches in a circuit is equal to the number of elements.

PROBLEM 2

How many branches are in this schematic?

Choose 1 answer:

Choose 1 answer:

Hide explanation

There are 6 branches in this circuit, one for each element,

Loop – A loop is any closed path going through circuit elements. To draw a loop, select any node as a
starting point and draw a path through elements and nodes until the path comes back to the node
where you started. There is only one rule: a loop can visit (pass through) a node only one time. It is ok if
loops overlap or contain other loops. Some of the loops in our circuit are shown here. (You can find
others, too. If I counted right, there are six.)

hide

Six loops.

Just from this simple example you can see the number of loops in a circuit can become quite large. Loop
analysis can be quite a burden, so you will notice a fair amount of effort going into figuring out simpler
methods.
Mesh – A mesh is a loop that has no other loops inside it. You can think of this as one mesh for each
"open window" of a circuit.

PROBLEM 3

How many meshes are in this circuit?

Choose 1 answer:

Choose 1 answer:

Hide explanation

There are 3 meshes in the circuit, one for each "open window" in the circuit,

Reference Node – During circuit analysis we usually pick one of the nodes in the circuit to be the
reference node. Voltages at other nodes are measured relative to the reference node. Any node can be
the reference, but two common choices that simplify circuit analysis are,

the negative terminal of the voltage or current source powering the circuit, or

the node connected to the greatest number of branches.

Ground – The reference node is often referred to as ground. The concept of ground has three important
meanings.

A metal stake driven into the ground next to a home. The wire clamped to the stake curves up to the
right to provide the safety ground reference for the home's electrical system. Sometimes the grounding
wire is clamped to a water pipe where the pipe disappears into the Earth.

Ground is

the reference point from which voltages are measured.

the return path for electric current back to its source.

a direct physical connection to the Earth, which is important for safety. safety

The ground node gets its name from the third meaning. But the other two are equally important.

You will come across various symbols for ground:

Schematic equivalence

We need to take a second to talk about the idea of schematic equivalence. This is important because a
circuit can be represented by schematics drawn in different ways.

The following two schematics are drawn differently. The schematic on the left shows a voltage source
and three resistors in numerical order. In the schematic the right, resistor \text R3R3start text, R, end
text, 3 appears to the left of the voltage source.

Do both of these schematics properly represent the intended circuit? Or said another way,

Are these two schematics equivalent?

We say a real circuit and a schematic (or two schematics), are equivalent if they have the same nodes
and branches.

To be equivalent, two schematics must:

Represent every component and source

Have the same number of nodes

Each node must be connected to the same branches

Let's check to see if our two schematics are equivalent:

Are all components and sources represented in both schematics?

Roll call ... \text VVstart text, V, end text, here!, \text R1R1start text, R, end text, 1, here!, \text
R2R2start text, R, end text, 2, here! \text R3R3start text, R, end text, 3, here!

All elements accounted for.

Do both schematics have the same number of nodes?

Yes. Both schematics have 222 nodes.

Is each node connected to the same branches?

– Yes. Each node connects to the three resistors and a source.

The two nodes are marked with orange lines. The four branches are shown as blue arrows.

So the answer is: yes, these schematics are equivalent.

Equivalence means the matching nodes will have the same voltage, and the matching branches will have
the same current. These are the things we care about being the same.

You could build a real circuit based on either of these schematics. Lay the physical wires and
components right on top of either drawing and solder them together. Both schematics will produce the
intended circuit, with identical node voltages and branch currents.

This discussion of equivalence may seem rather overdone; what's the big deal? Schematics have a
curious property that often catches beginners.

A schematic puzzle

I'm going to point out something that may seem baffling, (but only for a moment). As we just
established, the following two schematics are equivalent. But, not everything is exactly the same. The
individual point-to-point connections of the lines between elements are not the same.

Look at the blue arrow in the left schematic. That wire carries the current flowing towards \text
R2R2start text, R, end text, 2 and \text R3R3start text, R, end text, 3.

Can you find the equivalent wire in the schematic on the right?

(Find a wire carrying the current going to \text R2R2start text, R, end text, 2 and \text R3R3start text, R,
end text, 3.)

hide

It is not there! There is no wire in the righthand schematic with the combined current flowing to \text
R2R2start text, R, end text, 2 and \text R3R3start text, R, end text, 3. This is so strange!

What is going on? It is a trick question, to highlight something about the nature of schematics.

This puzzle reveals a fundamental difference between a real circuit and a drawn schematic. The lines in a
schematic diagram do not necessarily represent the specific point-to-point order of the connections the
corresponding real circuit might have. The question about one wire carrying current to \text R2R2start
text, R, end text, 2 and \text R3R3start text, R, end text, 3 assumes a specific wiring order that does not
exist in the schematic on the right.

How do you avoid getting trapped by this schematic puzzle? You can always count on identical branch
currents in every equivalent schematic or real circuit. So always think about current flowing in a branch
(flowing in a component or source), not current flowing in a "wire." Currents in "wires" may or may not
exist in an equivalent version of the schematic, or in the real circuit built from either schematic.

Concept check: Equivalence

Here is a brainteaser to help you check your understanding of schematic equivalence.

Which of these schematics represent the same circuit (are equivalent)?

Assume all resistors have the same value.

Take your time, this isn't simple.

Hint: There are three answers.

show a hint hide

A=G

show another answer hide

B=D=E

Drawing a good schematic

A good schematic serves a number of noble purposes. A good schematic

captures the design of a circuit in an unambiguous way.

allows you to share your design with other people.

helps you remember how your circuit works, even a month from now.

Both you and your colleagues will appreciate these drawing habits for creating good schematics,

Place inputs on the left, and outputs on the right.

Let information flow from left to right across the circuit.

Use up/down on the page to suggest voltage levels. That is, draw higher voltage wires closer to the top
of the page, and lower voltages (like ground) near the bottom of the page.

The following schematics are equivalent, but the one on the left is not as easy to read as the one on the
right. The one on the right follows the guidelines for a good schematic.

Khan Academy video wrapper

See video transcript

Good schematics capture your design intent. You convey your meaning more quickly and reliably if you
draw schematics to make it obvious what you are trying to do.
As you are asked to read different schematics, take a moment to notice the drawing style. Mimic the
drawing style of schematics you find easy to read. Put your creativity into the circuit design, not into
drawing a schematic in a new style.

We now have a full vocabulary for talking about circuits and their sub-parts. We are ready to start
analyzing.

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