Asynchronous Motor

Three-phase motors and generators have been in existence for more than a
hundred years. Motors are fed with three-phase voltages while rotating three-
phase generators generate the voltages. The term three-phase came about
many years ago. Three-phase machines are available in a wide range of power
levels in various designs. 

Today vast numbers of small asynchronous machines below 1 kW are used in

household appliances and commercial applications while bigger asynchronous
machines up to approx. 30 MW can be found in large-scale industrial plants and
synchronous machines of up to the GW range are used in power stations.
Three-phase machines are differentiated into
 Synchronous machines and
 Asynchronous machines
depending on whether the rotor rotates in sync with the rotating magnetic field,
i.e. synchronously, or rotates slower than the rotating field, i.e. asynchronously.
When compared to DC machines it is, in
particular, the simplicity of the three-phase
squirrel-cage motor and its robustness that
stand out and make it less expensive to
produce. It is also practically maintenance-
free. But three-phase motors have a fixed
speed and torque characteristic. Thus for a
long time it was not possible to use them for
a variety of tasks requiring variable speed.

Three-phase machines are electromagnetic power converters. They convert

electrical energy into mechanical energy (in the case of a motor) and vice versa
(for a generator). These physical processes are based on the principle of
electromagnetic induction.
Three-phase machines are basically comprised of a stationary part and a rotating
part. These components are called:
 Stator
 Rotor

 
The rotor is mounted to the shaft and pivots on ball-bearings.

Stator

A rotating magnetic field is produced

in the stator, which to a great extent
resembles a ferromagnetic circuit.
Several current-carrying windings
and a stator core made of iron are
also needed.
The stator in our experiment motor
contains 24 pole pieces and grooves
which are formed out of stamped
sheet metal which is welded together
to form a stator core.
The windings made of copper wire
are inserted into the grooves. The copper wires shown here make up the three
windings used for connection in a three-phase system. The windings are
designated with green, red and clear lacquer. The beginnings and ends of the
windings are made accessible via 2mm sockets.
If we consider the green winding we see that on one side it is guided downwards
through 4 grooves and back upwards
on the exact opposite side.
The windings and sheet metal are
integrated into a stator housing,
which is frequently also equipped
with cooling fins for improved heat
dissipation.
Furthermore the stator contains a ball-
bearing race at its center, which supports
the rotor. In industrial-type machines the
rotors are supported on two-sides.

Stator winding set up

The animated top view
of the stator's iron core
basically shows how
the three windings are
set up. These are
arranged in staggered
fashion in the metal
grooves and thus
require 2 x 4 grooves
each.
It is easy to see that
we are dealing with coils each with one end at the beginning of a winding and
one at the end. For the production of the magnetic field only the windings in the
metal grooves marked with a point (tip) or a cross (ending) are relevant. For that
reason the actual wires, depicted here as curved lines, are not normally shown,
just the ends of the wires (beginning and end) are depicted.
In order to make the space inside free for the rotor, the curvature of the windings
as depicted here is increased further until the windings follow along the top and
the bottom of the iron core. The resulting "bulge" comprised of single wires is
termed the winding head. In the real photos shown above the upper winding head of
our experiment motor can be recognised as the three bound bundles of copper wires.

Rotor
The rotor is mounted to the motor shaft which transfers the torque to the working
machine. Rotors come in the widest possible variety and go on to determine the
type and operating qualities of the three-phase machine they comprise:
 With and without windings
 With and without slip-rings
 Squirrel-cage
 Permanent magnet
The three rotor types included with the experiment motor are:

Permanent magnet
Squirrel-cage rotor Coil-winding rotor
rotor
Electromagnetism

 
 
 
The prerequisite for the
functioning of all
induction machines is
a rotating magnetic
field. How a magnetic
field is generated is
summarised in the
following pages.
Electromagnetic induction
The processes occurring in electrical machines are based on the basic physical principles
of electromagnetic induction.

Generator principle
 A voltage is induced when a
conductor traverses through a
magnetic field.
 The induced voltage evokes a
current in the conductor if the
wire is part of a closed circuit.
 A force is exerted on the moving
conductor which is perpendicular
to the magnetic field and to the
conductor.

Motor principle
 If a current flows through a
conductor a magnetic field is
generated
 Forces of attraction and
repulsion arise
 A force F acts on the current-
carrying conductor within the
external magnetic field. This
force is perpendicular to the
magnetic field
 The conductor is moved through
the magnetic field
Ampere´s law
In an electric machine the magnetic field is retained in its iron core with the
exception of the air-gap between the stator and the rotor. This constitutes a
closed magnetic circuit.
Magnetic fields can be depicted graphically as "magnetic field lines". The field
lines run through the interior of the winding, forming a loop that runs outside
around the iron core, the rotor and the air gap.
By integrating an
exciter winding with a
turn number of w a
magnetomotive force
 is exerted on the
magnetic circuit.
This magnetomotive
force is proportional to
the current I flowing
through the winding
and its number of turns
 = I*w
Where the field lines are closely packed together, the flux density B becomes
particularly large, where the lines are further apart it is smaller. The unit used to
describe the intensity of the magnetic field is termed magnetic flux . It is
derived from the product of the flux density B and the cross-sectional area A
through which it passes :

Static magnetic field
When a direct current flows through a winding, this creates a magnetomotive
force and flux which builds up into a magnetic field with a definite orientation. A
magnetic north and south pole arise.

Press the three

coloured buttons one
after the other to see
the basic arrangement
of the three windings
and to switch a current
on each winding.
Observe the changes
in the distribution of
the field lines and the
position of the poles.
As the three windings are spatially arranged at 120 degree intervals, the current
flowing into the different windings generates one magnetic field each with
different orientations. In the illustration you can recognise this by the magnetic
flux lines which change their directions accordingly. 
If a permanent magnet is inserted as a rotor, attractive and repulsive forces arise
due to the fact that in a magnetic circuit like poles repel and opposite poles
attract.
Depending on the position of the permanent magnetic rotor these forces exercise
a torque on the rotor.
Rotating magnetic field
The first experiment demonstrated how a magnetic field can be generated by
applying a DC voltage to the machine's windings which subsequently build up a
torque caused by magnetic forces of attraction and repulsion. In Experiment 2 it
was even possible to produce rotational motion by reconnecting the winding
terminals.
This is even easier when a three-phase system is connected to the stator
windings.
How is a rotating magnetic field generated?
For a rotor of a three-phase machine to be able to rotate, a rotating magnetic field must
build up inside the stator. The following pages explain how this is done.

Number of pole pairs

The number of pole pairs is an important specification for a three-phase machine.
It has a profound impact on the speed of any three-phase machine.
If the stator windings are in a spatial arrangement, each mechanically offset by
120° (as in the previous examples), the machine has one pole pair, i.e. 2 poles,
for each phase. The rotating field
revolves at the frequency of the three-
phase power supply, as a rule at 50 Hz
in a constant-voltage, constant-
frequency system. The rotation speed of
this field in revolutions per minute is
thus 50 Hz x 60 s = 3000 rpm.
We have a slightly different case in the
adjacent figure. Here the windings are
arranged mechanically offset by 60
degrees respectively. The machine thus
has two pole pairs, i.e. 4 poles, for each phase. The result is that the magnetic
field only completes one rotation after two full revolutions of the mains supply. In
other words the magnetic field rotates at half the frequency. 
Thus besides the frequency of the feeding mains it is the number of pole pairs
that forms the second variable determining the magnetic field's rotation speed.
For 50 Hz systems the following applies:

Pole pairs
1 2 3 4 6
(p)

No. of poles 2 4 6 8 12

no (rpm) 3000 1500 1000 750 500

In general the following holds true: 

no = (f x 60) / p       f = Frequency of the supplying system
                                 p = Number of pole pairs
                                 no = Synchronous speed in rpm
 

Rating plate

 
 
Every electrical machine has a rating plate
securely attached to it, normally on the
terminal box. Besides rating data, the rating
plate also contains specifications such as
type designation and manufacturer.
  
 The following
information is
contained in the
various boxes making
up the rating plate of a
15 kW machine:

1. Three-phase motor for connection to a three-phase power supply.

The nominal frequency is 50 Hz. Here we are dealing with a three-
phase aynchronous machine.
2. The mechanical power continuously available at the shaft
amounts to15 kW
3. Nominal data of the machine when connect in star configuration:
400 V at 27.5 A
4. Nominal data of the machine for connection in delta configuration:
230 V at 48.7 A
5. The protective class describes to what extent the machine is
protected from ingress of liquid and foreign particles
6. The cos (power) factor describes the ratio of effective (active)
power to apparent power
7. Under nominal load and provided that the other nominal data are adhered
to the machine reaches the nominal speed specified here

Squirrel-cage motors
The rotors of asynchronous machines can be designed as slip-ring or
squirrel-cage rotors, which are both based on the same operating principle. For
that reason the following description is restricted to short-circuit or squirrel-cage
rotors.
Squirrel-cage rotors consist of a number of conductors (rotor rods) which are
short-circuited at their two ends by a conducting ring.
A positive current is marked red on the rotor rods, a negative one is blue, while
grey indicates that no current is present.
The magnetic field rotates at a constant speed. The rotor does not rotate
synchronously at the speed of the magnetic field but somewhat slower. Voltages
are induced across the rotor rods only as a consequence of the relative motion of
the conductors through the rotating magnetic field. These voltage lead to a
current flow via the short-circuits. The current carrying conductors generate
forces which are aggregated into a magnetic field.
Squirrel-cage rotor
 

    The squirrel-cage rotor essentially consists of three components i.e. materials:
 A pressed armature of dynamo laminations which are mutually
insulated and have pre-fabricated cavities (22 in this case) to
accommodate the rotor rods
 Aluminium forms comprising the rotor rods and the shorting rings
 Shaft
In the unfinished rotor on the right we can recognise the ends of the 22
aluminium rods. These are produced by pouring liquid aluminium into the
grooves. Finally the shorting rings are moulded onto the upper and underside,
the shaft inserted and the rotor machined to the desired size.
On the left we see a complete squirrel-cage rotor. We can recognise both the
aluminium conductor rods as well as the aluminium shorting rings.
Speed and slip
For technical reasons the speed n in an asynchronous machine must be lower
than the synchronous speed n0 of the revolving field so that torque can be
generated.
In the case of a machine not under load the no-load speed approximates the
synchronous speed. Under load the speed drops and remains at approx. 5% to
15% below the synchronous speed.
To be able to describe this technical phenomenon a quantity was introduced
termed slip s.
Normally, slip is defined as any deviation from the synchronous speed and is
expressed as follows:
s = (n0-n) / n0
The slip for a machine running at no-load speed and not subject to load
approximates 0, increasing with load and can reach the value of 1 when the
machine is loaded up to standstill.
Torque and power
The currents flowing through the conductor rods of the short-circuit rotor generate forces
termed F. The individual forces on the rotor rods are added together and generate a torque
over the lever arm. But this torque does not remain the same at every speed. The
relationship between the speed and the torque can be described graphically using a
characteristic.
Asynchronous machines have
very typical characteristic curves.
Typical load characteristics for
an asynchronous machine in
star-configuration and in delta-
configuration are shown in the
adjacent figure. The
characteristic points are:
1. Starting torque
2. Pull-in torque
3. Pull-out torque
The area of the characteristic above the pull-out torque is particularly important,
i.e. speed in the proximity of the pull-out torque and the synchronous speed. A
machine operating at no-load almost reaches the synchronous speed on the
speed axis. Under load the torque increases and the speed drops. If the pull-out
torque is reached or exceeded the machine comes to a stop.

The relationship between the torque and the power is:

M = (P *60) / (n * 2 * ) = 9.55 * P / n
where n is in rpm
Equivalent circuit diagram of a three-phase machine
Nowadays electrical
machines are often operated
on variable-frequency
networks and connected to
frequency converters. Similar
to today's very popular, high-
tech frequency converter
drives, our very own
UniTrain-I power supply
provides a three-phase
system with adjustable amplitude and frequency for the experiments. We must
first introduce the concept of the equivalent circuit diagram in order to understand
the machine's operating behaviour.
Three-phase machines consist of several stator and rotor coils coupled together.
A short-circuit rotor machine with three stators and three rotor coils can be
depicted in a simplified fashion as shown in the illustration below.
 
 
If we restrict our examination to one of the
three coupled coil pairs, the complexity of
the whole figure is reduced and simplified
markedly. As we are dealing with a
symmetrical system, all of the
considerations made here also apply to
the other coil pairs.
 Due to the copper wire the coils not only
possess inductance L but also parasitic,
ohmic resistance R. The current flowing
through the coils is determined by both the
resistive as well as the inductive
components. As the coils are connected to
an alternating current system, the
inductances possess a reactance value
which is measured in ohms.
This can be calculated from:
XL= 2· · f· L
The magnetic induction B of the coils affect each other. The stator coil generates
a current in the rotor coil and vice versa. For that reason the single-phase
equivalent circuit diagram can be improved by a further diagram.

Improved equivalent circuit diagram

In this equivalent circuit diagram a current I h flows through the main reactor coil
which then provides for the magnetisation of the stator and rotor.

In this representation the mechanical load of the rotor is covered by the load
resistor on the right-hand side and the slip s is used to represent the size of the
load.
Marginal considerations:
 No-load:
The expression (1-s) / s tends toward infinity in no-load operation ( s -> 0)
and no current I2 flows.
 The total current I1 taken in by the machine is identical to the
magnetisation current Ih.
 Mechanical load:
When subjected to mechanical load the speed of asynchronous machines
drops and the slip increases. A current I 2 is produced which is dependent
on the mechanical load.
The current I1 taken in by the machine is divided into a magnetisation
current Ih and load-dependent active current  I2.
 Stationary
When a machine is stationary (S -> 1) the product of the expression (1-
s)/s equals 0. As a consequence the value of right-hand resistor is 0. The
current I1 taken in by the machine is divided into a load-dependent active
current I2 now determined by R2 and a magnetisation current I h.
Leakage inductances
The two reactances X1 and X2 represent the leakage inductances including their
stray influences. In the following considerations they can frequently be ignored. 
However the resistance R1 makes itself disturbingly noticeable and cannot be
neglected.
 Control characteristic

Asynchronous machines and their magnetic circuit

are designed for constant magnetisation. This means
that the magnitude of magnetic flux inside the stator
must remain equal at all frequencies. In variable-
frequency systems certain conditions must be
complied with to achieve this. 
If a three-phase system with constant voltage is
connected to the stator windings, then the stator
current varies if the frequency changes due to the
inductances. If the frequency drops then the stator
current increases and so therefore does the magnetic flux.
In order to keep the magnetic flux constant for varying frequency, the voltage
must be modified simultaneously. One strategy for keeping the stator currents
constant is "characteristic control" with the aid of a V/f characteristic.
 
Commencing from a starting point the voltage is increased in proportion to the
frequency until a maximum value is reached. This maximum value here is the
maximum voltage that can be supplied by the UniTrain-I three-phase generator.
The frequency reached at the maximum value is termed the cut-off frequency in
this experiment.
The starting voltage is the voltage at which the sloping line of the control
characteristic begins on the left. This starting voltage precisely compensates for
the voltage drop which occurs due to the ohmic winding resistance at nominal
current.
As the magnetisation is proportional to the magnetisation current and thus in
close proximity to the no-load current, the no-load current must remain almost
constant at all frequencies. To check whether the characteristic is set up
properly, a measurement can be carried out at no-load.

Synchronous machine with permanent magnet rotor

The synchronous machine described here involves a model with a permanent
magnet rotor. Due to their superior dynamic features today these machines are
playing a significant role particularly in the area of servo control. 
In the high power range synchronous machines equipped with salient pole or
round pole rotors play an essential role. However these are described in another
experiment manual and for that reason are not part of this course. 
The rotor of the synchronous machine rotates at the same speed and in sync
with the revolving magnetic field.
Under load the rotation speed remains constant until the machine loses
synchronisation and comes to a stop.
Special measures must be taken to ensure the reliable starting of synchronous
machines.

Capacitor motors
In many cases the simplicity and economical mains connection makes a single-
phase machines the design of choice. Since cost-efficient and robust
asynchronous machines need a rotating field, this must first be generated by a
single-phase power feed. A simple method of generating the rotating field is by
way of a phase-shift which can be generated with the aid of a capacitor.  
Besides the main current, a phase-shifted current can be produced in the so-
called auxiliary winding. The two magnetic fields proportional to the currents are
superimposed on each other to form one rotating magnetic field.
But standard three-phase machines equipped with three windings can also be
operated like this on a single-phase power supply with the aid of a capacitor so
that their response corresponds to a standard three-phase motor. The most
popular circuit for this is the called the Steinmetz circuit.
Variable transformers
The magnetic field in the interior of the stator can be demonstrated best using a
"single-phase rotor" to show the inductive coupling of the stator and rotor
winding. This shows that such an arrangement demonstrates the principle
operating behaviour of a transformer
If an alternating voltage is connected to the stator winding, an alternating
magnetic field arises in the stator that has a fixed position. A voltage is now
induced in the rotor winding, the amplitude of which depends on the ration of the
winding turns and the angle of rotation  between the magnetic field and the
rotor.
U2/n2 = U1/n1 cos 
The maximum output voltage is achieved at a rotation angle of 0°. The output
voltage tends toward zero at a rotation angle of 90°, while a further angle of
rotation causes the voltage to increase again although the amplitude is then
phase-shifted.

If a three-phase system is connected to the three stator windings, the rotating

field inside the stator generates an induction voltage across the rotor winding.
The rotor voltage amplitude is not a function of the rotation angle but almost
exclusively on the ratio the number of winding turns. One rotor rotation now
causes a phase-shift of the rotor voltage.
If the rotor winding is short-circuited a magnetic field arises due to the resulting
current. This leads to the presence of a torque which causes the rotor to rotate.
The three-phase transformer thus represents a special form of asynchronous
machine when stationary, in other words a three-phase asynchronous machine
operates when stationary just like a transformer.

Synchronous and Slip-ring Rotor Machines

"Electrical Machines III: Synchronous and Slip-ring Rotor Machines"