AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

INDEX
S.no Contents Page.no
1 INTRODUCTION
2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF AUTOMATION
2.1 Early developments
2.2 Modern developments
3 PRINCIPLES AND THEORY OF AUTOMATION
3.1 Power source
3.2 Feedback controls
3.3 Machine programming
4 INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
4.1 Development of robotics
4.2 The robot manipulator
4.3 Robot programming
5 MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION
AND ROBOTICS
5.1 Automation production lines
5.2 Numerical control
5.3 Automated assembly
5.4 Robot programming
6 AUTOMATIONS IN DAILY LIFE
7 CONCLUSIONS
8 REFERENCES

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig.no FIGURE NAME PAGE.NO

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATION fig2.0

Human intelligence fig2.1

Early digital computer fig2.11

Modern technology fig2.2

Power source fig.3.1

Feedback control fig3.2

Machine programming fig 3.3

Development of robotic by teleporter fig 4.1

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CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
Automation, application of machines to tasks once performed by human beings or,
increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible. Although the term
mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of human labour by
machines, automation generally implies the integration of machines into a self-
governing system. Automation has revolutionized those areas in which it has been
introduced, and there is scarcely an aspect of modern life that has been unaffected by it.
The term automation was coined in the automobile industry about 1946 to describe the
increased use of automatic devices and controls in mechanized production lines. The
origin of the word is attributed to D.S. Harder, an engineering manager at the Ford
Motor Company at the time. The term is used widely in a manufacturing context, but it
is also applied outside manufacturing in connection with a variety of systems in which
there is a significant substitution of mechanical, electrical, or computerized action for
human effort and intelligence.
Automation technology has matured to a point where a number of other technologies
have developed from it and have achieved a recognition and status of their own.
Robotics is one of these technologies; it is a specialized branch of automation in which
the automated machine possesses certain anthropomorphic, or humanlike,
characteristics. The most typical humanlike characteristic of a modern industrial robot
is its powered mechanical arm. The robot’s arm can be programmed to move through a
sequence of motions to perform useful tasks, such as loading and unloading parts at a
production machine or making a sequence of spot-welds on the sheet-metal parts of an
automobile body during assembly. As these examples suggest, industrial robots are
typically used to replace human workers in factory operations.
This article covers the fundamentals of automation, including its historical
development, principles and theory of operation, applications in manufacturing and in
some of the services and industries important in daily life, and impact on the individual
as well as society in general. The article also reviews the development and technology of
robotics as a significant topic within automation. For related topics, see computer
science and information processing.

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CHAPTER-2

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATION

The technology of automation has evolved from the related field of mechanization,
which had its beginnings in the Industrial Revolution. Mechanization refers to the
replacement of human (or animal) power with mechanical power of some form. The
driving force behind mechanization has been humankind’s propensity to create tools
and mechanical devices. Some of the important historical developments in
mechanization and automation leading to modern automated systems are described
here.

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATION fig2.0

2.1 Early developments

The first tools made of stone represented prehistoric man’s attempts to direct his own
physical strength under the control of human intelligence. Thousands of years were
undoubtedly required for the development of simple mechanical devices and machines
such as the wheel, the lever, and the pulley, by which the power of human muscle could
be magnified. The next extension was the development of powered machines that did
not require human strength to operate. Examples of these machines include
waterwheels, windmills, and simple steam-driven devices. More than 2,000 years ago
the Chinese developed trip-hammers powered by flowing water and waterwheels. The

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early Greeks experimented with simple reaction motors powered by steam. The
mechanical clock, representing a rather complex assembly with its own built-in power
source (a weight), was developed about 1335 in Europe. Windmills, with mechanisms
for automatically turning the sails, were developed during the Middle Ages in Europe
and the Middle East. The steam engine represented a major advance in the
development of powered machines and marked the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution. During the two centuries since the introduction of the Watt steam engine,
powered engines and machines have been devised that obtain their energy from steam,
electricity, and chemical, mechanical, and nuclear sources.

Human intelligence fig2.1

Negative feedback is widely used as a means of automatic control to achieve a constant

operating level for a system. A common example of a feedback control system is the
thermostat used in modern buildings to control room temperature. In this device, a
decrease in room temperature causes an electrical switch to close, thus turning on the
heating unit. As room temperature rises, the switch opens and the heat supply is turned
off. The thermostat can be set to turn on the heating unit at any particular set point.
Another important development in the history of automation was the Jacquard loom
(see photograph ), which demonstrated the concept of a programmable machine. About
1801 the French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised an automatic loom capable of
producing complex patterns in textiles by controlling the motions of many shuttles of
different coloured threads. The selection of the different patterns was determined by a
program contained in steel cards in which holes were punched. These cards were the
ancestors of the paper cards and tapes that control modern automatic machines. The
concept of programming a machine was further developed later in the 19th century
when Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, proposed a complex, mechanical
“analytical engine” that could perform arithmetic and data processing. Although
Babbage was never able to complete it, this device was the precursor of the modern
digital computer. See computers.

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Early digital computer fig2.11

2.2Modern developments
A number of significant developments in various fields have occurred during the 20th
century: the digital computer, improvements in data-storage technology and software
to write computer programs, advances in sensor technology, and the derivation of a
mathematical control theory. All these developments have contributed to progress in
automation technology.
Development of the electronic digital computer (the ENIAC [Electronic Numerical
Integrator and Computer] in 1946 and UNIVAC I [Universal Automatic Computer] in
1951) has permitted the control function in automation to become much more
sophisticated and the associated calculations to be executed much faster than
previously possible. The development of integrated circuits in the 1960s propelled a
trend toward miniaturization in computer technology that has led to machines that are
much smaller and less expensive than their predecessors yet are capable of performing
calculations at much greater speeds. This trend is represented today by the
microprocessor, a miniature multicircuited device capable of performing all the logic
and arithmetic functions of a large digital computer.
Along with the advances in computer technology, there have been parallel
improvements in program storage technology for containing the programming
commands. Modern storage media include magnetic tapes and disks, magnetic bubble
memories, optical data storage read by lasers, videodisks, and electron beam-
addressable memory systems. In addition, improvements have been made in the
methods of programming computers (and other programmable machines). Modern
programming languages are easier to use and are more powerful in their data-
processing and logic capabilities.

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Modern technology fig2.2

Artificial intelligence is an advanced field of computer science in which the computer is

programmed to exhibit characteristics commonly associated with human intelligence.
These characteristics include the capacity for learning, understanding language,
reasoning, solving problems, rendering expert diagnoses, and similar mental
capabilities. Developments in artificial intelligence are expected to provide robots and
other “intelligent” machines with the ability to communicate with humans and to accept
very high-level instructions rather than the detailed step-by-step programming
statements typically required of today’s programmable machines. For example, a robot
of the future endowed with artificial intelligence might be capable of accepting and
executing the command “assemble the product.” Present-day industrial robots must be
provided with a detailed set of instructions specifying the locations of the product’s
components, the order in which they are to be assembled, and so forth.

CHAPTER-3

PRINCIPLES AND THEORY OF AUTOMATION

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The developments described above have provided the three basic building blocks of
automation: (1) a source of power to perform some action, (2) feedback controls, and
(3) machine programming. Almost without exception, an automated system will exhibit
all these elements.
3.1Power source
An automated system is designed to accomplish some useful action, and that action
requires power. There are many sources of power available, but the most commonly
used power in today’s automated systems is electricity. Electrical power is the most
versatile, because it can be readily generated from other sources (e.g., fossil fuel,
hydroelectric, solar, and nuclear) and it can be readily converted into other types of
power (e.g., mechanical, hydraulic, and pneumatic) to perform useful work. In addition,
electrical energy can be stored in high-performance, long-life batteries.
The actions performed by automated systems are generally of two types: (1) processing
and (2) transfer and positioning. In the first case, energy is applied to accomplish some
processing operation on some entity. The process may involve the shaping of metal, the
molding of plastic, the switching of electrical signals in a communication system, or the
processing of data in a computerized information system. All these actions entail the
use of energy to transform the entity (e.g., the metal, plastic, electrical signals, or data)
from one state or condition into another more valuable state or condition. The second
type of action—transfer and positioning—is most readily seen in automated
manufacturing systems designed to perform work on a product. In these cases, the
product must generally be moved (transferred) from one location to another during the
series of processing steps. At each processing location, accurate positioning of the
product is generally required.
In automated communications and information systems, the terms transfer and
positioning refer to the movement of data (or electrical signals) among various
processing units and the delivery of information to output terminals (printers, video
display units, etc.) for interpretation and use by humans.

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Power source fig.3.1

3.2Feedback controls
Feedback controls are widely used in modern automated systems. A feedback control
system consists of five basic components: (1) input, (2) process being controlled, (3)
output, (4) sensing elements, and (5) controller and actuating devices. These five
components are illustrated in Figure 1. The term closed-loop feedback control is often
used to describe this kind of system.
The input to the system is the reference value, or set point, for the system output. This
represents the desired operating value of the output. Using the previous example of the
heating system as an illustration, the input is the desired temperature setting for a
room. The process being controlled is the heater (e.g., furnace). In other feedback
systems, the process might be a manufacturing operation, the rocket engines on a space
shuttle, the automobile engine in cruise control, or any of a variety of other processes to
which power is applied. The output is the variable of the process that is being measured
and compared to the input; in the above example, it is room temperature.
The sensing elements are the measuring devices used in the feedback loop to monitor
the value of the output variable. In the heating system example, this function is
normally accomplished using a bimetallic strip. This device consists of two metal strips
joined along their lengths. The two metals possess different thermal expansion
coefficients; thus, when the temperature of the strip is raised, it flexes in direct
proportion to the temperature change. As such, the bimetallic strip is capable of
measuring temperature. There are many different kinds of sensors used in feedback
control systems for automation.
The purpose of the controller and actuating devices in the feedback system is to
compare the measured output value with the reference input value and to reduce the
difference between them. In general, the controller and actuator of the system are the
mechanisms by which changes in the process are accomplished to influence the output
variable. These mechanisms are usually designed specifically for the system and consist
of devices such as motors, valves, solenoid switches, piston cylinders, gears, power
screws, pulley systems, chain drives, and other mechanical and electrical components.
The switch connected to the bimetallic strip of the thermostat is the controller and
actuating device for the heating system. When the output (room temperature) is below
the set point, the switch turns on the heater. When the temperature exceeds the set
point, the heat is turned off.

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Feedback control fig3.2

3.3Machine programming
The programmed instructions determine the set of actions that is to be accomplished
automatically by the system. The program specifies what the automated system should
do and how its various components must function in order to accomplish the desired
result. The content of the program varies considerably from one system to the next. In
relatively simple systems, the program consists of a limited number of well-defined
actions that are performed continuously and repeatedly in the proper sequence with no
deviation from one cycle to the next. In more complex systems, the number of
commands could be quite large, and the level of detail in each command could be
significantly greater. In relatively sophisticated systems, the program provides for the
sequence of actions to be altered in response to variations in raw materials or other
operating conditions.

Machine programming fig 3.3

Programming commands are related to feedback control in an automated system in

that the program establishes the sequence of values for the inputs (set points) of the
various feedback control loops that make up the automated system. A given
programming command may specify the set point for the feedback loop, which in turn
controls some action that the system is to accomplish. In effect, the purpose of the
feedback loop is to verify that the programmed step has been carried out. For example,
in a robot controller, the program might specify that the arm is to move to a designated
position, and the feedback control system is used to verify that the move has been
correctly made. The relationship of program control and feedback control in an
automated system is illustrated.

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Some of the programmed commands may be executed in a simple open-loop fashion—

i.e., without the need for a feedback loop to verify that the command has been properly
carried out. For example, a command to flip an electrical switch may not require
feedback. The need for feedback control in an automated system might arise when there
are variations in the raw materials being fed into a production process, and the system
must take these variations into consideration by making adjustments in its controlled
actions. Without feedback, the system would be unable to exert sufficient control over
the quality of the process output.
The programmed commands may be contained on mechanical devices (e.g., mechanical
cams and linkages), punched paper tape, magnetic tape, magnetic disks, computer
memory, or any of a variety of other media that have been developed over the years for
particular applications. It is common today for automated equipment to use computer
storage technology as the means for storing the programmed commands and converting
them into controlled actions. One of the advantages of computer storage is that the
program can be readily changed or improved. Altering a program that is contained on
mechanical cams involves considerable work.
Programmable machines are often capable of making decisions during their operation.
The decision-making capacity is contained in the control program in the form of logical
instructions that govern the operation of such a system under varying circumstances.
Under one set of circumstances, the system responds one way; under different
circumstances, it responds in another way. There are several reasons for providing an
automated system with decision-making capability, including (1) error detection and
recovery, (2) safety monitoring, (3) interaction with humans, and (4) process
optimization.
Automated systems are usually required to interact with humans in some way. An
automatic bank teller machine, for example, must receive instructions from customers
and act accordingly. In some automated systems, a variety of different instructions from
humans is possible, and the decision-making capability of the system must be quite
sophisticated in order to deal with the array of possibilities.
A fourth reason for decision making in an automated system is to optimize the process.
The need for optimization occurs most commonly in processes in which there is an
economic performance criterion whose optimization is desirable. For example,
minimizing cost is usually an important objective in manufacturing. The automated
system might use adaptive control to receive appropriate sensor signals and other
inputs and make decisions to drive the process toward the optimal state.
CHAPTER-4

INDUSTRIAL ROBOTICS
Industrial robotics is an automation technology that has received considerable attention
since about 1960. This section will discuss the development of industrial robotics, the
design of the robot manipulator, and the methods of programming robots. The
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applications of robots are examined below in the section Manufacturing applications of

automation and robotics.
4.1Development of robotics
Robotics is based on two related technologies: numerical control and teleoperators.
Numerical control (NC) is a method of controlling machine tool axes by means of
numbers that have been coded on punched paper tape or other media. It was developed
during the late 1940s and early 1950s. The first numerical control machine tool was
demonstrated in 1952 in the United States at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT). Subsequent research at MIT led to the development of the APT (Automatically
Programmed Tools) language for programming machine tools.
A teleoperator is a mechanical manipulator that is controlled by a human from a remote
location. Initial work on the design of teleoperators can be traced to the handling of
radioactive materials in the early 1940s. In a typical implementation, a human moves a
mechanical arm and hand at one location, and these motions are duplicated by the
manipulator at another location. Industrial robotics can be considered a combination of
numerical-control and teleoperator technologies. Numerical control provides the
concept of a programmable industrial machine, and teleoperator technology
contributes the notion of a mechanical arm to perform useful work. The first industrial
robot was installed in 1961 to unload parts from a die-casting operation. Its
development was due largely to the efforts of the Americans George C. Devol, an
inventor, and Joseph F. Engelberger, a businessman. Devol originated the design for a
programmable manipulator, the U.S. patent for which was issued in 1961. Engelberger
teamed with Devol to promote the use of robots in industry and to establish the first
corporation in robotics—Unimation, Inc.

Development of robotic by teleporter fig 4.1

4.2The robot manipulator

The most widely accepted definition of an industrial robot is one developed by the
Robotic Industries Association:
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The technology of robotics is concerned with the design of the mechanical manipulator
and the computer systems used to control it. It is also concerned with the industrial
applications of robots, which are described below.

Industrial applications of robots fig 4.2

The mechanical manipulator of an industrial robot is made up of a sequence of link and

joint combinations. The links are the rigid members connecting the joints. The joints
(also called axes) are the movable components of the robot that cause relative motion
between adjacent links. As shown in Figure 3, there are five principal types of
mechanical joints used to construct the manipulator. Two of the joints are linear, in
which the relative motion between adjacent links is translational, and three are rotary
types, in which the relative motion involves rotation between links.
The manipulator can be divided into two sections: (1) an arm-and-body, which usually
consists of three joints connected by large links, and (2) a wrist, consisting of two or
three compact joints. Attached to the wrist is a gripper to grasp a work part or a tool
(e.g., a spot-welding gun) to perform a process. The two manipulator sections have
different functions: the arm-and-body is used to move and position parts or tools in the
robot’s work space, while the wrist is used to orient the parts or tools at the work
location. The arm-and-body section of most commercial robots is based on one of four
configurations. Each of the anatomies, as they are sometimes called, provides a
different work envelope (i.e., the space that can be reached by the robot’s arm) and is
suited to different types of applications.
4.3Robot programming
The computer system that controls the manipulator must be programmed to teach the
robot the particular motion sequence and other actions that must be performed in order
to accomplish its task. There are several ways that industrial robots are programmed.
One method is called lead-through programming. This requires that the manipulator be
driven through the various motions needed to perform a given task, recording the
motions into the robot’s computer memory. This can be done either by physically

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moving the manipulator through the motion sequence or by using a control box to drive
the manipulator through the sequence.
A second method of programming involves the use of a programming language very
much like a computer programming language. However, in addition to many of the
capabilities of a computer programming language (i.e., data processing, computations,
communicating with other computer devices, and decision making), the robot language
also includes statements specifically designed for robot control. These capabilities
include (1) motion control and (2) input/output. Motion-control commands are used to
direct the robot to move its manipulator to some defined position in space. For
example, the statement “move P1” might be used to direct the robot to a point in space
called P1. Input/output commands are employed to control the receipt of signals from
sensors and other devices in the work cell and to initiate control signals to other pieces
of equipment in the cell. For instance, the statement “signal 3, on” might be used to
turn on a motor in the cell, where the motor is connected to output line 3 in the robot’s
controller.

Robot programming fig 4.3

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CHAPTER-5

MANUFACTURING APPLICATIONS OF AUTOMATION AND ROBOTICS

One of the most important application areas for automation technology is

manufacturing. To many people, automation means manufacturing automation. In
this section, the types of automation are defined, and examples of automated
systems used in manufacturing are described.
Three types of automation in production can be distinguished: (1) fixed automation,
(2) programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation.
Fixed automation, also known as “hard automation,” refers to an automated
production facility in which the sequence of processing operations is fixed by the
equipment configuration. In effect, the programmed commands are contained in the
machines in the form of cams, gears, wiring, and other hardware that is not easily
changed over from one product style to another. This form of automation is
characterized by high initial investment and high production rates. It is therefore
suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation
include machining transfer lines found in the automotive industry, automatic assembly
machines, and certain chemical processes.

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Fixed automation fig 5.0

Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in

batches. The products are made in batch quantities ranging from several dozen to
several thousand units at a time. For each new batch, the production equipment must
be reprogrammed and changed over to accommodate the new product style. This
reprogramming and changeover take time to accomplish, and there is a period of
nonproductive time followed by a production run for each new batch. Production rates
in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed automation, because the
equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for product
specialization. A numerical-control machine tool is a good example of programmable
automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each different product
style, and the machine tool is controlled by the computer program. Industrial robots are
another example.

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Programmable automation fig 5.1

Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The disadvantage

with programmable automation is the time required to reprogram and change over the
production equipment for each batch of new product. This is lost production time,
which is expensive. In flexible automation, the variety of products is sufficiently limited
so that the changeover of the equipment can be done very quickly and automatically.
The reprogramming of the equipment in flexible automation is done off-line; that is, the
programming is accomplished at a computer terminal without using the production
equipment itself. Accordingly, there is no need to group identical products into batches;
instead, a mixture of different products can be produced one right after another.
5.1Automation production lines
An automated production line consists of a series of workstations connected by a
transfer system to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed
automation, since these lines are typically set up for long production runs, perhaps
making millions of product units and running for several years between changeovers.
Each station is designed to perform a specific processing operation, so that the part or
product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A raw work part enters
at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation, and emerges at the other end
as a completed product. In the normal operation of the line, there is a work part being
processed at each station, so that many parts are being processed simultaneously and a
finished part is produced with each cycle of the line. The various operations, part
transfers, and other activities taking place on an automated transfer line must all be
sequenced and coordinated properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern
automated lines are controlled by programmable logic controllers, which are special
computers that facilitate connections with industrial equipment (such as automated
production lines) and can perform the kinds of timing and sequencing functions
required to operate such equipment.
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Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, most notably automotive,
where they are used for processes such as machining and pressworking. Machining is a
manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that
the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are
usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple operations are required to
completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is
often the most economical method of production. The many separate operations are
divided among the workstations. Transfer lines date back to about 1924.
Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, most notably automotive,
where they are used for processes such as machining and pressworking. Machining is a
manufacturing process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that
the remaining work part is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are
usually made by this process. In many cases, multiple operations are required to
completely shape the part. If the part is mass-produced, an automated transfer line is
often the most economical method of production. The many separate operations are
divided among the workstations. Transfer lines date back to about 1924.

Automation production lines fig 5.11

5.2Numerical control
As discussed above, numerical control is a form of programmable automation in which
a machine is controlled by numbers (and other symbols) that have been coded on
punched paper tape or an alternative storage medium. The initial application of
numerical control was in the machine tool industry, to control the position of a cutting
tool relative to the work part being machined. The NC part program represents the set
of machining instructions for the particular part. The coded numbers in the program
specify x-y-z coordinates in a Cartesian axis system, defining the various positions of
the cutting tool in relation to the work part. By sequencing these positions in the
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program, the machine tool is directed to accomplish the machining of the part. A
position feedback control system is used in most NC machines to verify that the coded
instructions have been correctly performed.

Numerical control fig 5.22

Today a small computer is used as the controller in an NC machine tool, and the
program is actuated from computer memory rather than punched paper tape. However,
initial entry of the program into computer memory is often still accomplished using
punched tape. Since this form of numerical control is implemented by computer, it is
called computer numerical control, or CNC. Another variation in the implementation of
numerical control involves sending part programs over telecommunications lines from
a central computer to individual machine tools in the factory, thus eliminating the use
of the punched tape altogether. This form of numerical control is called direct
numerical control, or DNC.

5.3Automated assembly
Assembly operations have traditionally been performed manually, either at single
assembly workstations or on assembly lines with multiple stations. Owing to the high
labour content and high cost of manual labour, greater attention has been given in
recent years to the use of automation for assembly work. Assembly operations can be
automated using production line principles if the quantities are large, the product is
small, and the design is simple (e.g., mechanical pencils, pens, and cigarette lighters).
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For products that do not satisfy these conditions, manual assembly is generally
required.
Automated assembly machines have been developed that operate in a manner similar to
machining transfer lines, with the difference being that assembly operations, instead of
machining, are performed at the workstations. A typical assembly machine consists of
several stations, each equipped with a supply of components and a mechanism for
delivering the components into position for assembly. A workhead at each station
performs the actual attachment of the component. Typical workheads include
automatic screwdrivers, staking or riveting machines, welding heads, and other joining
devices. A new component is added to the partially completed product at each
workstation, thus building up the product gradually as it proceeds through the line.
Assembly machines of this type are considered to be examples of fixed automation,
because they are generally configured for a particular product made in high volume.
Programmable assembly machines are represented by the component-insertion
machines employed in the electronics industry, as described above.
5.4Robot programming
Since about 1970 there has been a growing trend in manufacturing firms toward the use
of computers to perform many of the functions related to design and production. The
technology associated with this trend is called CAD/CAM, for computer-aided design
and computer-aided manufacturing. Today it is widely recognized that the scope of
computer applications must extend beyond design and production to include the
business functions of the firm. The name given to this more comprehensive use of
computers is computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM).
CAD/CAM is based on the capability of a computer system to process, store, and display
large amounts of data representing part and product specifications. For mechanical
products, the data represent graphic models of the components; for electrical products,
they represent circuit information; and so forth. CAD/CAM technology has been
applied in many industries, including machined components, electronics products, and
equipment design and fabrication for chemical processing. CAD/CAM involves not only
the automation of the manufacturing operations but also the automation of elements in
the entire design-and-manufacturing procedure.
Computer-aided design (CAD) makes use of computer systems to assist in the creation,
modification, analysis, and optimization of a design. The designer, working with the
CAD system rather than the traditional drafting board, creates the lines and surfaces
that form the object (product, part, structure, etc.) and stores this model in the
computer database. By invoking the appropriate CAD software, the designer can
perform various analyses on the object, such as heat transfer calculations. The final
object design is developed as adjustments are made on the basis of these analyses. Once
the design procedure has been completed, the computer-aided design system can
generate the detailed drawings required to make the object.

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Computer-integrated manufacturing includes all the engineering functions of

CAD/CAM and the business functions of the firm as well. These business functions
include order entry, cost accounting, employee time records and payroll, and customer
billing. In an ideal CIM system, computer technology is applied to all the operational
and information-processing functions of the company, from customer orders through
design and production (CAD/CAM) to product shipment and customer service. The
scope of the computer system includes all activities that are concerned with
manufacturing. In many ways, CIM represents the highest level of automation in
manufacturing.

Robot programming fig 5.4

CHAPTER-6

AUTOMATION IN DAILY LIFE

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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

In addition to the manufacturing applications of automation technology, there have

been significant achievements in such areas as communications, transportation, service
industries, and consumer products. Some of the more significant applications are
described in this section.
Communications
One of the earliest practical applications of automation was in telephone switching. The
first switching machines, invented near the end of the 19th century, were simple
mechanical switches that were remotely controlled by the telephone user pushing
buttons or turning a dial on the phone. Modern electronic telephone switching systems
are based on highly sophisticated digital computers that perform functions such as
monitoring thousands of telephone lines, determining which lines require service,
storing the digits of each telephone number as it is being dialed, setting up the required
connections, sending electrical signals to ring the receiver’s phone, monitoring the call
during its progress, and disconnecting the phone when the call is completed. These
systems also are used to time and bill toll calls and to transmit billing information and
other data relative to the business operations of the phone company. In addition to the
various functions mentioned, the newest electronic systems automatically transfer calls
to alternate numbers, call back the user when busy lines become free, and perform
other customer services in response to dialed codes. These systems also perform
function tests on their own operations, diagnose problems when they arise, and print
out detailed instructions for repairs.

Communication fig 6.1

Other applications of automation in communications systems include local area

networks, communications satellites, and automated mail-sorting machines. A local
area network (LAN) operates like an automated telephone company within a single
building or group of buildings. Local area networks are generally capable of
transmitting not only voice but also digital data between terminals in the system.
Communications satellites have become essential for communicating telephone or
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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

video signals across great distances. Such communications would not be possible
without the automated guidance systems that place and retain the satellites in
predetermined orbits. Automatic mail-sorting machines have been developed for use in
many post offices throughout the world to read codes on envelopes and sort the
envelopes according to destination.
Transportation
Automation has been applied in various ways in the transportation industries.
Applications include airline reservation systems, automatic pilots in aircraft and
locomotives, and urban mass-transit systems. The airlines use computerized
reservation systems to continuously monitor the status of all flights. With these
systems, ticket agents at widely dispersed locations can obtain information about the
availability of seats on any flight in a matter of seconds. The reservation systems
compare requests for space with the status of each flight, grant space when available,
and automatically update the reservation status files. Passengers can even receive their
seat assignments well in advance of flight departures.
Nearly all commercial aircraft are equipped with instruments called automatic pilots.
Under normal flying conditions, these systems guide an airplane over a predetermined
route by detecting changes in the aircraft’s orientation and heading from gyroscopes
and similar instruments and by providing appropriate control signals to the plane’s
steering mechanism. Automatic navigation systems and instrument landing systems
operate by using radio signals from ground beacons that provide the aircraft with
course directions for guidance. When an airplane is within the traffic pattern for ground
control, its human pilot normally assumes control.
Examples of automated rail transportation include American urban mass-transit
systems such as BART (Bay Area Rapid Transit) in San Francisco; MARTA
(Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority) in Atlanta, Georgia; and the Metrorail
in Washington, D.C. The BART system serves as a useful example; it consists of more
than 75 miles (120 kilometres) of track, with about 100 trains operating at peak hours
between roughly 30 stations. The trains sometimes attain speeds of 80 miles per hour
with intervals between trains of as little as 90 seconds. In each train there is one
operator whose role is that of an observer and communicator and who can override the
automatic system in case of emergency.
As a train enters the station, it automatically transmits its identification, destination,
and length, thus lighting up a display board for passenger information and transmitting
information to the control centres. Signals are automatically returned to the train to
regulate its time in the station and its running time to the next station. At the beginning
of the day, an ideal schedule is determined; as the day progresses, the performance of
each train is compared with the schedule, and adjustments are made to each train’s
operation as required. The entire system is controlled by two identical computers, so
that if one malfunctions, the other assumes complete control. In the event of a complete
failure of the computer control system, the system reverts to manual control.
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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

Transportation 6.2

Service Industries
Automation of service industries includes an assortment of applications as diverse as
the services themselves, which include health care, banking and other financial services,
government, and retail trade.
In health care the use of automation in the form of computer systems has increased
dramatically to improve services and relieve the burden on medical staffs. In hospitals
computer terminals on each nursing care floor record data on patient status,
medications administered, and other relevant information. Some of these systems are
used to perform additional functions such as ordering drugs from the hospital
pharmacy and calling for orderlies. The system provides an official record of the
nursing care given to patients and is used by the nursing staff to give a report at shift-
change time. The computer system is connected to the hospital’s business office so that
proper charges can be made to each patient’s account for services rendered and
medicines provided.
Many government services are automated by means of computers and computerized
databases. The Internal Revenue Service (IRS) of the U.S. government must review and
approve the tax returns of millions of taxpayers each year. The detailed checking of
returns is a task that has traditionally been done by large staffs of professional auditors
on a sampled basis. In 1985 the IRS began using a computerized system to automate
the auditing procedure for the 1984 returns. This system is programmed to perform the
complex tax calculations on each return being audited. As tax laws change, the system is
reprogrammed to do the calculations for the year. The computerized auditing system
has permitted a substantial increase in the work load of the IRS auditing department
without a corresponding increase in staffing. Retail trade has seen a number of changes
in its operations as a result of automation. Selling merchandise has typically been a very
labour-intensive activity, with sales associates needed to assist customers with their
selections and then finalize transactions at the cash register. Each transaction depletes
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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

the store’s inventory, so the item purchased must be identified for reorder. Much
clerical effort is expended by the store when inventory is managed by strictly manual
procedures. Computerized systems have been installed in most modern retail stores to
speed sales transactions and automatically update inventory records as the stock of
each item is reduced. The systems are based on the Universal Product Code (UPC),
originally adopted by the grocery industry in 1973, which uses optical bar-code
technology. A bar code is an identification symbol consisting of a series of wide and
narrow bars attached to each product that can be scanned and recognized by a bar-code
reader. At the cash registers, these readers quickly identify the items being purchased.
As the sales associate scans across the symbol using a laser beam reader, the product is
properly identified and its price is entered into the sales transaction. Simultaneously, a
record of the sale is made in the inventory files so that the item can be reordered.

Services industries fig 6.3

CHAPTER-7

CONCLUSION

automation took over the control of production operations. In some ways, the
implementation of this system tends to be a substitute to the work done by humans.
In short, replacing human beings in an industry. The time consumed on the
manufacturing has been deducted since robots never get dist ressed and capable
to engage in risky jobs. Therefore, work opportunities may be reduced up to 50% as
it turned automation system to be budget-friendly. Nevertheless, technology was
proven to create jobs rather than destroyed the opportunity through robotics,
blockchain technology, artificial intelligence, telecommunication and more.

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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER-8
REFERENCES
1. Groover, Mikell (2014). Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing: Materials,
Processes, and Systems.

2. Lyshevski , S.E. Electromechanical Systems and Devices 1st Edition. CRC

Press, 2008. ISBN 1420069721.

3. Lamb, Frank. Industrial Automation: Hands On (English Edition). NC,

McGraw-Hill Education, 2013. ISBN 978-0071816458

4. Rifkin, Jeremy (1995). The End of Work: The Decline of the Global Labor
Force and the Dawn of the Post-Market Era. Putnam Publishing Group.

5. Jump up to:a b c Bennett 1993.

6. The Changing Nature of Work (Report). The World Bank. 2019.

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AUTOMATION TECHNOLOGY

7. Dashevsky, Evan (8 November 2017). "How Robots Caused Brexit and the
Rise of Donald Trump". PC Magazine. Archived from the original on 8
November 2017.

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