Food Packaging: A Comprehensive Review and

Future Trends
Jia-Wei Han , Luis Ruiz-Garcia, Jian-Ping Qian, and Xin-Ting Yang

Abstract: Innovations in food packaging systems will help meet the evolving needs of the market, such as consumer
preference for “healthy” and high-quality food products and reduction of the negative environmental impacts of food
packaging. Emerging concepts of active and intelligent packaging technologies provide numerous innovative solutions for
prolonging shelf-life and improving the quality and safety of food products. There are also new approaches to improving
the passive characteristics of food packaging, such as mechanical strength, barrier performance, and thermal stability.
The development of sustainable or green packaging has the potential to reduce the environmental impacts of food
packaging through the use of edible or biodegradable materials, plant extracts, and nanomaterials. Active, intelligent, and
green packaging technologies can work synergistically to yield a multipurpose food-packaging system with no negative
interactions between components, and this aim can be seen as the ultimate future goal for food packaging technology.
This article reviews the principles of food packaging and recent developments in different types of food packaging
technologies. Global patents and future research trends are also discussed.

Keywords: antimicrobial, antioxidant, food packaging, food safety, nanotechnology

Introduction Oxidation, microbial spoilage, and metabolism are the main

Food packaging is used to protect food from environmental causes of deterioration of many foods, such as apples, bananas, ki-
contamination and other influences (such as odors, shocks, dust, wifruit, pears, tomatoes, and mangoes, during production, trans-
temperature, physical damage, light, microorganisms, and humid- port, processing, storage, and marketing. These processes are di-
ity), and it is key to ensuring the quality and safety of food, rectly related to the loss of food quality (including safety), influence
while also extending shelf-life and minimizing food losses and consumer buying decisions, and impact consumer health, and thus
wastage (Carocho, Morales, & Ferreira, 2015; Narayanan, Lo- affect the overall economics of the food industry (Fernández-Pan,
ganathan, Valapa, Thomas, & Varghese, 2017; Ribeiro-Santos, Carrión-Granda, & Maté, 2014; Nerı́n, Tovar, & Salafranca, 2008;
Andrade, Melo, & Sanches-Silva, 2017; Robertson, 2012). The Sanches-Silva et al., 2014; Zhao, Han, Yang, Qian, & Fan, 2016).
use of food packaging can be traced back to the 18th century The negative effects of oxidation on the nutritional and organolep-
(Gupta and Dudeja 2017). In the 20th century, many advance- tic characteristics of food include the following: (1) it decreases the
ments in packaging technology appeared, including intelligent or nutritional value of food due to the destruction of essential fatty
smart packaging (IOSP; time-temperature indicators (TTIs), gas acids, proteins, and lipid-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K); (2) it
indicators, microwave doneness indicators, radiofrequency identi- decreases the energy (or caloric) content of food; (3) it produces
fication (RFID), and others), and active packaging (AP; such as rancidity (off-flavors); and (4) it produces color changes (darken-
oxygen scavengers, moisture absorbers, and antimicrobials) (Brody, ing of fats and oils, degradation of pigments) (Nerı́n et al., 2008).
Bugusu, Han, Sand, & McHugh, 2008). These innovations further The presence of pathogenic microorganisms increases the risk of
improved food quality, food safety, and shelf-life. food-borne diseases in humans and thus presents a problem for
public health (Carbone, Donia, Sabbatella, & Antiochia, 2016;
Gram et al., 2002; Krepker et al., 2017). The U.S. Centers for
CRF3-2017-0249 Submitted 12/16/2017, Accepted 2/1/2018. Authors Han, Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) reports that approximately
Qian, and Yang are with the National Engineering Research Center for Information 76 million people in the United States develop food-borne dis-
Technology in Agriculture, Room 1017, Building A, Beijing Nongke Masion, 11# eases every year (causing 5,000 deaths and 325,000 hospitaliza-
Shuguang Huayuan Middle Road, Haidian District, Beijing, 100097, China. Author
Ruiz-Garcia is with the Dept. de Ingenierı́a Agroforestal. E.T.S.I. Agronómica, Al-
tions) (Morris, 2011), which directly increases medical costs,
imentaria y Biosistemas, Univ. Politécnica de Madrid, 28040 Spain. Authors Han, causes deaths, and increases the economic burden of lost work,
Qian, and Yang are with the National Engineering Laboratory for Agri-product Quality especially for low-income families (Scharff, 2010).
Traceability, Beijing Academy of Agricultural and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, To delay oxidation, control foodborne pathogens, and meet the
China. Author Han is with the Faculty of Information Technology, Beijing Univ. growing demand of consumers for safe and high-quality prod-
of Technology, Beijing, 100124, China. Direct inquiries to authors Qian and Yang
(E-mails: [email protected], [email protected]). ucts, considerable effort has been devoted to in-depth studies of
active food packaging and the development of new active food


C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists®

860 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12343
Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

packaging technologies, which can include utilization of antioxi- Food Packaging Trends
dant properties (Brahmi et al., 2016; Hafsa et al., 2016; Tongnu- Changes in consumer demand, industrial production trends
anchan, Benjakul, & Prodpran, 2013; Wannes et al., 2010), an- (such as mildly preserved, fresh, tasty, and convenient food prod-
timicrobial properties (Choi, Singh, & Lee, 2016; Peng & Li, ucts with enhanced shelf-life and controlled quality), retailing
2014; Souza, Goto, Mainardi, Coelho, & Tadini, 2013; Yun et al., practices (such as transregional and transnational long-distance
2015), or both (Jouki, Yazdi, Mortazavi, & Koocheki, 2014; Sal- sales of food), and customer lifestyles (such as a fast-paced lifestyle
gado, Lópezcaballero, Gómezguillén, Mauri, & Montero, 2013; resulting in less time spent shopping for fresh food at the market
Shojaee-Aliabadi et al., 2013). AP can effectively improve food and cooking) are the main forces driving the evolution of novel
quality (including safety) and extend shelf-life by positively af- and innovative packaging techniques that maintain and monitor
fecting the headspace of a packaged product and/or the product food safety and quality, extend shelf-life, and reduce the environ-
itself (for example, releasing an antimicrobial or antioxidant com- mental burden of food packaging (Dainelli, Gontard, Spyropou-
pound), but this packaging technique cannot provide visual infor- los, Zondervan-van den Beuken, & Tobback, 2008). In the past
mation indicative of the shelf-life, safety, or quality of food, and 20 years, IOSP, AP, and sustainable or green packaging (SOGP)
it cannot warn about possible current or future problems. Food have been developed in response to market developments, changes
packaging innovations have gradually led to the development of in- in consumer preferences, and the need to reduce the environmen-
telligent packaging, which can convey detailed information about tal impact of food production while maintaining food quality and
the condition of a packaged food or its environment throughout a safety. Figure 1 shows the yearly trend of the total number of
logistical chain, as well as provide early warning to the consumer publications on IOSP, AP, and SOGP over the past 20 years. The
from the food manufacturer (Vanderroost, Ragaert, Devlieghere, number of peer-reviewed publications on food packaging innova-
& Meulenaer, 2014). Thus, currently available intelligent packag- tions has increased steadily. For the past two decades, the research
ing technologies can accomplish diverse functions such as mon- interest in IOSP has lagged far behind the interest in AP, which
itoring, identifying, processing, recording, tracing, and commu- can be attributed to AP providing protection beyond traditional
nicating information, which promote decision-making efficiency, protection and inert barriers to the external environment; it offers
extend shelf-life, and communicate information about the state a relatively large number of possible methods of decreasing food
and/or quality of the product through the supply chain (Yam, waste and loss. The following sections present detailed introduc-
Takhistov, & Miltz, 2005). tions and reviews for each type of food packaging (see Figure 2).
As mentioned above, packaging acts as a physical barrier to
protect food from external factors, so the stability of packaging IOSP
materials is absolutely vital for enhancing food quality and safety IOSP is capable of monitoring the condition of packaged food
and increasing shelf-life, as well as ensuring that packaging mate- or its environment by using sensors or indicators (such as elec-
rials can fulfill their role in providing sturdy, attractive, econom- tronic, chemical, and mechanical triggers). IOSP can be used to
ical, and convenient products to consumers (Gupta and Dudeja monitor, sense, record, trace, and convey information about the
2017). Therefore, all food packaging materials must be rigorously quality of food, and it can be used with decisions concerning shelf
tested by food safety agencies such as the U.S. Food and Drug life, safety, and quality, as well as alert people to possible problems
Administration (FDA), the Brazil National Health Surveillance with food (Yam et al., 2005). IOSP systems contain smart devices
Agency (ANVISA), and the European Commission (EC), which (small labels or tags), which can be printed onto or incorporated
are responsible for ensuring the safety of food packaging materi- into food packaging materials to acquire information about the
als and additives before they can be used in food (Ribeiro-Santos food’s quality, store that information, and transfer it to the stake-
et al., 2017). As the amount of packaging consumed increases, holders (manufacturers, retailers, and consumers) (Dainelli et al.,
the environmental impacts of food packaging materials have grad- 2008; Fang, Zhao, Warner, & Johnson, 2017; Restuccia et al.,
ually become a major issue worldwide, especially for companies 2010 ). The most commonly used smart devices in IOSP can
and producers. To achieve sustainability in food packaging, pro- be classified as indirect or direct indicators of food quality (see
mote recycling of packaging material, and alleviate environmen- Figure 2). Indirect indicators cannot provide direct information
tal pollution, several studies have been devoted to creating new to help consumers judge the quality and edibility of food. How-
packaging innovations based on renewable resources that are eco- ever, they can indirectly evaluate the effects of the environment
friendly, biodegradable, or compostable (Goffin et al., 2011; Lic- surrounding the food on the shelf-life and quality of food which
ciardello, 2017; Peelman et al., 2013; Siracusa, Rocculi, Romani, might lead to a hidden danger for consumers. Foods that have
& Rosa, 2008; Narayanan and others 2017). However, providing deteriorated or carry small amounts of a toxin, but which do not
eco-friendly packaging alternatives without compromising the key yet exhibit detectable signs of spoilage, may harm immunosup-
features of the packaging (such as barrier properties, mechanical pressed populations, especially children and the elderly (Wang,
properties, and extended product shelf-life) will require contin- Lu, & Gunasekaran, 2017). Direct indicators can directly present
ued innovation and the development of new sustainable packaging some information about the freshness, edibility, quality, and safety
technologies in the coming decades. of food to consumers. These devices must usually be placed inside
The goals of this article were to review the current commercial the primary packaging so that they have direct contact with the at-
applications of food packaging technology and present an overview mosphere surrounding the food or with the food itself. Therefore,
of research innovations and trends regarding different types of food direct indicators have become a main future direction of research
packaging. Some challenging issues must be addressed to maintain in this area.
and improve food quality and safety, increase consumer trust and TTIs. The shelf-lives of many food products are very sensitive
acceptance of new packaging technologies, and reduce the harm- to temperature variation, which is a major cause of deterioration
ful impacts of packaging waste and food loss on the environment. and economic loss in these perishable goods during transporta-
These issues are discussed with the goal of providing useful future tion, handling, distribution, storage, and consumption. To limit
directions for research in the field of food packaging technology. pathogenic microorganism growth or toxin formation for most


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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Figure 1–Number of publications in the past 20 y concerning different types of food packaging. Publication counts were obtained using Scopus.
Queries were used to search the Title, Abstract, and/or Keywords.

perishable products in our diets and include a wide range of nat- et al., 2015b). Because the read-out devices for electronics-based
ural, processed, raw, and cooked foods of both animal and plant TTIs are complex and specialized, TTIs are generally expensive
origin, the FDA has defined these foods as TCS (time and temper- and inconvenient, or they may require some training on the part
ature control for safety) foods that requires time and temperature of consumers, which leads to reduced market acceptance (by the
control to ensure their quality and safety (FDA, 2013). However, product producer, consumer, and retailer) and limits the scope of
uncontrolled temperature fluctuations are almost inevitable for all commercial applications. However, compared with other types of
goods throughout the supply chain, and such fluctuations may lead TTIs, electronics-based TTIs have relatively high precision and are
consumers to make incorrect judgments regarding the sell-by or generally superior technologies for monitoring and recording the
use-by dates of products based on the ideal label of the expiration thermal history of a product. Moreover, most kinds of electronics-
date on the product package (Wang et al., 2015b, 2017). Therefore, based TTIs are environmentally friendly and can be recycled. With
temperature monitoring is vital to provide consumers with nec- the development of electronics-based TTIs, some novel electronic
essary information about food quality and safety throughout the TTIs have been invented that do not require professional read-out
process of food circulation. To address this issue, TTIs have been devices or trained personnel to conduct the test (Haarer, Gueta-
developed to monitor time- and temperature-dependent changes Neyroud, & Salman, 2012; Jensen, Debord, & Hatchett, 2013).
in product quality and/or safety; TTIs are typically indirect indi- This technology provides more convenience to consumers and
cators and are commonly used in the food industry because they increases the market demand for intelligent packaging. However,
are relatively small, cost-effective, and user-friendly compared to to facilitate the application of electronics-based TTIs in the global
other temperature-monitoring devices (Taoukis & Labuza, 1989). market without compromising precision and safety, TTIs must be
TTIs are generally attached onto individual consumer packages smaller, lower in cost, and made from recyclable electronics.
or shipping containers, and they can be classified into three types For other types of TTIs (such as nanoparticle-based, enzyme-
based on their capabilities: (1) critical temperature indicators (these based, chemistry-based, and biology-based), an irreversible color
only show whether a product has been exposed to a temperature change is the main way to determine the thermal history of the
above, or sometimes below, a reference temperature); (2) critical product. The color change can indicate time- and temperature-
TTIs (these indicate the cumulative effect of the time-temperature dependent changes in the quality and/or safety of the product.
changes on product quality or safety when a product has been ex- These types of TTIs are generally stuck on or incorporated into
posed to a temperature above a reference temperature); and (3) the product packaging by printing or coating, and they have a
full history indicators (continuous monitoring of the manner in lower cost, are more convenient to read and are smaller than
which the temperature varies with time throughout a product’s electronics-based TTIs. The size, shape, and surface morphology
history) (Singh, 2000; Taoukis, Fu, & Labuza, 1991). The ba- of metal nanoparticles change is based on the time/temperature
sic working principles of TTIs are the identification of irreversible scenario to which they are exposed; nanoparticles exhibit an ir-
responses in the form of enzymatic, electronic, chemical, nanopar- reversible color change when exposed to a particular tempera-
ticle, or biological changes after a product is exposed to a higher ture for a given length of time, and this property makes them
temperature (Fang et al., 2017; Kerry, O’Grady, & Hogan, 2006). extremely useful for TTIs. Lim, Gunasekaran, and Imm (2012)
Electronics-based TTIs are defined as an electronic device that can developed a gelatin/AuNP (gold nanoparticle)-based thermal his-
present a warning about the quality of a product by using a thermal tory indicator (THI), which showed a clear color signal after
sensor that converts temperature signals to electrical signals, after 6 hr of exposure at 30 °C. The intensity of the color signal was
which it converts electrical signals to a final visual output (Wang proportional to the duration of exposure. Moreover, the color

862 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Figure 2–Classification of different types of food packaging systems (Ahmed et al., 2017; Dainelli et al., 2008).

Figure 3–A VitsabCheckPoint

R
TTI label based on substrate hydrolysis catalyzed by an enzyme (https://vitsab.com/index.php/tti-label/, accessed
on 24 November 2014, with permission).

intensity of the AuNPs was maximal at a gelatin concentration mon resonance of AuNPs synthesized in situ in alginate, which can
of 2%. However, the gelatin/AuNP-based TTIs were designed be made into a solid hydrogel by adding divalent calcium ions and
specifically for low-temperature storage, and they have several dis- is more suitable for certain end-use applications. In enzyme-based
advantages compared to alginate/AuNP-based THIs, including TTIs, the hydrolysis reaction of an enzyme with a substrate causes
lower color-change sensitivity, a narrower range of temperature different degrees of color change depending on the real time-
monitoring, and the inability to prepare solid-like THI matrices. temperature history. The observed color of a TTI can reveal the
Because of these characteristics, Wang et al. (2017) developed a cumulative effect of time and temperature, and that information
plasmonic THI that takes advantage of the localized surface plas- can be used to implement a dynamic evaluation of the product’s


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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

remaining shelf-life. For example, Figure 3 shows a TTI label et al., 2017). In comparison with the other two types of tags,
(Vitsab Checkpoint R
) that is a typical example of enzyme-based passive tags have a relatively short reading distance, and few tags
TTIs. The TTI label can be activated by applying gentle pres- can be read simultaneously; however, this type of tag has a long
sure on the “window” to initiate an enzymatic reaction between operational life in addition to being small, light, and low-cost, so
the enzyme and substrate. The TTI window in the center of the these tags are potential candidates for developing low-cost devices
words “Check Point” changes color from green to orange to red (Bibi et al., 2017). Semipassive tags have a local power source that
to indicate various stages of thermal exposure. A homogeneous is used only for powering the chip. These tags still rely on the
green color in the “window” indicates mixing of the enzyme reader for electromagnetic wave emission, and most of the time
and substrate minipouches, which in turn indicates perfect ship- they remain dormant except when awakened by the reader. Thus,
ping and storage conditions for the packaged foods. If the “Check the power source is inactive most of the time, which increases the
Point” is yellow to light orange, it indicates that the TTI label has lifespan of the tags. In contrast to passive tags, semipassive tags have
reached its preset time-temperature response time and the prod- a wider working range. Active tags have an embedded battery that
uct is no longer acceptable (Fang et al., 2017). Chemical TTIs is used to power the chip and to broadcast signals to the reader.
are based on many different chemical reactions (such as polymer- Compared with the other two types of tags, these tags have the
ization, photochromic, and oxidation reactions), and they present widest reading range (more than 50 m), and many tags can be
a distinct color change due to accumulation of changes in time read simultaneously. However, the widespread use of active tags is
and temperature. Currently, some examples of chemistry-based limited, because they are more expensive than passive or semipas-

TTIs include Fresh-Check
R
R
, HEATmarker (N.J., U.S.A.), and sive tags and have a limited lifespan (depending on battery life).
TM
OnVu (Ciba Specialty Chemicals, Inc., Switzerland). Their op- Figure 4 shows the basic RFID systems and different operating
eration principles and performance characteristics can be obtained frequencies. To add new functionalities to RFID tags, different
by visiting the official websites of the product manufacturers. The types of sensors (such as TTIs, humidity sensors, and gas sensors)
operation principles of biology-based TTIs are generally based on have been integrated into RFID tags, which can be used for sens-
a change in pH under certain conditions, especially at a certain ing, communicating, and monitoring food packaging headspace.
temperature, which leads to a color change that reveals the cumu- These tags provide real-time data about food quality, safety, and
lative effect of time and temperature (Wang et al., 2015b). Despite history through the supply chain. RFID tags coupled to sensors
active research into indirect indicators, such indicators have many are also a major driving force for the application of RFID tech-
problems, such as increasing the cost of the entire supply chain, nology in intelligent packaging systems. Passive tags provide only
introducing safety issues due to potential undesirable migration of information about identification and tracking; for sensing applica-
chemical components, having questionable accuracy and reliabil- tions, it is necessary to use semipassive or active tags (Ruiz-Garcia
ity under uncontrolled conditions (such as impact, compression, & Lunadei, 2011). However, the integration of sensors into RFID
and vibration), and facing certain legislative restrictions in Eu- tags also faces some challenges, such as the impact that increasing
rope (Dainelli et al., 2008). Therefore, to expand the range of the cost of tags may have on the final cost of food products, which
applications for indirect indicators in the global market, future could lead to decreased sales. Furthermore, researchers must de-
developments should be directed towards improving the stability termine how to meet the functional requirements of RFID sensor
and sensitivity of indicators to real time-temperature history, such tags and avoid direct contact between food and the tags by op-
as by using nontoxic and even edible biopolymers to indicate the timizing the elements used in the tags (such as antennae, chips
thermal history of a product with an irreversible color change. or sensors)? In addition, the operational life of RFID tags is lim-
Improvements can also be made to the legal regulations governing ited because the sensors require power to function properly. All of
intelligent packaging. these challenges should be studied in the future with the goal of
RFID. RFID is based on wireless communication (magnetic facilitating widespread adoption of RFID tags in food packaging.
field or electromagnetic wave) that can provide real-time infor- Gas indicators. The gas composition within food packaging
mation about temperature, relative humidity, and nutritional and changes due to the activity of the food product (such as respiration
supplier information as the product moves through the supply and transpiration of fresh horticultural produce, as well as spoilage
chain, thus increasing traceability and ensuring food safety and due to microorganisms), the nature of the package (such as the
quality (Bibi, Guillaume, Gontard, & Sorli, 2017). RFID is more gas permeability of the packaging material), and the environmen-
convenient for product identification than traditional labels and tal conditions (temperature or package leaks), and it is directly
barcodes, has a relatively large data storage capacity, has a longer related to the integrity, shelf-life, quality, and safety of packaged
reading range (up to dozens or even more than 100 m of distance), food products (Fang et al., 2017; Yam et al., 2005). To monitor
and does not require visual contact. RFID tags can be embedded changes in gas composition inside the package and thereby pro-
in an item, placed inside food packing, or injected into the bodies vide a means of monitoring the quality and safety of food products,
of animals (Ruiz-Garcia & Lunadei, 2011). Therefore, RFID tags different types of gas indicators are used in food packaging in the
are now considered to be a replacement for barcodes. However, form of package labels or package printing films that detect oxy-
because of their relatively high cost (roughly $(US) 0.2 to 0.3 per gen, ethanol, hydrogen sulfide (H2 S), water vapor, carbon dioxide,
tag), their usage is limited, and some companies have found that or other gas components. Oxygen can cause deleterious effects on
moving to RFID technology is unaffordable (Bibi et al., 2017; food quality through oxidative rancidity, changes in color, and mi-
Fang et al., 2017). To overcome these obstacles, future studies are crobial spoilage; therefore, oxygen indicators are used widely in
expected to be aimed at reducing the cost of RFID tags as much food packaging (Fang et al., 2017). In general, a gas indicator also
as possible. provides an irreversible and visible color change on the packaging
Each RFID tag can be classified as passive, semipassive, or active to respond to changes in gas composition. Wilhelm and Wolfbeis
according to its power supply mode. Passive tags do not contain (2010) presented two different absorption-based opto-chemical
onboard power sources and are powered by electromagnetic in- indicators for oxygen, which consist of leuco dyes (leuco indigo
duction in magnetic fields, which is produced near the reader (Bai and leuco thioindigo) incorporated into two kinds of polymer

864 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Figure 4–Radiofrequency identification technology (Bibi et al., 2017; Fang et al., 2017).

matrices, poly(styrene-co-acrylonitrile) (PSAN, with 30 wt% Hurme, 1997; Hong & Park, 2000). In the near future, RFID
acrylonitrile) and polymer hydrogel D4 (a linear polyurethane). coupled with gas indicators is likely to become an important tech-
The results showed that LI-D4 (leuco indigo incorporated into nique used to realize real-time dynamic monitoring of changes in
a highly oxygen-permeable hydrogel polymer) induces an irre- gas composition inside food packaging during the entire supply
versible color change (from pale yellow to deep blue) that indicates chain. However, to integrate gas indicators into RFID tags, gas
the presence of air (oxygen) within a few minutes, which is im- indicators must be read automatically and changed into electrical
portant for detecting leaks in food packed under a modified atmo- signals, which is one of the most challenging problems facing food
sphere. However, the LTI-PSAN indicator (leuco thioindigo in- technology researchers.
corporated into PSAN) required several hours to gradually change Direct indicators. After food packaging, volatile compounds
its color from yellow to red after exposure to air. This study pro- can be generated within the package due to enzymatic reactions,
vided a cost-effective means of visually detecting and monitoring microbial growth, or chemical changes in the fresh food product.
the seal status and quality deterioration of packaged foods, in- These changes are directly related to the freshness, spoilage status,
cluding fish and meat. In addition, a reversible oxygen indicator and edibility of packaged food. The quality and safety of pack-
was produced by DryPak Industries, which can be inserted into a aged food products can be evaluated directly based on the levels of
container and changes color from pink to blue when the oxygen these volatile compounds. Evaluation of quality and safety based
concentration is greater than 0.5%. This oxygen indicator is ex- on concentrations of volatile compounds is the basic operational
tremely similar to the Ageless EyeR
product sold by Mitsubishi Gas principle of direct indicators. Compared with indirect indicators,
Chemical Company. However, the two oxygen indicators cannot direct indicators can provide more precise and targeted informa-
indicate the time of exposure under different oxygen concentra- tion about quality attributes by responding to changes in packaging
tions (the color transition from blue to pink occurs at an oxygen (such as maturation indicators for fresh fruits and vegetables based
concentration of less than 0.1%). Chatterjee and Sen (2015) de- on the detection of a volatile aroma compound, or a fish freshness
veloped a carbon dioxide indicator to respond to the presence of indicator based on the detection of volatile amines). Achieving
carbon dioxide via a color change from red to yellow. Other appli- dynamic responses to changes in volatile compounds is a major
cations of carbon dioxide indicators include measuring the degree trend in the field of intelligent-packaging research (Dainelli et al.,
of fermentation in kimchi products during storage and distribu- 2008). Kuswandi, Maryska, Jayus Abdullah, and Heng (2013) de-
tion and displaying the concentration of carbon dioxide inside veloped a simple and low-cost on-package color indicator by us-
modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) (Ahvenainen, Eilamo, & ing bromophenol blue (BPB) with a cellulose membrane (highly


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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

pH-sensitive in the range of pH 3.0 to 4.6). This indicator can be aging in the global market, especially in the developing world.
used for real-time visual monitoring of the freshness of packaged Therefore, to improve the accuracy, sensitivity, and reliability of
guavas, and it can be used to assess their period of salability under pathogen indicators and to broaden their application scope with-
an ambient temperature in the range of 28 °C to 30 °C. During out undue impacts on the safety and final costs of food products,
the development of the guava, the freshness indicator will change further research and development in the field of pathogen indica-
color from blue to green to indicate over-ripe fruit as a result of tors is required.
the manner in which the change in pH caused by volatile organic
compounds (such as acetic acid) in the package headspace affects AP
the BPB/cellulose membrane. Microbial growth is the main rea- Excess water (such as condensation), oxidation, and microbial
son for the spoilage of most seafood products, and it leads to a pH growth (such as pathogenic microorganisms, including bacteria
change in the package headspace because of the formation of NH3 and fungi) are the main causes of the loss of food quality and safety
and other volatile amines. Ma, Du, and Wang (2017) developed during production, processing, transport, and storage because they
a shrimp freshness indicator based on a biosensor film by incor- considerably limit the shelf-lives of products and increase the risk
porating curcumin (Cur) into a tara gum (TG)/polyvinyl alcohol of foodborne illness; thus, excess water in food packaging is a
(PVA) film, which can be used to monitor shrimp spoilage. The major global concern (Krepker et al., 2017; Sanches-Silva et al.,
biosensor film induces a reversible color change on the packag- 2014). To extend food stability, preserve the original organolep-
ing to reflect an increase in pH caused by the release of NH3 . tic properties of food, maintain food safety, reduce wastage, and
However, this study did not determine the relationship between minimize the risk of food-borne diseases, the food industry has
the color change and NH3 levels in shrimp or the level of shrimp been forced to develop new ways to reduce the effects of oxi-
spoilage. Chung, Le, Tran, and Nguyen (2017) designed a battery- dation and microbial spoilage on food quality (including safety)
free smart sensor tag by transforming a fully passive RFID tag, and and economic losses. As a result of these efforts, AP has emerged
this smart sensor can be used to predict the quality of packaged as a novel and promising food packaging technology to satisfy
fish by accurately monitoring the temperature and concentrations the demands of modern society and consumers. It is also a pop-
of H2 S or NH3 in the fish packaging. The novel smart-sensing ular topic for researchers around the world (Carrizo, Taborda,
tag module was powered by an energy harvesting circuit, which Nerı́n, & Bosetti, 2016; Dobrucka & Cierpiszewski, 2014; El-
can collect sufficient RF energy from the reader by using RF samahy, Saa, Abdel Rehim, & Mohram, 2017; Şen, İrem, Baştürk,
energy coupling within a maximum distance of 30 cm. The de- & Kahraman, 2017; Woranuch, Yoksan, & Akashi, 2015). Active
sign and implementation of the battery-free smart-sensor tag has food packaging is designed to foster desirable interactions with
promoted the development of RFIDs coupled with gas indica- the packaged food by incorporating active substances intended to
tors, and it has helped researchers to overcome the limitations of be released into the food or absorbed into or from the packaged
wired power supplies or batteries by decreasing the size of the food or the environment surrounding the food (European Com-
sensing devices and the manpower requirements to check and mission, 2004, 2009). The substances responsible for the active
replace batteries. However, most freshness indicators have been functions of the packaging (the “active” components) can be di-
tested and operated at room temperature, so their accuracy, stabil- rectly incorporated into the packaging material or onto its surface,
ity, and reliability under conditions of low temperature and/or in multilayer structures or in particular elements associated with
vibration during transportation, handling, and distribution are the packaging such as sachets, self-adhesive labels, or bottle caps
unknown. (Ahmed et al., 2017; Dainelli et al., 2008). According to the Euro-
Pathogen indicators are a common type of direct indicator pean Union legislation for food contact material (FCM) (such as
that can be used to directly detect the presence of contaminat- Regulations 1935/2004/EC and 450/2009/EC) (European Com-
ing bacteria or pathogens as a result of the growth and pro- mission, 2004, 2009), the active substances should not mislead the
liferation of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms in food consumer (such as masking spoiled food), and they should be ade-
packaging, especially for meat products (Fang et al., 2017; Yam quately labeled using the words “do not eat” or a symbol to prevent
et al., 2005). Typically, a pathogen indicator is placed inside the the nonedible part from being mistaken for part of the food (such
food package or integrated into the packaging material, which as loose sachets). Before they may be used commercially, the ac-
greatly reduces the risk of foodborne diseases. The Food Sen- tive materials must be approved and authorized by the U.S. FDA
tinel SystemTM (Pasadena, CA, U.S.A.) is a commercially available or EC based on evaluation and tests, such as migration testing,
pathogen indicator that utilizes barcode-based biosensors, which which includes overall migration tests and specific migration tests,
can detect and reflect the presence of pathogens in food packages and which sometimes includes dedicated tests for semisolid food
(Goldsmith, Goldsmith, Woodaman, Park, & Ayala, 1999; Realini (Lopez-Cervantes, Sanchez-Machado, Pastorelli, Rijk, & Paseiro-
& Marcos, 2014). The basic operating principle of this system re- Losada, 2003). AP can be classified into two main types: active
lies on biochemical reactions of a specific antibody with the target scavenging packaging (such as moisture absorbers, carbon diox-
pathogens (such as Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli 0157:H7, and ide absorbers/scavengers, and antioxidant packaging) and active
Listeria monocytogenes). The antibodies react when they encounter releasing packaging (such as carbon dioxide-emitting/generating
a target pathogen, which causes the formation of a localized dark packaging and antimicrobial packaging) (Figure 5). The following
bar on the barcode, and the barcode becomes unreadable upon sections provide a detailed introduction to different types of AP
scanning. Toxin Alert (Ontario, Canada) developed the Toxin and their commercial applications.
GuardTM pathogen indicator, which incorporates antibodies into Moisture absorbers. Moisture absorbers are the most well-
plastic packaging films (polyvinylchloride or polyolefin films) to known examples of active scavenging packaging and mostly rely
detect pathogens (Bodenhamer 2005). However, the indicator is on the adsorption of water by incorporating absorbing sub-
not sufficiently sensitive to detect very low levels of pathogens stances (such as silica gel, molecular sieves, calcium oxide, and
that can cause disease (Yam et al., 2005). Additionally, very few natural clays) into a sachet for use with the packaging (Dainelli
commercial pathogen indicators are available for intelligent pack- et al., 2008). Tray-formatted (overwrap and modified atmosphere)

866 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Figure 5–Schematic diagram for active food packaging systems.

Table 1–Commercially available moisture absorber packaging materials for food applications (Realini & Marcos, 2014; Suppakul et al., 2003).

Year Commercial name Manufacturer Forms

1977∗ MiniPax R
Multisorb Technologies, Inc., USA. Sachet
1980∗ Dri-Loc
R
Novipax LLC, UK Absorbent pads
1987∗ StripPax R
Multisorb Technologies, Inc., USA. Sachet
1991 Thermarite R
Sealed Air Corporation, USA Absorbent sheets
2003∗ ToppanTM Toppan Printing Co., Japan Absorbent sheets
2005∗ Linpac Linpac Packaging Ltd., UK Absorbent tray
2005 Sorb-it
R
Healthy Culinary Products, USA. Sachet
2008∗ DesiMax R
Multisorb Technologies, Inc., USA. Absorbent sheets
2011∗ 2-in-1TM Glad Products Company, USA Sachet
2012∗ Fresh-R-Pax R
Maxwell Chase Technologies, USA. Absorbent tray
2013∗ TenderPac R
Sealpac, Germany Dual-compartment system
2015∗ PichitTM Okamoto Industries, Inc., Japan Sachet
2016∗ Pad-Loc Fresh R
Novipax LLC, UK Absorbent pads
NS∗ Peaksorb R
Peakfresh Products Ltd., Australia Absorbent sheets
NS∗ MoistCatchTM Kyodo Printing Co., Ltd., Japan Absorbent pads
NS∗ MeatGuard McAirlaid Inc., USA Absorbent pads
NS∗ NorR
Absorbit Nordenia International AG, USA Microwavable film
“NS”: unknown year; “∗ ”: still commercially available.

drip-absorbing pads, which consist of a super-absorbent polymer (Dainelli et al., 2008). Some commercial moisture absorbers are
located between two layers of a microporous or nonwoven poly- listed in Table 1.
mer, are the most commonly used moisture absorbers in fresh Carbon dioxide absorbers/scavengers. Carbon dioxide (CO2 )
meat product applications (Kerry et al., 2006; Realini & Marcos, efficiently inhibits surface growth by a range of aerobic bacte-
2014; Suppakul, Miltz, Sonneveld, & Bigger, 2003). The pre- ria and fungi by reducing relative oxygen levels and/or exerting
ferred polymers used for this purpose are polyacrylate salts and direct antimicrobial effects (at concentrations of CO2 between
graft copolymers of starch (Rooney, 1995). Moisture absorbers 10% and 80%) in food packaging. CO2 is thus often used as a
are an effective way of controlling excess water accumulation in- flushing gas in MAP systems to help maintain freshness and pro-
side the packages of foods with high water content (such as meat, long shelf-life, especially for fresh meat, poultry, fish, and cheese
fish, poultry, and fresh produce), which is important for inhibiting packaging (Dong, 2016; Vermeiren, Devlieghere, Beest, Kruijf,
bacterial growth, impairing mold growth, and enhancing product & Debevere, 1999). However, for some CO2 -producing foods
presentation (Realini & Marcos, 2014). To make the active sys- (such as fresh horticultural products and fermented foods), excess
tem invisible and to avoid accidental swallowing by the consumer, CO2 accumulation in a package may cause high levels of CO2
moisture absorbers are typically incorporated into the packaging dissolution into foods and may increase the pressure (or volume)
material as absorbing pads or trays for meat and fish packaging of the package due to low CO2 permeation through the packaging


C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 17, 2018 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 867
Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Table 2–Thermodynamic properties of chemical and physical CO2 absorption under standard state conditions at 25 °C (Dong, 2016).

Chemical absorbers Physical absorbers

Reaction Adsorption capacity (mol/g) a Adsorbents Adsorption capacity (mmol/g)b
CaO(s)+ CO2 (g) →CaCO3 (s) 1.78 × 10−2 Activated carbon 2.0
Ca(OH)2 (s)+CO2 (g)→ CaCO3 (s)+H2 O(l) 1.35 × 10−2 Zeolite 4A 3.0
MgO(s)+CO2 (g) →MgCO3 (s) 2.48 × 10−2 Zeolite 5A 4.0
Mg(OH)2 + CO2 (g) →MgCO3 (s)+H2 O(l) 1.72 × 10−2 Zeolite 13X 4.2
Na2 CO3 (s)+CO2 (g)+H2 O(l) →2NaHCO3 (s) 9.43 × 10−3 Zeolite exudates 3.7
a Adsorption capacity is based on the mass of the absorbent.
b Adsorption capacity is affected by the pore volume, pore size distribution, and surface area of physical adsorbents.

Table 3–Some commercial CO2 absorbers used for food applications (Coma, 2008; Dong, 2016).

Year Commercial name Manufacturer Form Descriptions

2003∗ ATCO R
CO-450 Standa Industrie, France Sachets Ca(OH)2 (s)+CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s)+H2 O(l)
2008∗ LitholymeTM Allied Healthcare Products, Inc., USA Granules CO2 +H2 O→H2 CO3 +2NaOH →Na2 CO3 +2H2 O+Energy
→Na2 CO3 +Ca(OH)2 →CaCO3 + 2NaOH
2017∗ Ageless R
E Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Inc., Japan Sachets Ca(OH)2 (s)+CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s)+H2 O(l)
NS∗ Freshlock R
Multisorb Technologies Inc., USA Sachets Ca(OH)2 (s)+CO2 (g) → CaCO3 (s)+H2 O(l)
NS∗ EMCO R
EMCO Packaging Systems, Kent, UK Sachets 2NaCl+CO2 +NH3 +H2 O→Na2 CO3 +3/2H2 O2
→Na2 CO3 +3/2H2 O+3/4O2
NS∗ Zeolite 4A Wako Pure Chemical Industries Ltd., Japan Beads Physical absorbers
NS∗ Active carbon Junsei Chemical Co.,Ltd., Japan Powder Physical absorbers
“NS”: unknown year; “∗ ”: still commercially available.

film, which leads to undesirable changes in product quality, such eggplants can be delayed or prevented in a polyethylene film bag

at 4 °C by using a CO2 scavenger (Ageless ). CO2 adsorption
R
as changes in the flavor and texture of products or/and the de-
velopment of undesirable anaerobic glycosis in fruits, and package can be affected by the presence of other gas absorbers that may
collapse (Dong, 2016; Suppakul et al., 2003). Pears are sensitive to compete against each other, especially moisture absorbers. Marx,
injury by CO2 at concentrations higher than 2% (Watkins, 2000). Joss, Hefti, Pini, and Mazzotti (2013) observed that physical CO2
Additionally, some commodities, such as potato, lettuce, onion, sorption on the adsorbent can be enhanced by the presence of a
cucumber, cauliflower, artichoke, apricot, peach, apple, and car- small amount of moisture, but it was inhibited by a large amount
rot, show various symptoms of CO2 injury, such as discoloration, of moisture. Compared to zeolites, activated carbon compounds
off-flavor development and internal tissue breakdown, when the containing hydrophobic groups achieve more stable CO2 adsorp-
level of CO2 exceeds 5% (Watkins, 2000). Caplicec and Fitzgeralda tion in the presence of moisture, and moisture generally has little
(1999) found that slightly reducing the CO2 concentration pro- effect on their CO2 absorption (Sjostrom & Krutka, 2010; Xu
moted the growth of lactic acid bacteria and improved the quality et al., 2013). However, very few studies have collected quantita-
of some fermented foods. In cases where reducing the level of tive data regarding the effect of moisture on the CO2 adsorption
CO2 in food packaging can improve food quality, CO2 absorbers properties of activated carbon materials. Therefore, to accommo-
can be an effective means of preserving food quality and package date the CO2 production characteristics of food and meet the
integrity. requirements of a dynamic food supply chain, the selection and
The removal or absorption of CO2 from a gaseous phase can be design of CO2 absorbers should depend strongly on the type of
theoretically achieved by physical adsorption, by cryogenic con- food and the package conditions, in addition to adsorption ca-
densation, by membrane separation, and by a chemical reaction pacity. Future studies should be directed toward characterizing the
with an alkaline solution (Dong, 2016). However, the latter 2 tech- dynamics of the interactions between the food, the packaging ma-
nologies are unsuitable for food packaging applications because of terial, the absorber device and the environment in terms of CO2
various requirements, such as refrigeration equipment and high- permeation, absorption, dissolution, and production, which will
pressure equipment, which are often applied in manufacturing and lead to the development of optimal CO2 absorbers that preserve
power plants. Therefore, nonharmful chemical and physical ab- food with high quality and package soundness (Dong, 2016).
sorbers have become the two major methods for CO2 -scavenging Carbon dioxide-emitting/generating packaging. As mentioned
in food packages. These absorbers can be enclosed in a sachet and above, relatively high levels of CO2 have direct antimicrobial effects
placed in the food package, or they can be fabricated as a coating on some microorganisms, mainly as a result of the high solubility of
or sheet (see Table 2). Table 3 presents some of the commercial CO2 in foods, especially at low temperatures (Chaix, Guillaume, &
CO2 absorbers used in food packaging applications. Aday, Caner, Guillard, 2014). Therefore, a high CO2 concentration is included
and Rahvalı (2011) used EMCO R
as CO2 absorbers to evaluate in the MAP system for chill-stored nonrespiring foods that are sus-
the effect of CO2 scavengers on the quality of air-packaged straw- ceptible to microbial spoilage (Dong, 2016). In the case of oxygen
berries, and their results showed that CO2 absorbers effectively scavenger packs, oxygen removal creates a partial vacuum that may
reduced the incidence of mold decay, which retarded senescence result in the collapse of flexible packaging. Additionally, when a
and preserved the taste and nutritional content of the strawberries. package is flushed with a mixture of gases including CO2 and O2 ,
Wang et al. (2015a) indicated that a CO2 scavenger using sodium the CO2 dissolves in the product and can create a partial vac-
carbonate and/or sodium glycinate as a CO2 absorbent was ben- uum, as well as consume oxygen due to the release of CO2 from
eficial in maintaining the color, texture, and flavor of shiitake inserted sachets based on either ferrous carbonate or a mixture
mushrooms and inhibiting bacterial growth inside the package. of sodium bicarbonate and ascorbic acid (Rooney, 1995). How-
Moreover, Veasna et al. (2012) reported that chilling injuries in ever, the concentration of CO2 is dynamically changed, and loss

868 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Table 4–Commercially available carbon dioxide emitters for food packaging applications (Fang et al., 2017; Realini & Marcos, 2014; Suppakul et al.,
2003).

Year Commercial name Manufacturer Form

1988 VerifraisTM packagea SARL Codimer, France Sachets containing sodium bicarbonate/ascorbate
2012∗ FreshPax R
Ma Multisorb Technologies Inc., USA Sachets
2015∗ UltraZap R
Xtenda Pak pads Paper Pak Industries, Canada CO2 emitter and antimicrobial pad
2017∗ Ageless R
Ga Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Inc., Japan Sachets
NS∗ Microspheres Bernard Technologies, Inc. Sachets
NS∗ Superfresh Vrtdal Plastindustri AS, Norway Box system with CO2 emitter
NS∗ CO2 R
Fresh Pads CO2 Technologies, USA CO2 emitter pad
NS∗ Freshilizer R
Ca , CWa and CV Toppan Printing Co., Japan Sachets
NS∗ Vitalon R
Ga Toagosei Chemical Co., Japan Sachets
NS∗ Standa Standa Industrie, France Gel in sachets in contact with the food
a Combined actions of CO generating and O scavenging.
2 2
“NS”: unknown year; “∗ ”: still commercially available.

occurs because CO2 dissolves in the meat and penetrates into the O2 , or perform both functions. Producing films with this capabil-
external environment through the packaging material (the perme- ity is a top priority for manufacturers of CO2 emitters. Although
ability of CO2 through most plastic films is 3 to 5 times higher than this concept is still in the initial stage of research, a recent study was
that of oxygen) (Coma, 2008; Ozdemir & Floros, 2004). There- conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of three different antimi-
fore, CO2 emitters are beneficial and necessary for maintaining crobial packaging structures in controlling the quality of a ready-
the desired CO2 concentration in the packaging and ensuring to-eat meat product (Chen & Brody, 2013). Cooked ham samples
the efficacy of a MAP system. Table 4 presents the commercial were packaged into three different antimicrobial packaging struc-
names, manufacturers, and forms of commercially available CO2 tures, including an oxygen barrier bag and an antimicrobial film
emitters that can be used to control CO2 concentrations in food with the capacity of generating CO2 or allyl isothiocyanate (AIT)
 R
packages. Microspheres (Bernard Technologies, Inc., U.S.A.) can or scavenging molecular O2 . Samples in the packaging structures
produce a controlled and sustained release of chlorine dioxide gas with an O2 scavenger or a CO2 generator can effectively control
when they interact with moisture (exposure to humidity greater the bacterial populations, particularly Listeria populations, and the
than 80%) and light, which results in high activity against a broad packaging structures with the AIT generator only exhibited lim-
spectrum of microorganisms, including actively growing vegeta- ited antimicrobial effects. The combination of the three antimicro-
 R
tive cells and spores. Microspheres have been used to reduce bial packaging systems showed synergistic antimicrobial activities
food safety risks for meat, poultry, fish, dairy, confectioneries, and (Fang et al., 2017).
baked goods (Coma, 2008). The VerifraisTM package technology Antioxidant packaging. High levels of oxygen in food packages
(SARL Codimer, Paris, France) consists of a standard MAP tray can facilitate microbial growth (such as aerobic bacteria, molds,
that has been successfully used to prolong the storage life of fresh and insects), oxidation of lipids and pigments, and loss of O2 -
meats. A porous sachet containing sodium bicarbonate/ascorbate sensitive nutrients such as vitamins A, C, and E, which lead to
is placed under the perforated false bottom of the tray, and it emits changes in flavor (typical of rancidity), color, texture, and nutri-
CO2 when the exudates of the packaged meat drop onto the tive value. These changes can render the product unacceptable
sachet. It has the dual effect of suppressing microorganisms and for human consumption and may even result in the formation of
 R
avoiding package collapse (Kerry et al., 2006). CO2 FreshPads toxic aldehydes due to the degradation of polyunsaturated fatty
(CO2 Technologies, U.S.A.) are used for poultry, seafood, and acids (PUFAs) that have been positively correlated with the pre-
meat packaging, and they have a CO2 -emitting process similar to vention of cardiovascular disease (Fang et al., 2017; Gómez-Estaca,
that utilized by VerifraisTM . López-De-Dicastillo, Hernández-Muñoz, Catalá, & Gavara, 2014;
A recent study on the effect of vacuum or MAP in combination Harris, 2007; Realini & Marcos, 2014). Additionally, oxygen has
with a CO2 emitter on the quality parameters of cod loins (Gadus a considerable effect on the respiration rate and ethylene pro-
morhua) was conducted by Hansen, Moen, Rødbotten, Berget, duction rate of respiring foodstuffs such as fruits and vegetables
and Pettersen (2016). The CO2 emitters were prepared by adding (Lopez Rubio et al., 2004). Therefore, the removal of O2 from
0.304 g NaHCO3 and 0.237 g citric acid to a liquid absorber the package headspace is crucial to improve the quality and safety
pad (Absorbent Pad Dri-Loc, Friedrichsdorf, Germany), which of oxygen-sensitive food products, and it has long been a goal of
also functioned as a liquid absorbent pad. This study showed that food-packaging scientists. Although vacuum packaging or MAP
the initial freshness was better preserved by adding a CO2 emit- combined with a good oxygen barrier in the packaging film can
ter to both the vacuum and the MAP, and the shelf-life of the effectively limit the presence of oxygen, such techniques do not
“MAP + CO2 emitter” (approximately 13 days) was about 6 days completely remove the oxygen inside the package because O2
longer compared to “Vacuum” (approximately 7 days). Addition- permeates from the exterior through the packaging film, because
ally, CO2 emitters can help reduce the gas-to-product-volume of residual O2 at the time of packing, or because of poor sealing
ratio and subsequent reduction of the packaging headspace com- (Ahmed et al., 2017; Coma, 2008). Antioxidants can be directly
pared to optimal MAP, thus improving the transport efficiency added to food formulations by using certain processing steps such
of the MAP without causing packaging collapse or compromis- as spraying, immersion, or mixing, which may cause changes in
ing quality and shelf-life (Hansen, Mørkøre, Rudi, Olsen, & Eie, food quality parameters (color or taste) and may affect consumer
2007, 2009). As shown in Table 4, some commercial CO2 emitters acceptance of the product. Furthermore, such methods may en-
have dual functions because they contain combinations of CO2 counter the following limitation: once the active compounds are
emitters and O2 scavengers. However, very few studies have re- consumed in the reaction, the protection ceases, and the quality of
ported the development of films that can generate CO2 , scavenge the food degrades more quickly (Mastromatteo, Conte, & Nobile,


C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 17, 2018 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 869
Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

2010). In these cases, active antioxidant packaging represents an aging material is selected by considering the properties of the
innovative strategy to improve the stability of oxidation-sensitive antioxidant compounds and the types of polymer. If the antiox-
food products and thus extend their shelf-life by incorporating idant activity of the packaging material is activated by migrating
antioxidant agents in a polymer. Compared to the direct addition antioxidant agents into the foods, the antioxidant agents released
of antioxidants to food, Mastromatteo et al. (2010) and Bolumar, must be permitted as food additives and should follow the relevant
Andersen, and Orlien (2011) present some advantages of this tech- regulations in accordance with their maximum permissible con-
nology, such as lower demand for active compounds, localized centration (Fang et al., 2017).
activity for antioxidant agents, the controllability of antioxidant Antioxidant packaging material is produced by intimately mix-
release, and the exclusion of certain processing steps. Antioxidant ing the antioxidant agents (or the active substance that produce
AP systems can be classified as oxygen scavengers (independent the antioxidant agents) with the packaging material through the
antioxidant devices) and antioxidant packaging materials (Gómez- following procedures: (1) dissolving both into a suitable solvent
Estaca et al., 2014). prior to the application of the solution to a substrate via coating
Oxygen scavengers containing antioxidant agents that are sepa- technologies, (2) melting the polymer and slotting and mixing
rate from the food product are added to a conventional “passive” the agent into the melted polymer by using extrusion technolo-
package, which can be used to packaging systems in different gies, or (3) immobilizing the antioxidant agents on the surface
forms (labels, pads, or sachets) (Gómez-Estaca et al., 2014). Cur- of the film (Ahmed et al., 2017; Gómez-Estaca et al., 2014).
rently, O2 scavengers based on the oxidation of fine powders of Traditionally, synthetic antioxidants such as butylated hydrox-
iron and ferrous oxide are the most effective and commonly used yanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), tertiary butyl
scavengers available commercially. However, to prevent metallic hydroquinone (TBHQ), propyl gallate (PG), and organophos-
tastes from being imparted to foods, nonmetallic oxygen scav- phate and thioester compounds have been used extensively to
engers such as ascorbic acid, sulfites, catechol, ascorbate salts, and enhance the shelf-lives of food products by providing oxidative
enzymes such as ethanol oxidase or glucose oxidase have also stability. Torres-Arreola, Soto-Valdez, Peralta, Cardenas-Lopez,
been utilized (Ahmed et al., 2017; Brody et al., 2008). To pre- and Ezquerra-Brauer (2007) reported that incorporation of BHT
vent scavengers from acting prematurely because of the ubiquitous into low-density polyethylene delayed lipid oxidation and pro-
presence of oxygen, specialized mechanisms can be used to induce tein denaturation. However, the presence of synthetic antioxi-
the scavenging effect. For example, photosensitive dyes irradiated dants in food can have potential toxic and carcinogenic effects,
by using ultraviolet (UV) light activate the process of O2 removal, and strict statutory controls are required. To avoid potential risks
whereas elevated moisture can trigger the scavenging reactions of and meet the consumer need for safe natural foods, natural an-
iron-based scavengers (Lopez Rubio et al., 2004). Furthermore, tioxidants such as plant extracts, tocopherol, or essential oils from
to avoid ingestion of the active substance in the sachet following herbs and spices can be used as alternatives to synthetic antiox-
accidental rupture, the current trend in commercial applications idants, and will likely be utilized widely in food packaging to
has been to incorporate O2 scavengers into the packaging material confer antioxidant activity (Barbosa-Pereira, Aurrekoetxea, An-
(Suppakul et al., 2003). Some previous articles have extensively re- gulo, Paseiro-Losada, & Cruz, 2014; Realini & Marcos, 2014). In
viewed the uses and applications of oxygen scavenging packaging addition to having preservative roles, plant extracts and essential
(Brody et al., 2008; Gómez-Estaca et al., 2014; Suppakul et al., oils in the packaging also provide health benefits to the consumer
2003). Some commercially available O2 scavengers that could be through their antioxidant and antimicrobial activities in the hu-
used to control O2 levels and objectionable odors in food pack- man body once ingested (Ahmed et al., 2017; Fang et al., 2017).
aging are shown in Table 5. Additional examples of commercially Gutiérrez, Echeverrı́a, Ihl, Bifani, and Mauri (2012) incorpo-
available O2 scavengers can be found in Table 4. rated a water extract of Murta leaves into carboxymethylcellulose–
Antioxidant packaging materials are being developed by incor- montmorillonite (CMC-MMT) nanocomposite films. Compared
porating antioxidant agents into the packaging film walls (a poly- to the CMC control film, the antioxidant capacity of the films
mer matrix) or within the product containers to exert their mode was increased more than 18-fold according to the ABTS (2,2-
of action by reducing the presence of reactive oxygen species inside azino-bis-3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid radical) radical-
the headspace and/or by releasing antioxidant compounds into the scavenging assay. Yang, Lee, Won, and Song (2016) reported that
food product or the headspace surrounding it (Ahmed et al., 2017; pork meat wrapped with DP (distiller dried grains with solubles)
Gómez-Estaca et al., 2014). To choose the most appropriate active protein films containing green tea extract (GTE), oolong tea ex-
material for each type of food, the affinity of the food product and tract (OTE), and black tea extract (BTE) had less lipid oxidation
the active materials should be evaluated (Granda-Restrepo et al., than did the control, as measured by the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-
2009). In addition, some authors have observed that antioxidant 1-picryl-hydrazyl-hydrate radical) and ABTS radical-scavenging
activity does not always increase linearly with increasing amounts assays. Among the tea extracts, the DP film containing GTE had
of incorporated antioxidant (Bentayeb, Rubio, Batlle, & Nerin, the greatest antioxidant activity. However, the incorporation of an
2007; Lopez-de-Dicastillo, Alonso, Catala, Gavara, & Hernandez antioxidant into films and coatings might influence their mechan-
Munoz, 2010) and it may even decrease in some cases (Samra, ical, optical, or barrier properties. Siripatrawan and Harte (2010)
Chedea, Economou, Calokerinos, & Kefalas, 2011; Zuta, Simp- noticed that the incorporation of green tea extract into chitosan
son, Zhao, & Leclerc, 2007). This finding can be attributed to an films lowered their water vapor permeability (WVP) and improved
interaction between the antioxidant compounds and the polymer their mechanical properties, and Wang et al. (2014) observed that
matrix, or a reduction in activity due to an excessive antioxidant extracts from Lycium barbarum fruit, which contains carotenoids,
concentration. Further investigation must be carried out to con- flavonoids, and polysaccharides, improved the WVP of chitosan
trol the diffusion/release rate of the active compounds from/into films due to bonding with the hydroxyl and amino groups of
the practical packaging of foods, which will allow the agent con- the matrix, but they decreased the elongation and tensile strength
centration in the headspace or the food products to be controlled. (TS) limit of the film. Peng, Wu, and Li (2013) also found a sim-
Furthermore, the manufacturing process of an antioxidant pack- ilar result with the addition of extracts from black or green tea.

870 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

Table 5–Commercially available O2 scavengers for food packaging applications (Ahmed et al., 2017; Fang et al., 2017; Kerry et al., 2006).

Year Commercial name Manufacturer Form Description

1994∗ O-Buster Hsaio Sung Non-Oxygen Sachets Based on iron oxidation
Chemical Co., Ltd., Taiwan
1998 Darex
R
W.R. Grace & Co., USA Bottle and bottle Based on ascorbate/metallic salt oxidation
crowns
1999 OxbarTM Constar International Inc., Film multilayer Based on cobalt catalysis/nylon polymer
Plymouth, USA
2000∗ ShelfplusTM CIBA, USA Film multilayer Based on iron oxidation
2001∗ ShelfplusR
O2 Albis Plastic GmbH, Germany Masterbatch Based on iron oxidation, Shelfplus
R
O2 is simply mixed
with well-established packaging materials such as PE,
PP, PA, or EVA
2003 ActiTUFTM M & G Finanziaria s.r.l., Barrier resins Oxygen sensitive
Alessandria, Italy
2005∗ FreshPax 
R
Multisorb Technologies Inc., Sachets A palladium metal and hydrogen gas-based oxygen
USA absorber, which irreversibly absorbs oxygen inside
sealed packaging to less than 0.01% and maintains
this level
2009 Oxy-GuardTM Clariant Ltd., Switzerland Sachets Based on iron oxidation
2009∗ FreshMaxR
Multisorb Technologies Inc., Labels Based on iron oxidation
USA
2011 ZERO2 TM 02 Control B.V., Netherlands Film The scavenger is activated by ultraviolet light
2014∗ OxyRxTM Mullinix Packages Inc., USA Plastic containers Providing an active barrier to oxygen for use in storing
and dispensing bulk foods
2015∗ Amosorb 2000 Colormatrix Holdings, Film multilayer Based on iron oxidation
Inc. USA
2017∗ 
R
Cryovac OS Systems Cryovac Div., Sealed Air Film Incorporates a polymer-based oxygen scavenger into the
Corporation, USA packaging film
2017∗ 
R
Cryovac OS2000TM Cryovac Div., Sealed Air Film The scavenger is activated by ultraviolet light and can
Corporation, USA reduce headspace oxygen levels from 1% to ppm
levels in 4–10 d
2017∗ Ageless
R
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Co., Sachets/ labels Based on iron oxidation, the scavengers are designed to
Japan reduce oxygen levels to less than 0.1%.
NS∗ Oxycap Standa Industries, France Sachets/bottle Based on iron oxidation
crowns
NS∗ OxyCatchTM Kyodo Printing Co., Ltd., Japan Sachets Integrates a high concentration of a cerium
oxide-lineage oxygen absorber and activates without
the involvement of water
NS∗ FreshilizerTM Toppan Printing Co., Japan Sachets Based on iron oxidation
NS∗ Daraform R
W.R. Grace & Co., USA Sachets Based on ascorbic acid oxidation
NS∗ BiokaR
Bioka Ltd., Kantvik, Finland Sachets and film Based on enzymatic oxidation
Laminates
NS∗ ATCO
R
Standa Industrie, France Labels The labels are able to scavenge levels of oxygen as high
as 100–200 cm3
NS∗ ATCOR
DE 10S/100 Emco Packaging Systems, UK Labels DE 10S labels used in sliced cooked meat packages
OS/200 OS scavenge between 10 and 20 ccs of oxygen, 100 OS
and 200 OS labels used in larger capacity packaging
scavenge between 100 and 200 ccs of oxygen
NS∗ Oxysorb
R
Pillsbury Co., USA Sachets Based on ascorbic acid oxidation, the scavenger is highly
dependent on water activity and may be ineffective in
frozen foods that contain little bound water
NS∗ OMAC
R
Mitsubishi Gas Chemical Inc., Films Based on cerium oxide, supports high temperatures and
Japan is suitable for retort and hot fill of meat and fish
products
NS∗ Aegis HFX Resin and Honeywell International Inc., Barrier nylon resins Oxygen scavenging nylon
OXCE Resin USA
“NS”: unknown year; “∗ ”: still commercially available.

Therefore, the effects of incorporated antioxidant agents on the might allow for a reduction of the amount of active substances,
mechanical and physical properties of films and coatings should be which would efficiently reduce and/or avoid the effect of active
evaluated before adding antioxidants (Ganiari and others 2017). substances on the natural properties of the base packaging material
To obtain the optimal formulation with the highest antioxidant (Fang et al., 2017). In the past few years, to meet environmental
activity and the best physical properties for active food packaging, concerns and minimize waste disposal problems, incorporation of
Dicastillo and others (2016) developed a cross-linked methylcel- natural antioxidants into biodegradable films is being investigated
lulose (MC) film (an active film based on maqui berry extract) by as a new method of preventing food oxidation (Contini and others
adding glutaraldehyde (GA), which decreased the water solubil- 2014; Rodriguez-Aguilera and Oliveira 2009).
ity, swelling, and WVP of MC films. The release of antioxidant Antimicrobial packaging. One of the main reasons for the de-
substances from the active materials increased with the concen- terioration of food quality is microbial growth, which leads to
tration of GA. Furthermore, a cross-linking effect was induced to discoloration, off-flavor development, textural changes, and the
hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) films containing ascorbic loss of nutritive value, and thus reduces the shelf-life of foods
or citric acid, which resulted in better mechanical properties and and increases the risk of food-borne illness (Biji and others
lower WVP and oxygen permeability (OP) (Atarés, Pérez-MasiÁ, 2015; Malhotra, Keshwani, & Kharkwal, 2015). As mentioned
& Chiralt, 2011). The use of antioxidant nanoparticles with en- above, moisture absorbers, CO2 emitters, and antioxidant pack-
larged contact area, compared to conventional antioxidant agents, aging all have antimicrobial effects when incorporated into food


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Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

packaging systems. Antimicrobial AP extends the lag period and ronments may be attributed to the fact that real food systems have
slows the growth of microorganisms in order to extend shelf-life more salt, less water, and lower levels of nutrients, carbohydrates,
and maintain food quality and safety (Han, 2000). Antimicrobial fats, and proteins, which are found to interact with antimicrobials
food packaging materials can be classified into 2 types. One type (Burt 2004; Busatta and others 2008; Grower and others 2004).
of antimicrobial food packaging is used in direct contact with To successfully implement antimicrobial packaging solutions in
the food surface, so that antimicrobial agents can be evaporated the market, it is essential to select the right package for the an-
(volatile substances) or migrated (volatile substances) into the food timicrobial agent and the environmental conditions faced by a
product. This 1st type of antimicrobial food packaging is suitable particular food product. A multidisciplinary approach involving
for vacuum-packed products or those wrapped with film. The researchers from all fields of biotechnology, particularly microbi-
other type of antimicrobial food packaging is used without mak- ology, food technology, engineering, and materials science, will be
ing direct contact with the food surface and includes technologies necessary to create antimicrobials with a promising future in the
like MAP (Fang et al., 2017; Kerry et al., 2006; Realini and Marcos food packaging industry (Malhotra et al., 2015). Several types of
2014). Although a large number of antimicrobial agents has been antimicrobial packaging have been commercialized (Ahmed et al.,
tested for the purpose of inhibiting the growth of microorganisms 2017; Fang et al., 2017; Suppakul et al., 2003).
in foods, such as ethanol, carbon dioxide, silver ions, chlorine diox-
ide, antibiotics, bacteriocins, organic acids, essential oils, and spices SOGP
(Jayasena and Jo 2013; Malhotra et al., 2015; Suppakul et al., 2003), With constantly increasing environmental concerns and regula-
antimicrobial packaging has very limited commercial availability, tions, reducing the environmental burden of food packaging has
except for silver-based antimicrobial materials, which are com- become a major force driving innovation in food packaging ma-
monly used in many countries such as the United States and Japan terials, in addition to satisfying the growing consumer demand for
(Realini and Marcos 2014). Mulla and others (2017) chemically high-quality, safe food (Davoudi and Sturzaker 2017; Licciardello,
modified the surface of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) 2017). Indeed, it is unquestionable that all types of food packag-
by chromic acid treatment, coated the surface with clove essential ing have an environmental impact that varies with their life cycles
oil, and assessed the antimicrobial properties of the resulting ma- (Huang & Ma, 2004; Ingrao et al., 2015, 2017). This environmen-
terial. The composite films improved the UV-barrier property of tal impact is especially dependent on the manner in which the raw
the material and exhibited strong antimicrobial activity against L. materials for the packaging were produced and processed, as well
monocytogenes and Salmonella typhimurium (Salmonella enterica subsp. as the end-of-life phase of the packaging, which may include recy-
enterica) in packed chicken samples for 21 d of refrigerated storage, cling, incineration, or landfill disposal (Licciardello, 2017). SOGP,
but the melting and crystallization temperatures of the films with which is designed to be environmentally friendly, has become a
incorporated oil were significantly lower than the neat and etched focus among researchers aiming to minimize the environmental
LLDPE films. Although many essential oils show promise because impact of the entire product-packaging chain and improve the
of their effects against microorganisms, some limitations have also environmental sustainability of food packaging systems (Peelman
been identified in the application of essential oils in antimicrobial et al., 2013). As reported by Peelman et al. (2013), SOGP can be
AP (Jayasena and Jo 2013). For example, Hyldgaard and others achieved at three levels. First, on the level of raw materials, the use
(2012) reported that the antimicrobial potency of essential oil con- of recycled materials and renewable resources reduces CO2 emis-
stituents depends on the pH, temperature, and level of microbial sions and dependency on fossil resources. Second, on the level of
contamination present in the food. In practice, much higher con- the production process, SOGP utilizes lighter and thinner pack-
centrations of essential oils were required to achieve antimicrobial aging that is produced using relatively energy-efficient processes.
effects in foods in comparison with those required at laboratory- Third, on the level of waste management, reuse or recycling of
scale (Malhotra et al., 2015). In addition, the use of essential oils food packaging that is biodegradable and/or compostable can con-
may cause negative sensory effects because of their intense aroma, tribute to alleviating the problem of municipal solid waste. In the
which partially limits their use as preservatives in food. To alleviate past decade, the pace of bioplastic development and application
these problems, lower levels of essential oils can be combined with in food packaging has increased because of interest from the food
other antimicrobial compounds and/or preservative technologies packaging and distribution industry, which has taken up the chal-
such as MAP, high hydrostatic pressure, or low-dose irradiation lenge of replacing traditional synthetic polymers in at least some
to obtain a synergistic effect without compromising antimicrobial applications. According to the European Bioplastics Organization,
activity (Jayasena and Jo 2013). Several authors have reported that bioplastics are plastics based on renewable resources (biobased)
better results can be obtained by incorporating the volatile com- or plastics that are biodegradable and/or compostable. However,
ponents of essential oils into films or edible coatings, and better not all biopolymers are biodegradable. For example, polyethylene
results can also be obtained through the encapsulation of essential (“green-PE”) and polyethylene terephthalate (“bio-PET”) are ob-
oils in polymers with edible and biodegradable coatings, sachets, tained from renewable resources and are chemically identical to
or nanoemulsions (Donsi and others 2011; Noshirvani and others conventional polymers (Licciardello, 2017). To date, a wide range
2017; Ozogul and others 2017; Pola and others 2016). of biodegradable biopolymers have been used in food packaging,
Although an increasing effort has recently been devoted to including polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHAs), polylactic acid (PLA),
the development of antimicrobial packaging solutions, there are zein, soy protein isolate, starches, cellulose, gluten, whey protein
considerable differences in the ways antimicrobials are used at isolate, and chitosan (Peelman et al., 2013). However, several major
laboratory-scale and in real-time applications, and, together with limitations restrict the application of bioplastics in food packag-
regulatory issues and technical constraints, these differences are ing materials, including their high cost compared to conventional
some of the main factors limiting the commercialization of an- plastics, brittleness, thermal instability, low melt strength, difficult
timicrobial packaging systems (Realini and Marcos 2014; Malho- heat sealability, high water vapor, high oxygen permeability, bad
tra et al., 2015). Some of these differences in the characteristics processability, and poor impact resistance (Cyras, Soledad, &
of antimicrobials at laboratory-scale and in real-application envi- Analı́a, 2009; Jamshidian, Tehrany, Imran, Jacquot, & Desobry,

872 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 17, 2018 
C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists®
Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

2010; Mensitieri et al., 2011; Rhim, Hong, & Ha, 2009). To im- and results in a relatively severe environmental burden; such foods
prove the properties of bioplastics (especially their barrier capacities include carbonated soft drinks, wine, and beer in PET bottles,
toward gases and water), different strategies and techniques have glass bottles, and aluminum cans (Amienyo, Gujba, Stichnothe,
been investigated, such as coating biobased films, incorporation & Azapagic, 2013; Bonamente et al., 2016; Cimini and Moresi
of nanoparticles or biopolymer cellulose, and chemical/physical 2016). Several different strategies can be used to reduce the weight
modification, such as crosslinking (Peelman et al., 2013). For ex- of packaging, such as reducing the packaging thickness, changing
ample, Hirvikorpi, Vähä-Nissi, Nikkola, Harlin, and Karppinen the package geometry, and utilizing alternative materials. How-
(2011) reported that a thin (25 nm) and highly uniform Al2 O3 ever, for most beverage products, CO2 content is the key pa-
coating can significantly improve the oxygen and water vapor bar- rameter determining the taste and shelf-life of the product; thus,
rier performance of several materials (PLA-coated board, PLA minimization of packaging weight should not affect the CO2 re-
film, nano-fibrillated cellulose film, PHB) by using the atomic tention performance/CO2 barrier performance or shelf-life stan-
layer deposition (ALD) technique. Sanchez-Garcia, Lopez-Rubio, dards of the product (Licciardello, 2017). Packaging thickness can
and Lagaron (2010) showed that the addition of mica-based nan- be reduced by innovation and development to produce new and
oclays to PLA reduced their UV transmittance. Sanuja, Agalya, improved packaging materials with better barrier performance,
and Umapathy (2014) demonstrated that incorporation of nano enhanced mechanical performance, and/or other superior func-
magnesium oxide and clove essential oil into a chitosan matrix tional properties. Although nanotechnologies have not yet reached
increased its tensile strength (TS), elongation limit, and water bar- widespread application in food packaging, because of toxicologi-
rier performance. Rodrı́guez, Galotto, Guarda, and Bruna (2012) cal concerns and technical limitations, they have great promise as
developed cellulose acetate films with organic montmorillonite as raw materials that could be used to develop packaging materials
a nanofiller, which reduced the transmission rates of oxygen and with improved performance and reduced thickness (Mihindukula-
water through the film by 50% and 10%, respectively, compared suriya & Lim, 2014; Wyser et al., 2016). Additionally, a close-knit
to those of cellulose acetate films without nanofillers. This reduc- collaboration between producers and food packaging scientists is
tion can be attributed to the fact that the polymer molecules were needed to synergistically address food packaging sustainability.
confined between the dispersed nanoparticles, which provided a
tortuous path and thus forced the water and gas molecules to travel Future Trends
a longer path to diffuse through the film (Peelman et al., 2013). Implementation of the ultimate packaging
Some biopolymer-based nanocomposites and their enhanced ma- IOSP is used to monitor the condition of packaged food or
terial properties, processing methods, and levels of incorporation the environment surrounding the food and to convey food qual-
were reported recently by Mihindukulasuriya and Lim (2014). ity and safety information to stakeholders (such as manufacturers,
Mu et al. (2012) revealed that the addition of dialdehyde car- retailers, and consumers) in food supply chains, which facilitates
boxymethyl cellulose (DCMC) as a cross-linker to a glycerol- decision-making about the freshness and edibility of foods (Eu-
plasticized gelatin edible film caused a significant improvement in ropean Commission 2004; Ghaani, Cozzolino, Castelli, & Farris,
its optical, physical, thermal, and mechanical properties compared 2016; Restuccia et al., 2010). However, intelligent packaging does
with those of the untreated film. Garavand, Rouhi, Razavi, Cac- not directly improve the quality and safety of foods or extend shelf-
ciotti, and Mohammadi (2017) reported that using carboxylic acids life. AP is intended to extend the shelf-life of packaged food or
and calcium ions as crosslinking agents can improve the physio- to maintain or improve its properties based on the interactions
chemical, thermal, and mechanical properties of most biopoly- between active compounds and food and/or packaging headspace
mers such as alginate, pectin, whey proteins, chitosan, starch, (European Commission 2004). Therefore, the combination of in-
and gelatin. From environmental, cost, and health perspectives, telligent packaging and AP will be an important issue for food
the crosslinking approach is a more cost-effective and efficient packaging innovation in the future. To improve environmental
method of improving the permeability and/or thermomechanical sustainability, future developments in food packaging should be
attributes of film-forming biopolymers compared to nanotechnol- directed towards the “ultimate” packaging, which will combine
ogy, especially for naturally occurring crosslinking agents, such as all of the benefits of IOSP, AP, and SOGP.
some nanoparticles, which can induce intracellular damage, pul-
monary inflammation, and vascular disease when they migrate Safety and economic issues
into food (Das, Saxena, & Dwivedi, 2008; Echegoyen & Nerin, Although technological innovations in food packaging can en-
2013). However, more studies are needed to better understand hance the safety and quality of food products, safety concerns
the advantages and disadvantages of nanomaterials, enhance their and limitations must be considered. Such concerns and limita-
positive effects on health, safety, and the environment, and de- tions include the migration of active and intelligent substances,
crease the tendency for migration of undesired nanoparticles in accidental leakage of active components from a sachet, and hu-
food product (Mihindukulasuriya & Lim, 2014). man ingestion of active and intelligent substances. Sachets used in
Another important issue in SOGP is packaging reduction, packages should be clearly marked “do not eat,” or they should
which has 2 meanings. First, avoid excessive packaging or over- be replaced by directly incorporating active components into or
packaging by reducing the amount of packaging materials used onto the package. Natural extracts can also be used to improve
without compromising the appearance of packaged products. Sec- food safety. The overall tendency for migration of compounds
ond, reduce the weight and thickness of packaging without af- from active and intelligent packaging to packaged foods must be
fecting product shelf-life standards. Avoiding overpackaging can investigated prior to the use of any new type of packaging ma-
improve environmental sustainability and reduce the cost of prod- terials, and a threshold of regulation must be established by the
uct processing, which can lower the price of the product. These U.S. FDA and EC regarding maximum levels of transfer of active
features are undoubtedly very beneficial for consumers and small materials and nanoparticles to food products (Ahvenainen, 2003;
and medium-sized companies. High-weight food packaging di- Chaudhry et al., 2008). Furthermore, the commercial application
rectly increases the costs of processing, transport, and distribution of innovative food packages might cause an increase in individual


C 2018 Institute of Food Technologists® Vol. 17, 2018 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 873
Food packaging: Review and future trends . . .

product unit costs and prices, especially during the early phases of performed based on collaboration between government regulatory
product introduction, which may directly affect consumer behav- agencies, industries, consumers, and multidisciplinary experts.
ior and acceptance (Mihindukulasuriya & Lim, 2014). From the
manufacturer’s point of view, the profit margins of food are rela-
Acknowledgments
tively low compared to those of other consumer products (Dainelli
The authors express thanks for financial support from the Na-
et al., 2008). Therefore, the use of innovative packages in the food
tional Natural Science Foundation of China (31671593) and
industry should be based on proper cost-benefit analyses to justify
the FP7 International Research Staff Exchange Scheme Project
their implementation (Restuccia et al., 2010). Further research and
(PIRSES-GA-2013-612659). We thank Professor Chun-Jiang
development in the field of packaging materials represents a viable
Zhao for kind suggestions regarding production of the graphics
path toward lower product cost without affecting improvements
in Figure 1 and 2. The authors declare that there are no conflicts
in food shelf life.
of interest regarding the publication of this manuscript.
Integral performance evaluation of packaging innovations
Food waste (or loss) can cause unnecessary environmental im- Author Contributions
pacts in addition to carrying ethical concerns, especially for house- J. Han was responsible for searching and interpreting the
hold food waste. A survey carried out in Europe estimated the literature, and writing the manuscript; L. Ruiz-Garcia and J.
avoidable food losses over the whole food value chain at approxi- Qian were responsible for checking grammar and formatting the
mately 280 kg per person per year (Gustavsson, Cederberg, Sones- manuscript; X. Yang gave valuable assistance regarding major re-
son, & van Otterdijk, 2011), 45% of which was generated at the visions of the manuscript.
household level. As Beretta, Stoessel, Baier, and Hellweg (2013)
reported, most of the losses occurring at the harvesting, storage,
transportation, and processing levels are unavoidable, and they are References
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