CHAPTER ONE

1.0 Introduction

1.1 Background of the study

Children are the greatest gift to mankind and childhood is an important stage of human

development because it holds the potential to the future development of any society. However,

children that are denied proper education and a conductive environment are liable to all kinds of

child labour in the society they find themselves. The main cause of child is poverty with is as

result of population growth without proper measures to cater for the people with lead to

unemployment which is one of the major effects of urbanization.

Child labour in recent time is becoming a serious issue that developing nation are dealing with as

they focus on developing the economic sector and other sectors. The term “child labor” refers to

situations where “children are compelled to work on a regular basis to earn a living for

themselves and their families and, as a result, are disadvantaged educationally and socially”. It

also applies to situations where “children work in conditions that are exploitative and damaging

to their health and to their physical and mental development; where children are separated from

their families often deprived of educational training opportunities; and where children are forced

to lead prematurely adult lives.” (ILO-IPEC, 2006).

‘Child Labour’ implies something different in which young people are being exploited, or over

worked or deprived of their rights to health, education and childhood. It impairs their health,

their overall physical, mental and social growth. (Dash, 2013)

The difference between child work and child labour may be briefly stated as follows.

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Child work

(a) It involves light work (children learn to take responsibilities) (b) It accords some respect to

children’s right to health and education (c) It is occasional and legal

Child labour

(a) It involves hard and hazardous work, often exploitation (b) It entails deprivation of rights to

health and education (c) It is constant, long hours and illegal (d) It involves some payment for

their work. (Dash, 2013).

Article 3 of the International Labor Organization (ILO) Convention No. 182 defines the worst

forms of child labor as:

a) all forms of slavery or practices similar to slavery, such as the sale and trafficking of children,

debt bondage and serfdom and forced or compulsory labor, including forced or compulsory

recruitment of children for use in armed conflict;

b) the use, procuring or offering of a child for prostitution, for the production of pornography or

for pornographic performances;

c) the use, procuring or offering of a child for illicit activities, in particular for the production

and trafficking of drugs;

d) work which by its nature or the circumstances in which it is carried out, is likely to harm the

health, safety or morals of children (Thomas, 2018). ( Jack Martin and David Tajgman, 2002).

Child labour is always caused as result of the financial status of the family in which the family

try to balance their income level and their expenses which is rather low and these kids have no

choice but to support their family in any possible means which they can generate income.

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 Therefore, the major cause of child labour is poverty. There are other factors that stem child

labour such as limited access to educational programs, for example, lack of school facilities in

rural areas. Other include:-

I. lack of legal documentation which keeps them from enrolling in school and receiving

other state-social services;

II. poorly funded, trained, and equipped education systems and teaching staff; – cultural

and/or traditional practices in certain geographical locations or among certain peoples, for

example, migrant workers, nomadic and indigenous populations, and lower castes;

III. employment practices whereby businesses and factories employ children because they

can pay them less than adults and because children are young, defenseless, and docile and

may be bullied into doing work they should not be doing or into working long hours;

IV. vulnerable children being coerced into illegal activities, such as drug smuggling; –

trafficking or criminal practices, such as commercial sexual exploitation;

V. discriminatory practices in society and in education, for example against girls or certain

population groups, such as indigenous peoples;

VI. lack of acknowledgement of the problem of child labor by some governments, other

socio-economic and political actors, and even the public at large, and a failure to deal

with the issue as a priority;

VII. lack of social protection programs through which poor and vulnerable families could

access government and local authority support, particularly in times of difficulty;

VIII. the death of parents or guardians from HIV/AIDS, creating a new generation of child-

headed households;

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IX. armed conflict, with children forced to take up arms or provide other forms of military

support. (International, 2008).

Urbanization as defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary is the process by which towns and

cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working in central

areas. Urbanization was also defined as “the demographic process whereby an increasing share

of the national population lives within urban settlements.” Settlements are also defined as urban

only if most of their residents derive the majority of their livelihoods from non-farm occupations.

(Mohamed et.al, 2014). Urbanization refers to the population shift from rural to urban residency,

Globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas, with 54 per cent of the world’s

population residing in urban areas in 2014. In 1950, 30 per cent of the world’s population was

urban, and by 2050, 66 per cent of the world’s population is projected to be urban (World

Urbanization Prospects, 2014).

The process of urbanization historically has been associated with other important economic and

social transformations, which have brought greater geographic mobility, lower fertility, longer

life expectancy and population ageing. Cities are important drivers of development and poverty

reduction in both urban and rural areas, as they concentrate much of the national economic

activity, government, commerce and transportation, and provide crucial links with rural areas,

between cities, and across international borders. Urban living is often associated with higher

levels of literacy and education, better health, greater access to social services, and enhanced

opportunities for cultural and political participation. (World Urbanization Prospects, 2014, p. 3).

As a result of the comfort life style such as Standard Education and Health Facilities which are

provided in the Urban area, immigrants leave their various homes in rural area to urban cities to

also enjoy these standards without proper plan on how to care of themselves, some even come to
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the cites with their families there by adding to the population in the urban areas. This encourage

Child labor even though it may seem temporary and easily accessible solution to gain additional

income for families so they can meet their needs, but it is surely a detriment to families’

wellbeing in the long run considering what those children are missing while working, namely

education, security. It is, therefore, important to investigate how to lower the level of child labor

which are encouraged though urbanization.

1.2 Research Problem

There is need to solve a given problem or to modify an existing situation is what prompted the

requisite for research project, since the causes of child labour are primarily rooted in poverty

created by social and economic inequality as well as in insufficient educational facilities (Inter-

Parliamentary Union, 96th Conference, September 1996) ( Jack Martin and David Tajgman,

2002, p. 23).

i. The culture of poverty plays a major role in child labour, it has been stated that

globally some group of persons living below the poverty threshold of $2 per day

(Osita-Oleribe, 2007). Most families engage their children in child labour in order

to survive the economic pressures in the city. (Adeojo, Urbanization Processes

and Child Breadwinner in Lagos Metropolis , 2017)

ii. Urbanization keep changing the life style of families in the city, since the

available resources provided are limited to the number of citizens rich and the

employment units available are less compare to the numbers seeking employment.

Having lost interest in doing any meaningful job, they depend on their children to

provide for the whole families. (Adeojo, Urbanization Processes and Child

Breadwinner in Lagos Metropolis , 2017)

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 iii. Culture of Laziness: laziness is prevalent in most African states. Since many

adults look up to others to solve their problems, demand others to feed them while

they waste their time on unprofitable activities such as drinking and gossips. A

typical African adult wakes up late, talks or chats most of the day, does minimal

work in the day time, sleeps early when there are no visitors to talk with or no

film to watch, but eats like a horse. In offices, they work at their own pace. The

jobless are less perturbed as long as there is food on the table. Children are

allowed to work in the streets as hawkers, street beggars, bus conductors or

barrow pushers while their lazy parents sit somewhere collecting the monies they

make and feeding fat on them. It is a cultural practice that has been accepted by

many ethnic groups in Africa. (Osita-Oleribe, 2007, p. 008)

iv. Children are faced with Poor condition for survival, living and health; worse

nutrition status and high morbidity rate; high incidence of injuries when left to

care for themselves in an environment that has no program set in place to care for

them in the city and lack of social protection programs through which poor and

vulnerable families could access government and local authority support,

particularly in times of difficult (International, 2008, p. 12). Others include lack of

acknowledgement of the problem of child labor by some governments, other

socio-economic and political actors, and even the public at large, and a failure to

deal with the issue as a priority (International, 2008, p. 12).

1.3 Research Questions

The purpose of this study is to analyze the effect of urbanization on child labour in Akure (Akure

South). Based on the objectives, the following major questions will be answered in this research;

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 i. What is the relationship between child labour and urbanization?

ii. What are the causes of child labour at the study area?

iii. What are existing nature of the child labour at the study area?

iv. What are the recommended methods or strategies that can help curb such child

labour at the study areas?

1.4 Aim and Objectives

1.4.1 Aim

The aim of this research is to study the effects of urbanization on child labour in Akure the

capital of Ondo state with a view to recommending efficient measures to curb such impacts and

reduce child at the study area.

1.4.2 Objectives

The problem of child labour in the areas under study has not be measured in terms of the

magnitude and highlighted properly. To achieve the aim, the research will focus on the following

objectives;

a. Identify existing nature of the child labour at the study area?

b. Examine the causes of child labour at the study area?

c. Assess the implications of urbanization on child labour at the study area?

d. Determine and recommend proven methods and strategies that can help curb such

child labour at the study areas?

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1.5 Justification of the study

With the impact of urbanization, the roles and structures of the family have experienced a lot

profound changes in the study area. Changes in the definition of marriages, increase in divorces

rate, unemployment, increase in single parenthood coupled with economic downturns have

altered men's role and responsibility of being the sole provider for their families thereby relying

on their children.

Child labour is one of unsolved development issues associated with urbanization. In most of the

areas in Akure we see child labour almost at very corner either hawking sachet water or

groundnut, this has been very rampant in the study area.

Many children, however, carry out work that, far from being beneficial, impedes their growth

and development and, in many cases, can do them harm. Across Akure, children are being

forced, either by circumstance or coercion, to undertake work that damages them psychologically

and physically and deprives them of their childhoods. This kind of work is carried out in

violation of international core standards and national legislation and includes activities that are

mentally, physically, and socially dangerous or morally harmful to children. It deprives them of

schooling or requires them to assume the dual burden of schooling and work. (International,

2008, p. 10)

The increased demand for services and infrastructure in the Akure has depleted natural resources

and caused other environmental problems. Environmental problems include those caused by

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widespread poverty and those caused by urbanization and a change in consumption patterns. The

cumulative impact of these 2 causes has serious effects on urban dwellers, especially children.

Low incomes, illiteracy, and inaccessibility to development opportunities further complicate

problems. Urban pressures weaken traditional family ties and social control over children. Adult

supervision of children is rare. Schools are not always available. Interaction between children

and parents, recreation, and cultural stimulation are all lacking which all encourages child labor

in the study area. ( Mehta p., 1992)

1.6 Scope of the study

The project focused on the Analysis of effects of urbanization on child labour in Akure the

capital city of Ondo state. The study focused on the existing forms of child labour in the study

area, the impact of urbanization on the children as well as the communities under study, and how

to manage their spontaneity.

1.7 Definition of unfamiliar terms

Urbanization: This means an increasing proportion of national and global populations living in

urban settlements rather than rural areas. The causes of urbanization are population movement,

natural growth (an excess of births over deaths) and policy change – governments’

reclassification of some places from rural areas to urban settlement.

Coercion: This mean the power to make someone do something by force or threats or get

something by using force or threats. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)

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Spontaneity: The quality or state of being “spontaneous” doing things that have not been planned

but that seem enjoyable and worth ding at a particular time. (Merriam Webster Dictionary)

Poverty: The state of being poor (Merriam Webster Dictionary)

Curb: This means something that controls or limits something else (Merriam Webster

Dictionary)

1.8 Study Area

Ondo State was created in 1976 out of the former Western State. The state lies between latitudes

5 45’ and 7 52’N and longitudes 4 20’ and 6 03’E. It is bounded on the east by Edo and Delta

states, on the west by Ogun and Osun states, on the north by Ekiti and Kogi states. The state has

eighteen (18) Local Government Areas, with Akure as the capital city as well as the largest

settlement. Akure is a city in south-western Nigeria, and is the largest city and capital of Ondo

State. The city had a population of 484,798 as at the 2006 population census.

Akure lies about 7°25’ north of the equator and 5°19’ east of the Meridian. It is about 700 km

Southwest of Abuja and 311 km north of Lagos State. Residential districts are of varying density,

some area such as Arakale, Ayedun Quarters, Ijoka, and Oja-Oba consist of over 200 persons per

hectare, while areas such as Ijapo Estate, Alagbaka Estate, Avenue and Idofin have between 60-

100 people per hectare. The town is situated in the tropic rainforest zone in Nigeria.

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Figure 1.1: Map of Nigeria showing Ondo state.

Source: Author’s ArcGIS 2018.

AKURE

ONDO

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Figure 1.2: Map of Ondo state showing Akure.

Source: Author’s ArcGIS 2018.

CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Review of literature

The term “child labour” is often defined as work that deprives children of their childhood, their

potential and their dignity, and that is harmful to physical and mental development. It refers to

work that is mentally, physically, socially or morally dangerous and harmful to children; and/or -

interferes with a child’s ability to attend and participate in school fully by obliging them to leave

school prematurely; or requiring them to attempt to combine school attendance with excessively

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long and heavy work (ILO, Child Labour in india, 2016). “The exploitation of childhood

constitutes the evil the most hideous, the most unbearable to the human heart” (Albert Thomas,

first Director of the ILO).

Child labour also refers to the exploitation of the labour of children who are either too young to

work, or are of working age but work under conditions that subject them to risk. It is an

unfortunate reality that children worldwide are often forced to undertake work that is physically,

psychologically and morally damaging to them. Nonetheless, not all work performed by children

is classified as child labour (Prognosys, 2012).

There are many inter- linked factors contributing to the frequency of child labour in the world.

Child labour is both a cause and consequence of poverty. Household poverty forces children into

the labour market to earn money. Some perform child labour to supplement family income while

many also are in it for survival. They miss out on an opportunity to gain an education, further

perpetuating household poverty across generations, slowing the economic growth and social

development.

Fact and figures indicates that: The global figure of child labourers stands at 168 million (ILO,

International labour organization, 2012). Globally, it is estimated that: 211 million children

(aged between 5 and 14) are engaged in some type of work and 1 in 12 children (180 million

young people under 18) are involved in the worst forms of child labour (UNICEF 2016).

Asia and the Pacific still has the largest numbers of child labourers (almost 78 million or 9.3% of

child population), but Sub-Saharan Africa continues to be the region with the highest incidence

of child labour (59 million, over 21%).

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Globally, agriculture remains by far the most prominent sector where child labourers can be

found (98 million), but the problems are not negligible in services (54 million) and industry (12

million). This is found to be the case mostly in the informal economy (ILO, Child Labour in

india, 2016).

Some important progress has been made in tackling child labour but it’s still here and has the

power to haunt. Globally, there are now 30 million fewer working children than 10 years ago.

However, there are still an estimated 215 million girls and boys trapped in child labour (WOW,

2010).

Child labour is a concrete manifestation of violations of a range of rights of children and is

recognized as a serious and enormously complex social problem in India. Working children are

denied their right to survival and development, education, leisure and play, and adequate

standard of living, opportunity for developing personality, talents, mental and physical abilities,

and protection from abuse and neglect. Notwithstanding the increase in the enrolment of children

in elementary schools and increase in literacy rates since 1980s, child labour continues to be a

significant phenomenon in India (L. Guarcello; S. Lyon; F.C. Rosati;, 2008 ).

According to Census of India, 2001, there were 12.26 million working children in the age group

of 5-14 years as compared to 11.3 million in 1991 revealing an increasing trend in absolute

numbers though the work participation rates of children (5-14) has come down from 5.4 percent

during 1991 to 5 percent during 2001. The recent round of the National Sample Survey (NSSO)

estimates suggests that the child labour in the country is around 8.9 million in 2004/2005 with a

NSSO, 2000 “Theories and Concepts” workforce participation rate of 3.4 per cent (NSSO

2004/05).

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Child labour in Cambodia is emerging as one of the brightest economic growth stories of South-

East Asia, over 313,000 children are trapped in the worst forms of exploitation such as drug

trafficking and prostitution. But the end of all worst forms of child labour in the country could be

within reach, and the Cambodian Government has committed itself to take on the challenge as

have the social partners. But in order to stay the course it will require continued support of those

inside the country as well as a continued financial commitment from donors to ensure that every

child in Cambodia is given the start in life they deserve (WOW, 2010).

Although Access to education has improved in Cambodia but child labour persists. Leap and

Doung are two of the children still left behind. While primary school enrolment has risen from

75 per cent in 1997 to 91 per cent in 2005 most of the children attending school are combining

their studies with work (WOW, 2010).

Child labour in Mali, approximately two out of three children aged 5 to 17 work. This represents

over 3 million children. Few of them go to school and 40 per cent of children aged 5 to 14

perform hazardous tasks. The situation of migrant girls is of particular concern. Working

children are disadvantaged vis-à-vis their non-working counterparts in terms of their ability to

attend school in many of the countries where child labour is common.

High levels of child labour therefore translate into large numbers of out-of-school children in

many national contexts. The effects of work on school attendance can also take a more indirect

form. Work can lead to late school entry, which, in turn, is often associated with early school

dropout and lack of completion of a course of study. Research in Cambodia illustrates this,

indicating that work tends to delay school entry (or prevent it altogether), reducing the

probability of completing primary school (L. Guarcello; S. Lyon; F.C. Rosati;, 2008 ).

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In Bangladesh over 16 million children aged 10 to 14, over 6.8 million are children working.

Forty-one percent of this group is girls. Children are engaged in over 300 different types of work

activities of which 49 are considered harmful to their physical and/or mental wellbeing.

Intolerable forms of child labor, as categorized by the International Labor Organization (ILO),

Bangladesh is one of the poorest countries in the world with about 45 million “very poor”

people, (as measured by the Cost of Basic Needs method) Urban working children estimated at

2.5 million are found mostly in the informal working sector where they are often subjected to

exploitative working conditions, as well as physical, social or emotional abuse. For many,

insufficient pay with long hours of work, inadequate or no rest periods and little or no security of

employment are the norm. Many children perform unpaid labor for their families, especially in

the rural areas where families depend on the child's meager income to sustain the family. Many

are abandoned by their families, others run away to the city because of abusive conditions, and

some are even traded or sold (Nooran, 2006).

2.1.1 Categories of Child Labour:

Child labour is a term that needs to be unpacked: it cannot be used in a sweeping manner but

covers a range and variety of circumstances in which children work.

 Child Labour: Those children who are doing paid or unpaid work in factories, workshops,

establishments, mines and in the service sector such as domestic labour.

 Street Children: Children living on and off the streets, such as shoeshine boys, rag

pickers, newspaper-vendors, beggars, selling water sachets etc. The problem of street

children is somewhat different from that of child labour in factories and workshops. For

one thing, most children have some sort of home to go back to in the evenings or nights,

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 while street children are completely alone and are at the mercy of their employers. They

are at the mercy of urban predators as also the police.

 Bonded Children: Children who have either been pledged by their parents for paltry sums

of money or those working to pay off the inherited debts of their fathers. Bonded child

labour is an acute problem in some states. Bonded children are in many ways the most

difficult to assist because they are inaccessible. If the carpet owner has bought them, they

cannot escape. If the middle-class housewife has paid for them, they cannot run away.

 Working Children: Children who are working as part of family labour in agriculture and

in home-based work. If children are working 12-14 hours a day along with their parents

at the cost of their education, their situation is similar to that of children working for

other employers. In fact, children, particularly girls, are expected to take on work burdens

by parents in complete disproportion to their strengths and abilities. This is the largest

category of children who are out-of-school and are working full time. And it is here that

we find the largest percentage of girls working at the cost of education.

 Children used for sexual exploitation: Many thousands of young girls and boys serve the

sexual appetites of men from all social and economic backgrounds. Direct links between

the commercial sexual exploitation of children and other forms of exploitative child

labour are numerous. Factories, workshops, street corners, railway stations, bus stops and

homes where children work are common sites of sexual exploitation. Children are

especially powerless to resist abuse by employers, either as perpetrators or

intermediaries. Village loan sharks often act as procurers for city brothels, lending money

to the family which must be paid back through the daughter’s work. Almost all such

children are betrayed by those they trust and end up with their trust abused. The physical

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 (health, danger of HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted diseases) and psycho-social damage

inflicted by commercial sexual exploitation makes it one of the most hazardous forms of

child labour (Prognosys, 2012).

2.2 Child labour in Nigeria

Child labour is prevalent in urban centers in Nigeria. This is because a large number of people

move from the rural areas to urban area. Over the years there has been a rapid growth in

Nigeria’s population because of massive rural-urban migration. For instance, Uyo is the capital

of Akwa-Ibom State and also Akure the capital of Ondo state, the city has experienced rapid

urbanization and many poor rural families struggle for a better life in urban areas. This pushes

families to force their children to work in order to supplement family incomes by (Okafor,2010;

Nseabasi & Abiodun 2010) in (Osment, 2014).

The International Labor Organization estimates that about 25 percent of Nigeria’s 80 million

children under the age of fourteen are involved in child labour. Children works in different

sectors such as farms, domestic help, in fishing, mining, armed conflict, street hawking, and

child trafficking. The number of child labour involved in street hawking is a very common form

of child labour in Nigerian cities, these children working from morning to evening and as a result

of this, they do not have the time to enroll in schools or most of them drop out of school. They

work long hours under dangerous and hazardous conditions with little or no pay benefits. (ILO,

International labour organization, 2012).

Education in Nigeria is compulsory for a child that till nine years old. Nigerian government

makes primary education free and compulsory for all children. However, many children do not

attend school, about six million children in Nigeria, both boys and girl, are estimated to be

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working. The dropout rates for primary school are high for both boys and girls because of several

factors such as poverty and early marriage teenage pregnancy poor school, or cultural and

religious issues by (Awosusi & Adebo,2012; Elijah & Okoruwa,2006) in (Osment, 2014).

2.3 Urbanization

Urbanization means an increasing proportion of national and global populations living in urban

settlements rather than rural areas. The causes of urbanization are population movement, natural

growth (an excess of births over deaths) and policy change –governments ‘and reclassification of

some places from rural areas to urban settlements. Population movement includes migration for

economic and other reasons, trafficking, and displacement through conflict and disaster. The

pace of natural population growth depends on fertility rates, but in many countries it accounts for

60 per cent or more of urban population growth. Many governments under-report the size of the

urban population, especially the numbers in slums and informal settlements, where many poor

urban dwellers and some migrants live. Population movement includes migration for economic

and other reasons, trafficking, and displacement through conflict and disaster. The pace of

natural population growth depends on fertility rates, but in many countries it accounts for 60 per

cent or more of urban population growth (West, 2012).

Urbanization is primarily the result of migration, and it is reasonable to treat it as such. However,

urbanization is not just the result of rural–urban migration, particularly if rural–urban migration

is taken to mean long-term rural dwellers moving permanently to urban centres. First,

urbanization is the net result of complex migratory movements between rural and urban areas,

including circular migration back and forth. Indeed, net rural–urban migration can be as much

the result of people delaying or not going back to rural areas as it is deciding to move to urban

areas in the first place. Second, urbanization involves both the net movement of people towards

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and into urban areas and also the progressive extensions of urban boundaries and the creation of

new urban centres. Urbanization can in principle also result from higher natural population

growth in urban areas or from particularly high international out-migration from rural areas,

although neither are considered very significant (Cecilia Tacoli; Gordon McGranahan; David

Satterthwait, 2014).

To urbanize means to remove the rural character of a district or a population urban means of or

living or situated in. a city or a town; Whilst urbanity generally means of the city, but can also

rnean relined or polished in style of manner thus the of becoming urban and hence of ceasing to

be rural. There also a close correlation between urbanization and civilization, for both processes

share a root word meaning town or city this for seen as a fundamental cultural process in

essences is the process of founding and enhancing the growth of cities. urbanization and

civilization are also very definite economic and technological processes. and this suggests that

"development" I.e. economic (and thus technological) developrnent. Implies urbanization or

changing, by and large. from a rural to an urban way of life (Chadwick, 1987).

Urbanization is defined as “the demographic process whereby an increasing share of the national

population lives within urban settlements.” Settlements are also defined as urban only if most of

their residents derive the majority of their livelihoods from non-farm occupations. Throughout

history, urbanization has been a key force in human and economic development (Mohamed

Arouri; Adel Ben Youssef,Cuong Nguyen-Viet and Agnès Soucat , 2014).

World facts about Urbanization

• The rural population of the world has grown slowly since 1950 and is expected to reach

its peak in a few years. The global rural population is now close to 3.4 billion and is

expected to decline to 3.2 billion by 2050. Africa and Asia are home to nearly 90 per cent

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 of the world’s rural population. India has the largest rural population (857 million),

followed by China (635 million).

• Close to half of the world’s urban dwellers reside in relatively small settlements of less

than 500,000 inhabitants, while only around one in eight live in the 28 mega-cities with

more than 10 million inhabitants.

• Some cities have experienced population decline in recent years. Most of these are

located in the low-fertility countries of Asia and Europe where the overall population is

stagnant or declining. Economic contraction and natural disasters have contributed to

population losses in some cities as well.

• As the world continues to urbanize, sustainable development challenges will be

increasingly concentrated in cities, particularly in the lower-middle-income countries

where the pace of urbanization is fastest. Integrated policies to improve the lives of both

urban and rural dwellers are needed. (United Nations, Department of Economic and

Social Affairs, Population Divison, 2014)

Figure 2.1: Urban and Rural population of the world 1950- 2050

Source: (United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Divison,

2014).

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2.4 Urbanization in Nigeria

The economy development of Nigeria (Lagos) and several tourist attractions of the city make it a

desired place of residence for people who want to experience the life of a city in Nigeria. In the

past two decades, there has been major significant economic and infrastructural development in

Lagos megacity coupled with the favorable population structure (the majority being in the

working age category). This has made the city more attractive to foreign and local investors,

tourists and business travelers and entrepreneurs. Lagos is increasingly experiencing rapid

urbanization and urban growth. A lot of urban development and renewal plans are presently in

place to achieve further development in the city (Heinrich Boll Stiftung Nigeria, 2016) in

(Adeojo, Urbanization Processes and Child Breadwinner in Lagos, 2017).

2.4.1 Effects of urbanization in Nigeria

Urbanization processes in a Lagos megacity is chaotic and unfriendly, this has left many

household heads of the megacity in a state of despair, tumult, psychological and mental distress

thereby forcing them to seek all means to adapt to the disturbing changes of the cities, most

especially those who cannot easily cope (the urban poor). Some are the compounding problems

of urbanization in Lagos megacity are housing problems, transportation challenges, traffic

congestion, high rate of criminal activities, unemployment/underemployment, flooding, urban

planning and renewal, pollutions (noise, water, and air) and man-made disasters. Lagos is highly

populated; no wonder the numerous slums and the emerging slums in the city. Despite being the

seventh largest economy in Africa, the economic challenges for most of the families are

enormous. Cases of loss of jobs for the family head are abounding coupled with

underemployment. The husband father’s earning is not usually enough to meet the demands of

the city and has made the women active participants in economic activities. The Darwinian view

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that a process of natural selection “survival of the fittest” occurred in the social world is

applicable to the pressures that urban dwellers face in Lagos mega city. Employment being the

most viable instrument to alleviate poverty and to cope with the pressures of urbanization in

Lagos is a huge challenge for the dwellers. The requirements for major and highly paid

employments in Lagos favors largely the younger youths. The fathers and mothers who are not

socially unconnected struggle with the economic hurdles of the city coupled the high cost of

living (Olaitan, 2007) in (Adeojo, Urbanization Processes and Child Breadwinner in Lagos,

2017).

Urban populations access finance and promote easily their ideas and have to some extent a local

market (an urban market with higher consumer density) to do business due to urbanization.

However, this positive effect of urbanization on economic growth is not always observed. Both

economic theory and empirical studies suggest that there is an inverted U-shape relationship

between urbanization and economic development in the first stage of development, urbanization

improves economic growth; in the second stage, there is a negative correlation between

urbanization and economic growth. Rapid urbanization can negatively impact the economy via

its effect on straining infrastructures. Thus it seems that the effect of urbanization

on economic activity is complex and depends on several factors such as level of development,

stage of urbanization, and nature of main economic activities (Mohamed Arouri; Adel Ben

Youssef,Cuong Nguyen-Viet and Agnès Soucat , 2014).

2.5 Urbanization and child labour

Over half of the world’s population including a billion children now live in urban areas. This

recent change from a predominantly rural to a majority urban population has implications for the

23
protection of children from all forms of violence. Yet to date child protection has been largely

missing from development priorities and from the migration and urbanization agenda (West,

2012).

Many children are susceptible to various forms of abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence, in

their homes and schools, in care and justice systems, in places of work and in their communities.

All forms of violence are often aggravated in armed conflict and natural disasters. A lack of a

protective and caring family environment affects children’s physical and mental health. It can

also prevent children from accessing health, education, nutrition and other basic services. A safe

and protective upbringing is necessary for children to survive and develop to their full potential.

It also makes a positive contribution to society at large. These safety nets are often weakening as

a consequence of urban growth (West, 2012) ( Michael Spence, Patricia Clarke Annez, and

Robert M. Buckley, 2009).

Urbanization is seen as having potential benefits, including economic growth, lower fertility

rates, creativity, high quality of life, and environmental sustainability, depending on governance.

But it is also viewed as an emerging humanitarian disaster, because an increasing proportion of

the global population are living in urban slums, and are at risk of climate change problems

resulting from extreme weather and rising sea levels. It is estimated that by 2030, 60 per cent of

urban dwellers will be children. Inequalities will continue to be prevalent in this scenario. While

some urban children are well off, half of the world’s urban poor of all ages are children and

adolescents (West, 2012), (WOW, 2010) and (Mohamed et.al, 2014).

2.6 Determinants of child labour

24
Over the years, child labour has directly been linked to economic poverty. Poverty is more

blamed for this worldwide scourge. It is claimed that it is poverty that makes parents/guardians

send their children to the streets to hawk, it is poverty that makes parents send out their children

to prostitute, it is poverty that make the elders sell their children for child trafficking, it is

poverty that makes parents allow their children to be employed into formal and informal sectors

for daily or monthly pay, it is poverty that makes parents deny their children education and allow

them to wallow in dirt and unhygienic conditions in the name of working. In fact, every form of

child exploitation is linked to poverty. (Osita-Oleribe, 2007) However, poverty is not the only

reason since poor countries over the developed innovative and creative programmes and policy

formulation to tackle poverty, But these programmes have failed (and woefully too), especially

in Nigeria and other African states. The other factor encouraging child labour is urbanization

since this deals with population increase without proper measures set in place to control the rapid

rate of the development, which leads to high population density, inadequate infrastructure lacks

of affordable housing population and slum creation congestion and poverty which promotes child

labour.

2.7 Conceptual framework/Theoretical framework

2.7.1 Household Budget Constraints.

Even if parents would like to equalize educational expenditures across children, they may not do

so if they lack access to capital markets or if they do not realize the value of borrowing against

future income. In this event, the level of spending on first and last born will be higher than the

family average for two reasons. First, as noted by Cigno and Rosati (2000), families that are

25
liquidity constrained cannot spend the return on their investment in their children until they have

entered the labor force. Once the oldest children in the family begin working, the household

budget constraint is relaxed, permitting more investment in the human capital of younger

siblings.

Second, time spent in a smaller family is longer for first- and last-born than for middle children

Note, however, that when a family is liquidity constrained, the youngest children in the family

receive their bonus in the form of greater educational attainment since their family will be

smallest during their school-age years. By comparison, the oldest children will receive their

bonus in the form of greater maternal attention as infants. In addition, the last children to be

born in the family will enter when the parents are at the peak of their earning power, thus further

biasing human capital formation in the youngest children in the family (Birdsall, 1991), (Parish

and Willis, 1993) in ( Robert M. Stern ,et al, 2002). (Glory E. Edet & Nsikak-Abasi A. Etim,

2013).

2.7.2 Marxist Theory of Child Labour

Theoretical framework The paper is anchored on Marxian theory. The proponent of this theory is

Karl Marx. According to Marx (1963) in (), the change in the society results from the economic

base and super structural institutions and reflection of the changes in the economic base. The

concrete form of this base is the production of man's subsistence needs, the production process

itself is understandable as a human social activity in terms of social relationship that exists

between these various individuals and groups involved in the process.

Karl Marx posits that all through history when we consider those social relationships that make

the production process a social phenomenon, two major classes or group of people are

26
identifiable at all times. They are few individuals who own and control the means of production

and the majority of people who do not own the means of production but who do the actual

production by using their natural human labour power.

Marx opines that a class struggle always emerges between the ruling class and the working class

as a result of the unequal distribution of societal resources. Scholars have criticized Marxian

conflict theory because of his overemphasis on the economy as the major source of conflict in

the society. Marx failed to identify other non-economic variables like bad governance which may

create extremes of wealth and poverty in the same society. In spite of the shortcomings and

deficiencies of Marxian theory, it seems to be the most relevant and suitable theory for this

study. In relating the theory to child labour, it should be observed that unequal allocation of

resources and inequality encourage poverty among members of the society. High level of poverty

influences parents to engage their children into child labour which also is associated with some

social and physical problems. Marxian theory best explains the phenomenon at hand. (Dr.

Nneka, 2014)

2.7.3 A Dual-Dual Approach with Endogenous Migration(urbanization)

As the basic theoretical framework in this paper, I will use what can be called a “dual-dual”

model This corresponds to the characteristics of a developing economy with not only the

traditional and modern sectors but also a kind of dualism within each of these sectors in terms of

formal/informal dichotomy. More specifically, the process of development for economies

moving from the lower income status to a higher level of development may modify the

traditional sector further in the direction of a more market-based modern sector while the

formal/informal dichotomy is accentuated within both the sectors. This is the most important

move theoretically which is consistent with the stylized facts to be explained in this paper.

27
Consequently, this approach reveals that for countries like Nigeria which are at a lower level of

income the theoretical possibility of uneven development of the formal and informal sectors both

in the urban and the rural areas can indeed be empirically confirmed as well. Thus, in this

theoretical framework, the coexistence and distribution of modern and informal type of activities

in both rural and urban areas are to be taken as basic structural features of the economy in

question.

The dual-dual approach integrates poverty analysis with rural-urban movements in an economy

wide setting by endogenizing both migration and intra-group income distributions and the

nominal poverty line. Following this line of work leads to our ultimately being able to assess

policy repercussions on both poverties specific to particular socioeconomic groups and on

overall national poverty. The starting point is the dual economy models of Lewis (1954) in

(Khan, 2008) and Fei and Ranis (1964) in (Khan, 2008). These pioneering efforts, however,

could not or did not take into account the co-presence of dualism within each sector of the two

sector models of the dual economy. Khan (2006) explores both rural-urban and reverse migration

in a dual-dual model for South Asia. In the current formulation, a rural/urban dichotomy is

combined with traditional/modern technological dualism, leading to a fourfold classificatory

scheme. (Khan, 2008) A further extension of the early dual-economy models is that the rural

economic sector does not only include agricultural activities, but also non-agricultural activities

including various off-farm industries and services:

1. Rural traditional is closely associated with informal activities, traditional labor-intensive

technologies, family farms, food production for domestic consumption, and small-scale off-farm

enterprises;

28
2. Rural modern is associated with formal activities, capital-intensive technology, large-scale

farming, cash and export crops, and large-scale off farm enterprises;

3. Urban traditional is associated with informal activities, including petit services such as shoe-

shining and the provision of other ad-hoc services on a non-contractual basis;

4. Urban modern is associated with formal activities, with formal industrial enterprises, including

textile factories with export-orientation, and modern services, such as banking, insurance,

consultancy and telecommunications.

Poverty analysis in this dual-dual approach can be integrated with migration and various shocks

that are important features of the urbanization process in Africa. (Khan, 2008).

29
Figure 2.2 Conceptual framework

Source: Author 2018.

2.8 Summary of the Literature Review

The demands of life in the city make an average young and adult woman either directly

employed or self-employed in different businesses like trading and servicing to compliment the

family well-being. In most houses majorly in the suburbs and slums area in Akure, there are

shops where majorly women engage in different economic activities like food selling, trading

and others.

30
Urbanization processes in a Akure is chaotic and unfriendly, this has left many household heads

of the city in a state of despair, psychological and mental distress. Child labour in Nigeria is still

a major concern despite the passage of the child right act into law. The number of children in

Akure engaging in child labour activities such as street trading, apprenticeships, prostitution,

hostel attendants, car washing, hawking, domestic service and weaving are still on the increase.

(Bassey et al 2012) in (Adeojo, Urbanization Processes and Child Breadwinner in Lagos, 2017).

The basic of child labour as confirm by few literatures on child labour shows that the main cause

of child labour is poverty which is as a result of unemployment which one of the effects of

urbanization in Akure (Adeojo, Urbanization Processes and Child Breadwinner in Lagos, 2017).

The issue of child labour is evident from the reviewed literature, but the big problem with Akure,

is the lack of reliable data capturing the magnitude of the problem. Several factors influencing

child labour are: poverty; single parenting; ignorance of the parents; and strong socio-cultural

beliefs. A common socio-cultural belief common among rural dwellers is that child labour is part

of a training program, and therefore considers them as essential contributors to household

incomes.

(TIFOW, 2014).

A household decision to either send or not to send a child to work is usually a function of a

number of factors. As child labour has enormously adverse effects on human capital

development. The frequently used variables in previous literature review about child labour can

be classified into 3 groups: children, household, and community characteristics. ‘Children’

characteristics include gender, age, wage, relationship with the household, and birth order, Early

Marriage, Teenage Pregnancies, Peer influence. ‘Household or Family background’

31
characteristics are household income, parental education, occupation, household head, gender of

household head and the number of children and/or household size. Single parents, Insecurity,

Low satisfaction of basic needs, Low parental love Family break up Finally, ‘Urbanization

factors’ characteristics are the location, infrastructure, neighborhood, High population density,

inadequate infrastructure Lacks of affordable housing, Unemployment.

In conclusion, the successful answers of these factors eliminate/reduce the child labour while the

existence of those factors contributes the child labour phenomenon as in Figure 2.2.

32
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be

understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. Research methodology is

the specific procedures or techniques used to identify, select, process, and analyze information

about a topic. The methodology section allows the reader to critically evaluate a study's overall

validity and reliability. Research methodology is simply the processes, procedures, method and

instrumentalities, by which data are sourced, specified, defined, collected, processed and

analyzed (KOTHARI, 2004).

This Chapter describes the methodological framework used in achieving the stated aim and

objectives of the study. This Chapter showed how the research hypotheses postulated were

empirically determined and examined relevant methodological approaches adopted in the study.

A well-articulated research must be able to provide information on fundamental issues that can

aid the execution of a research. The study focus on measures to mitigate the effects of

urbanization and child labour on children in Akure in Ondo state.

3.2 Research design

The research design refers to overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different

components of the study in a coherent and logical way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively

address the research problem. it the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis of

data.

33
The function of a research is to ensure evidence obtained enables you to effectively address the

research problem as unambiguously as possible. In social research, obtaining evidence relevant

to the research problem generally entails specifying the type of evidence needed to test a theory,

to evaluate a program. to accurately describe a phenomenon. (Vaus, 2001)

A research design is the set of methods and procedures used in collecting and analyzing

measures of the variables specified in the research problem research. The design of a study

defines the study type (descriptive, correlation, semi-experimental, experimental, review, meta-

analytic) and sub-type (e.g., descriptive-longitudinal case study), research problem, hypotheses,

independent and dependent variables, experimental design, and, if applicable, data collection

methods and a statistical analysis plan.

Importance of research design

1. To provide the reader with a basic understanding of qualitative research

2. In order to equip the reader with sufficient information to appreciate how qualitative the

research is undertaken

3. To enable prospective researchers to consider the appropriateness of a qualitative approach to

their chosen field of investigation

4. To provide practitioners contemplating or undertaking qualitative research for the first time

with guidance on the collection, analysis and presentation of data. (Leedy, Paul D. and Jeanne

Ellis Ormrod, 2013).

34
Figure 3.1: Data Collection and Analysis process

Source: Author’s field survey 2018

3.3 Research Population

A research population is generally a large collection of individuals or objects that is the

main focus of a scientific query. A research population is also known as a well-defined collection

of individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics. All individuals or objects within a

certain population usually have a common, binding characteristic or trait. (Blakstad, 2018).
35
 The target population for this study is the total population of the study area. The 2006

census put population of Akure as 491,033. It has 245,198 males and 245,835 females. With

Akure south having a population of 360,268 with 178,672 males and 181,596 females. It was

further projected to 2018 with the aid of projection formula. The study area has recently been

classified as a commercial area being the most populated local government area in Ondo state

which has greatly influence the population growth of the area.

Using the formula

Pt = Po (1+r) n

Where Pt is the year projected to (2018)

Po= Population given at a given year (2006)

r = Rate of growth (3.8%)

n= Difference between year Pt and year of Po

Po= 360,268

P2018=?

r = 3.8% by conversion 3.8⁄100 =0.038

n = (2018-2006) = 12

P2018 =360,268 (0.038 +1)12

P2018=563,459 people.

The projected population of Akure south at 2018 is 563,459 people as a result of its commercial

growth also with migration as one factors of that increase the effects of urbanization.

36
3.4 Sample frame

Sampling frame is the source material or device from which a sample is drawn. It is a list of all

those within a population who can be sampled, and may include individuals, households or

institutions. Sampling frame is a list of sampling units from which selection of sample is made

(Carl-Erik Särndal; Bengt Swensson; Jan Wretman, 2003).

In many practical situations the frame is a matter of choice to the survey planner, and sometimes

a critical one. Some very worthwhile investigations are not undertaken at all because of the lack

of an apparent frame; others, because of faulty frames, have ended in a disaster or in cloud of

doubt (Jessen, 2011).

The sampling frame for this study is Oja oba in Akure south local government in Akure in Ondo

state as the district has the populated due to its commercial function. The raster imageries for the

study area was gotten from Google earth and was digitized by the researcher in order to easily

ascertain the total number of building in the study area. The data for the study was collected from

selected residents in Isolo, Araromi, Odo ikoyi, Ijomu, Igbataye, Oke idanre, Oweakala and Deji

palace communities in Akure. The sampling frame of the houses in the communities is 435 for

Araromi/ Odo ikoyi/ Isolo for Ijomu/ Igbataye / Oke idanre 420 and Oweakala and Deji’s palace

380.

3.5 Sample size

This refers to the number of items to be selected from the population to constitute a sample. The

number of students, families or electors from whom you obtain the required information is called

the sample size (Kumar, 2011). Sample size measures the number of individual samples

37
measured used in a survey. It is the part of population that helps to draw interferences about the

population.

Figure: 3.2 The concept of sampling

Source: The concept of sampling (Kumar, 2011)

The sample size used for the study is 10% of the total population in the study area. Hence, 10%

of

the total population (1,235) is 123. Therefore 123 questionnaires will be administered using

systematic random sampling of every 7 respondents in each community.

3.6 Sampling Techniques

The procedure for choosing the sampling unit from a population is known as sampling. It

is concerned with choosing a subset of individuals from a statistical population to estimate

characteristics of a whole population. The systematic random sampling techniques were adopted

as the appropriate method of sampling. A1/k systematic sample is a sample constructed by

selecting every kth element in the sampling frame”. It is assumed that the item to be selected or

sample are randomly distributed or listed in the sample size, and then 1/kth item is selected,

where K is constant. The value of K is usually determined by the researcher, and it is usually

38
dependent upon the size of the sample frame that is to be selected from the sample frame. For the

purpose of this study K is given as seven (7). the first respondent will be selected randomly while

every next seventh building will be selected to make up one hundred and twenty-three (123)

respondents to be selected.

3.7 Data collection instrument

This simply implies the instrument (tools) used in collecting data from the target

population. Data collection instruments such as questionnaires and oral interview will be

employed for the purpose of this research. The adoption of questionnaire as instrument and

techniques will be used for collection of data on the field for this research; also little interactive

discussion will be put into place to get in-depth information for the purpose of adequate and

factual information on this research. Questionnaire is a data collection tool consist of a series of

questions for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. The question posed to

respondents are structurally and uniformly phrased, open ended questions were avoided to guide

against ambiguity and to permit objective comparison of results, and also to enhance easier

analysis. The questionnaire is well-designed meet the research goal and objectives.

3.7.1 The primary source of data collection

Primary data is otherwise called raw information; they are information gathered from the

first source in a controlled or an uncontrolled situation. These data will be collected from field

survey through a well design questionnaire, personal interview, personal observation the use of

photographic equipment.

3.7.2 The secondary source of data collection

39
 They are also external data, these data are already collected, processed and analyzed by

the researcher within the study area. These includes publication, journals magazines internet

sources and maps.

3.8 Procedure for Data Collection

The Questionnaires will be administered directly to the respondents and will be collected

immediately by the researcher. Also, two field assistants will be employed so as assist in the

administration and sourcing of relevant data or information.

3.9 Methods of Data Analysis

The data obtained for this research will be analyzed with the use of Statistical Package

for Social Science (SPSS) software. A variety of analytical tools appropriate will be adopted to

analyze the data collected in this study in order to achieve the goal of this research. Descriptive

statistics such as mean, frequency and percentages will be used for the analysis. Also, the study

will adopt the use of photographs to show a vivid description of the situation on ground.

40
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

This chapter covered detailed analyses/presentation of data obtained from the field

survey. Data were presented using frequency counts, percentages and charts. Also, it presents

results of hypothesis testing to examine relationship between variables.

4.1 Data collection process

Data used for the study was collected in August,2018. The total number of questionnaires

administered were (123 copies). The questionnaire was administered to the residents in Akure

the capital city of Ondo state.

4.2. Socio-Economic Characteristics of Respondents

4.2.1 Sex

Information in Table 4.1 revealed that the preponderance of male (52.7 %) than female in

the area. This may be connected with the fact that 2006 census for Akure records more males

than female but it was just a slight different at that time.

Table 4.1: Sex of the Respondents

Frequency Percent (%)

Male 68 52.5

Female 55 47.5
41
 Total 123 100

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.2.2 Age

It was gathered that 18.7% of the respondents are under 18years and 49.6% are between
49.6
the
50age range of 18-30 and 31.7% are between the age range of 31-50 and above. This shows that
45
most
40 inhabitants in the study area belong to the have more working class.
31.7
35
30
18.7
25
20
15
10
5
0
under 18 years 18-30 years 31-50 years

Figure 4.1: Age of respondents

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.2.3 Marital Status

An estimate of the respondents marital status indicates that 53.7% are single and 43.1%

are married and 3.3% are widow/widower, (Figure 4.2). This is as a result that raising a family in

that environment one has to be fully ready for responsibility that comes with family such as

school fees poon children.

42
 3.3

43.1 53.7

single married widow/widower

Figure 4.2: Marital Status of Respondents.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.2.4 Occupation

As shown in the Table 4.2, 19.5% of the respondents were students, 30.1% were traders,

23.6% are self-employed, 18.7% are unemployed and 8.1% of the respondents earns their daily

needs from other sources. This result indicates that they are more traders in the study area, this

may be due to the facts that the core of the study area is a commercial center this attracts more

population from other parts of the states. Also from the researcher observation and oral

investigation most of the respondents were traders due to the fact that study area is actually a

commercial area which of close proximity to the oba market.

43
 50 44.7 Table 4.2:
40 37.4
30 Occupation of
20
8.1 9.8
10 Respondents
0
n n n n
t io tio tio tio
ca u ca c a
u c a
e du ed ed
u
ed
al ar
y
ar
y
io
n Student
r m d ut
fo im on ts it
o Pr c
N Se r in Trader
he
ig
H Self-employed

Unemployed

Others

Total

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.2.5 Educational Qualification

An estimate of respondent’s educational qualification indicates that 8.1% has no formal

education, 37.4% had primary education, 44.7% had secondary education and only 9.8% higher

institution education. The result of the findings in this area shows that the residents are literate as

majority had at least secondary education. This could be based on the fact that Yoruba cherished

education. The Yoruba’s. The tribe (Yoruba), is one of the biggest in the country, many of its

representatives are educated, get high job positions, become professors, and reach other

educational heights (Blier, 2015).

44
Figure 4.3: Educational Qualification of Respondents

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.2.6 Income level

From the respondent’s responses and as shown in Figure 4.4 19.5% earns below #10,000,

16.3% earns between #10,000-#20,000, 28.5% earns between #20,000-#50,000, 24.4% rans

between #50,000- #100,000 and 11.4% earns above #100,000. From the result, majority of the

respondents earns at least 20,000 monthly. This may be due to the fact that the most of them are

trader and some are self-employed. Also, judging from the cost of living in Akure, it is not too

expensive except when there is high price of petrol in which all services prices will increase,

standard of living then might difficult during this period.

45
 11%
19%

24%
16%

28%

Below #10,000 #10,000-#20,000 #20,000-#50,000 #50,000-# 100,000

above #100,000

Figure 4.4: Income level of the respondent

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.2.7 Household Size

From the research findings and as shown in the Figure 4.5 2.4% has a household size of

2, 26% has household size of 3, 16.3% has household size of 4, 36.6% has a household size of 5

and 18.7% has a household size above 5 excluding the parents. This result indicates that

majority of the residents have a family size of 5 which have great impact on child labour joined

with the level income above it clear that the size of the family will have impact on how the

income is spent and if not sufficient child labour will be encouraged.

46
 40

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
less than 2 3 4 5 more than 5
Figure 4.5: Number of children (household size)

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.2.8 Length of Stay in The community

From the field survey 43.1% of the respondents are indigenes, 33.3% has only spent less

than 5 years, 13.8 % spent between 6-10 years, 4.9% fall in the range of 11-15 years and only

4.9% has spent above 15 years the community. This fact confirms that the responds are very

familiar with the current child labour situation on in the area.

Table 4.3: Length of stay in the Area

Frequency Percent (%)

Indigene 53 43.1

Less than 5 years 41 33.3

6-10 years 17 13.8

11-15 years 6 4.9

Above 15 years 6 4.9

Total 123 100

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

47
4.3 Child Labour” causes, effect and solution”

4.3.1 Cause of Child Labour

From the research findings and as shown in the figure (4.6) revealed that 54.5 % of the

respondents believed that the cause of child labour is poverty while 25.2% agreed to cheap

labour as the cause of child labour in factory and 11.4 % of the respondents said it illiteracy and

2.4% said it the culture of laziness and 6.5% of the respondents went with others. From the

above the largest percent confirmed that the cause of child labour is poverty. (Adeleye, 2014)

2% 7%
11%
poverty

cheap labour
55%
25% illiteracy

culture of
laziness

others

Figure 4.6: Cause of Child Labour.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.3.2 Age range of children working in the study Area

Attempt were made to know the age range of children working, 11.4% were between the

age of 3-5 years, 52.8% were between the range of 6-8 years and 10.6% were between the age

range of 9-11 years and 12.2% were between 12-14 years of age and 13% were between 15-18

48
years of age. From the result in figure 4.7 the highest number of children fall under the range of

6-8years in the study area which are working.

52.8
60

50

40

30
11.4 12.2 13
20 10.6

10

0
3-5 years 6-8 years 9-11 years 12-14 years 15-18 years

Figure 4.7: Age range of children working in the study Area

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

Plate I: Picture showing child Selling sachet water in Ijomu

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

49
4.3.3 Poverty the main cause of child labour

From the survey as showed in the figure 4.8 below, 79.7% of the respondents agreed that

the main cause of child labour is poverty and 20.3% of the respondents said no that to poverty

been the main cause of poverty. In developing countries child labour major issue is poverty being

the key factor that forces children to work (khan et al, 2018).

no 20.3

yes 79.7

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Figure 4.8: Poverty the main cause of child labour

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.3.4 Effects of Child Labour on the Children

From the research findings and as shown in the table below (Table 4.4), 8.9% of the

respondents said physical health, 44.7% agreed with Social and psychological consequences,

13.8% agreed that lowering of self-esteem of children and 32.5 % pointed out that it will affect

their education (not attending schools). From the survey its noted that majority of the

respondents agreed that child labour affect the children more Socially and psychologically

(West, 2012).

50
 Frequency Percent (%)

Physical Health 11 8.9

Social And Psychological Consequences 55 44.7

Lowering of Self-Esteem of Children 17 13.8

Not Attending Schools 40 32.5

Physical Health 11 8.9

Total 123 100

Table 4.4: Effects of Child Labour on the Children

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018.

4.3.5 Type of job children do

Efforts made to know the type of job they are mostly involved in, from the survey as

showed in the figure 4.9 below, 50.4% of the children are in hawking of different types of

products, 19.5% of the children do load carrying in the market, 8.1% do bus conductor for

drivers, 12.2% fetch water for money and 9.8% do Mechanics and vulcanisers. This result

indicates that the most common job done by the children in child labour is hawking, some even

sell sachet water to drivers on the main road just to for a living put their lives in harm’s way.

51
 50.4

19.5
12.2 9.8
8.1

h aw k in g lo ad car r y in g b u s c o n d u ct o r w at er f et ch in g M e ch an ic s a n d
v u l can i s er s

Figure 4.9: Type of job that children are mostly involved

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

Plate II: Showing the picture of a 5-year-old boy carrying load for money in the study area.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

52
Plate III& IV: Pictures showing children hawking in Oja oba

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.3.6 Impacted targets

Information in table 4.5 revealed that 14.6% of the respondent agreed that child labour

affects the parent, 48.8% of the respondents agreed that the children are more affected, 20.3%

support that the economy is affected more and 16.3% of the respondents believed that urban

growth is more affected. This result shows that children are the most affected in child labour,

they are affected physically, socially and educational wise too more than any other components

of the society.

Table 4.5: Impacted targets

53
Impacted targets Frequency Percent (%)

Parents 18 14.6

Child 60 48.8

Economic 25 20.3

Urban Growth 20 16.3

Parents 18 14.6

Total 123 100

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.3.7 Types of Child labour in the Environment

Efforts made by the researcher to know the type of child labour in the study area, the

information is shown in figure 4.10 below, 9.8% for young bus conductor, 22.8% for child

begging and 67.5% for child hawking. This result shows child hawking is most common type of

child labour in the study area.

9.8
22.8
67.5 young Bus Conductors

Child Begging

child hawking

Figure 4.10: Types of Child labour in the Environment

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

54
Plate V: Showing the picture of an 8-year-old girl hawing in the study area.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4 Urbanization, Relationship and Effect to Child Labour and Solution

4.4.1 Causes of Urbanization

Information in figure 4.11 below revealed that 61% of the respondents agreed with

migration, and 9.8% of the respondents support natural growth, 26.8% of the respondents said

policy change “government’s reclassification” and 2.4%agreed with other causes of urbanization.

From the above results, migration is regarded as the main cause of urbanization since it deals with

movement of population into a particular region. Migration contributes more to the problems of

urbanization since it always leads to over population without proper measure to contain the

increasing population.

55
 70

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
Migration Natural growth Policy change others
“governments’
reclassification”

Figure 4.11: Causes of Urbanization

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4.2 Negative impact of Migration

Efforts made to know the main negative impact of migration in urbanization, is shown in

table 4.6 below, 18.7% of the respondents said low level quality of life, 35% or the respondents

said overpopulation, 22% support social problems, 8.1% said slump area creation, and 16.3%

said unemployment. From the result above, overpopulation is noted to be the main negative

effects of migration which leads to unemployment and later low level quality of life (poverty)

which influence child labour.

56
Table 4.6: Negative impact of Migration

Frequency Percent (%)

Low level quality of life 23 18.7

Overpopulation 43 35

Social problems 27 22

Slump area 10 8.1

Unemployment 20 16.3

Total 123 100

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4.3 Causes of Unemployment in the area

Findings on the cause of unemployment in the study area is represented in figure 4.12

shown below, 54.5% of the respondents said over population, 11.5% of the respondents said

increasing industrialization and 34.1% said its political and socio cultural disadvantages. From

the result above, the main cause of unemployment is overpopulation when people seeking for

employment are more than the available jobs.

57
political and socio cultural disadvantage

increasing industrialization
11.5 34.1
overpopulation

0
10
20
30 54.5
40
50
60

Figure 4.12: Causes of Unemployment

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4.4 low level quality of life is a negative impact of migration; what effect does give the

most;

From the survey as showed in the figure 4.13 below 22% of the respondents said low in

level of health, 30.9% of the respondents said shortage of facilities, 16.3% of the respondents

agreed with increasing in crimes waves, 15.4% said population problems and 15.4% pollution

problems. From the result it can be denoted that low level quality of life leads to shortage of

facilities.

58
 35
30.9
30

25
22
20
16.3 15.4 15.4
15

10

0
low in level of S hortage of Increas ing in P opulation P ollutions
health facilities crimes problems problems

Figure 4.13: Effect of low level quality of life on migration

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4.5 Government Policies Formation and Enforcement

Findings revealed that 20.3% of the respondents said the policies are uncoordinated,

39.8% said the policies are not well implemented, 32.5 of the respondents

Said the policies are largely unenforced and 7.3% said there is no direct child labour policy.

This result proves that there are policies but they not effective on reducing child labour in the

study area. Some of the policies set are already forgetting and some polices on only lasted for

some period of time before going into extinction. This survey shows that there is need for the

government to focus on the future of tomorrow and act fast.

59
 45
39.8
40

35 32.5
30

25
20.3
20

15

10 7.3
5

uncoordinated not well implemented

largely unenforced No direct child labour policy

Figure 4.14: Rate the Impact of Government on Policies Formation and Enforcement

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

4.4.6 Effect of urbanization on child labour

Research to ascertain the effects of urbanization on child labour is shown in the figure

4.15 below, 54.5% of the respondents agreed that urbanization lead to abuse and violence on the

child is such environment hawking, 27.6% said poverty and 17.9% support developmental

damage.

A respondent, for example cited of what boys pass through “It is easy to get beaten if you are a

street boy. Men can beat a boy and rape him. There is nothing you can do but run away if you are

lucky.” Also a seven-year-old boy at Isolo market said “I was put to work in a small factory. It

was a small room and there were six other boys like me, working for 14 hours a day and paid

little or no money at all”. “My initiation was four gang members beating me for 18 seconds.”

from a Girl in Araromi This are various issues that conform children in child labour.

60
 60

50

40

30

20

10

Abuse and violence Poverty developmental damage

Figure 4.15: Effect of urbanization on child labour

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

Plate VI: Showing the picture a child sleeping on a major at the study area.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

61
4.4.7 Laws against on street trading

Research to ascertain if government should set laws against street trading is shown in

figure 4.16 below, 100% of the respondents said government should set laws against on street

trading especially on highway road, while 0% of the respondents said no. From the result above

government should set enforceable laws to curb on street trading this will help control child

labour.

120

100
100

80

60

40

20

0
0
yes no

Figure 4.15: Effect of urbanization on child labour

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

62
Plate VII: Street trading in Akure.

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

Plate VIII: Street trading at Ijomu junction

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

63
4.3.8 Saving children from all forms of child labour

Estimate to know the best way to control all forms of child labour the study area, this is

shown in figure 4.16 below, 23.6% of the respondents agreed to child protection, 31.7% of the

respondents said family support, 23.6% of the respondents suggested urbanization programming

(economic revitalization) and 21.1% of the respondents said child at the center of urban

planning. From the survey the main reason child labour is encouraged in the study area is

poverty and child labour will only be reduced if the main factor that contribute to it handled

effectively.

21% 24%

24%

32%

child protection family support urbanization programming

child at the centre of urban planning

Figure 4.16: How to save children from all forms of child labour

Source: Author’s Field Work, 2018

64
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 Summary of findings

Child labour is a major problem in developing countries like Nigeria and it is influenced

more by factors of urbanization such as migration and unemployment, from the study carried out

on the assessment of child labour and urbanization in Akure the capital of Ondo state.

From the survey it was discovered that the main factor that contributes to child labour is poverty

which is one of the effects of urbanization caused by unemployment. Also the household size

contributes to child labour since the income available is not sufficient for the number of children

The only option left is to send these children into child labour so as to offset the financial

constraint.

On the age range of children working in the study area it was discovered that the highest number

of kids found in child labour are between the age of 6-8 years. This stage is one of the most

amazing stage any child hopes to enjoy once this stage is lost there no means to get those feeling

back, but at this level they are ready exposed to life which they are to be prepared for until they

are 18 years, but now they are looking for means to survival at a very young and tender age

facing a lot of challenges along the way putting their life and future in harm’s way.

On the effects It was discovered that Child labour is a cause and consequence of poverty and

family support programs as well as education and training is crucial to breaking this cycle. At the

same time, interventions of government on integrating child at the center of urban planning must

be integrated with other interventions to effectively remove children from hazardous work.

65
These includes measure that will address poverty and underdevelopment, inadequate health and

social policies, weak labour market institutions, inadequate legislation and an inadequate

enforcement of laws. Both supply side factors such as the role of poverty in compelling parents

to send their children to work, and demand side factors such as the way a society organizes its

production processes help determine the extent to which children engage in child labour. Social

exclusion mechanisms are another strong factor that keep children out of school leading them to

work. In many cases, children in the worst forms of child labour belong to the most

discriminated strata of society in terms of ethnicity and culture.

5.2 Recommendations

Education is often cited as the key to eliminating child labour. But by itself, education

isn’t enough. The main cause of child labour is urban poverty, to control child labour measures

to tackle urban poverty should be established, such as family support, integration of child at the

center of urban planning

5.2.1 Family support

One of the ILO’s responses to pioneer a livelihood scheme to help decrease, and

eventually eliminate, a family’s reliance on its children for income. This IPEC programme

encourages parents and other adults from the country’s poorest families to work together to

create savings groups (WOW, 2010). CEPROMIN runs a project on improving the living

conditions of children and mining families living in the mining camps of Potosí. The project

makes sure they are properly fed and looked after and, most importantly, that they receive a

quality education. In addition, the project addresses the needs of adults, improving the socio-

66
economic environment. This combined approach can make a big difference. (ILO, International

labour organization, 2012).

5.2.2 Child protection

Child protection responses in emergency situations need to: include work with families

to prevent and stop abuse and family separation; to address the potential for trafficking and

institutionalization; and to provide psychosocial support and reunify children with parents or

ensure that other forms of appropriate care are provided. Child protection responses also require

working with children on the potential for and effects of violence following emergencies,

particularly with girls on sexual violence, and with boys on compulsion to join violent groups

and gangs. Child protection needs to be a key part of disaster prevention, risk reduction and

emergency planning, and should involve boys and girls in their own protection (West, 2012).

5.2.3 The Centre for Child Rights and Corporate Social Responsibility (CCR CSR)

They have developed a training that enables migrant parents to communicate with their

children effectively when they are working far from home. A book for parents, Distant but Close,

covers various aspects of parent–child communication. It includes exercises that help parents

find an effective way to connect with their children while away and practical ways to re-bond

with their children on their return. International and Chinese companies are investing in the

training for their factory workers (West, 2012).

5.2.4 Instill a Value for Education

Improving access and quality of education will not be sufficient if parents do not see a

value in children attending school. The parents of children in the study area are often poorly

educated themselves. A startling 11.6 percent of adults, when asked why a child was not in

67
school, indicated that school was not considered valuable—three-quarters of these children

worked. While this minority is an extreme example, it is likely that this sentiment lingers in other

households and may sway a family’s choice between sending a child to school or to work. It is

therefore essential to change the impressions parents have of schools

5.2.5 Other Means

 Implementation of direct action programmes by NGOs, which has led to

withdrawal of children from exploitative labour, and provision of educational or

vocational alternatives.

 Enhanced skill in designing action programmes to combating child labour with

increased formulation of proposals.

 Increased awareness among traditional ILO partners and new social partners on

the issue of child labour. (IPEC, 2010)

5.3 Conclusion

In conclusion, child labour is a global epidemic that needs to be addressed through

cumulative efforts by all countries. It is heart breaking when children who are supposed to be

nurtured and trained in becoming leaders of tomorrow are being exploited and grown up too

quickly as adults through child labour. Many child labourers are intelligent with a bright future;

however, poverty have deprived them of the opportunity to be educated. Urban poverty affects

children’s lives in many ways, particularly within the family, cash is essential in an urban area,

where families do not have any produce from land or animals to exchange for goods however,

unemployment is a major concern materially and emotionally and it affects the division of roles

68
and the power relations in the family setting in which children may have to take up harmful work

(child labour) in order to help support the family in this scenario.

Abuse and violence in the home is not a characteristic of poverty, but poverty exacerbates

problems, especially in urban areas where traditional safety mechanisms are no longer available.

However, children in urban poverty experience levels of depression and distress that are higher

than the urban average.

The results of household and working children surveys, as well as of field observations, suggest

that streets in Akure are central to child labor. The livelihoods of about half of working children

are based on activities carried out on the streets. Because the streets expose children to a number

of health hazards and accidents, interventions designed to improve the conditions of children in

Akure would have a considerable impact if their priorities were on this group of children. The

study provides useful information on the nature and extent of child work in Akure and on

urbanization has increased the extent of child labour in Akure It also provides information that

would raise awareness on the welfare implications of child work in Akure as well as it

implication on urban planning.

5.4 Planning Implication of the Study

The major contribution of this work enhancing efficient planning

 Ensures adequate provisions are made for child in preparation of master plan

 Revels that planner need to focus on child integration in urban planning;

 Reveals the ways to curb some socio economic problems associated with

planning;

 Reveals the key roles of urban planner in the urban sector

69
5.5 Contribution to Knowledge

The study is a contribution to research on the assessment of child labour and

urbanization, Thus, the study in its little way has helped to expand the knowledge base of urban

and regional planning in the area of child labour and urbanization. This study has also revealed

the relationship between urbanization factors such as migration- over population- unemployment

– poverty – child labour.

5.6 Areas for further Research

Based on the gaps that are observed in literature and in the course of this research, the following

areas are earmarked for further research;

 Assessment of child abuse and urbanization

 The role of government in urbanization

 Relationship between child labour and child abuse

70
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ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS: Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome

HIV: Human Immune Virus

ILO: International Labour Organization

IPEC: International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour

WOW: World of Work

SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Science

CCR: Centre for Child Rights

CSR: Corporate Social Responsibility

76
 APPENDIX

FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, AKURE, ONDO STATE

SCHOOL OF ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF URBAN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
QUESTIONNAIRE ON THE TOPIC:
ASSESSMENT OF CHILD LABOUR AND URBANIZATION IN AKURE
The questionnaire below is in respect of B. Tech research topic. Kindly supply the necessary
information as it applies to your household or community by filling or ticking ( ) where
appropriate. Note that the information supplied is strictly for academic purpose and shall be
treated confidentially
Thanks for your cooperation
Date_________________
SECTION A: GENENAL INFORMATION (social- economic characteristics)
1. Sex of respondent A. Male ( ) B. Female ( )
2. What is your age range A. under 18 years ( ) B. 18-30 years ( ) C. 31-50years ( ) D. over 51
years?
3. Marital Status A. Single ( ) B. Married ( ) C. Widow/Widower ( ) D. Divorced ( ) E.
separated
4. Occupation of the respondent A. Student ( ) B. Trader ( ) C. Self-Employed ( ) D.
Unemployed ( ) E. Civil Servant ( )
5. Educational Level A. No formal education ( ) B. Primary education ( ) C. Secondary
education ( ) D. Higher institution education
6. Income level of the respondent A. Below #10,000 ( ) B. #10,000-#20,000 ( ) C. #20,000-
#50,000 ( ) D. #50,000-# 100,000 ( ) E. above #100,000 ( )

77
7. Length of stay in the area A. Indigene ( ) B. less than 5 years ( ) C. 6-10 years ( ) D. 11-
15years ( ) E. Above 15 years
8. Ward representation __________________________
9. Number of children? A. less than 2 ( ) B. 3 ( ) C. 4( ) D. 5 ( ) E. more than 5
10. Religion A. Christianity ( ) B. Muslim ( ) C. Traditional ( ) D. Others, please specify
_______________
SECTION B: CHILD LABOUR: This section contains questions that seek to gather
information from respondents the reasons that lead to child labour and there impacts on the
children in the study area (Akure).
11. Why do children work? A. poverty ( ) B. cheap labour ( ) C. illiteracy ( ) D. culture of
laziness ( ) E. others specify _________________
12. Age of range of children working in the study area a. 3-5 years ( ) B. 6-8 years ( ) C. 9- 11
years ( ) D. 12-14 years ( ) E. 15-18 years ( )
13. Is the main cause of child labour poverty A. yes ( ) B. no ( )
14. Effect of child labour on the children a Physical health ( ) B .Social and psychological
consequences ( ) C. lowering of self-esteem of children ( ) D. not attending schools ( ) E.
others specify ___________________
15. Type of job are they mostly involved A. hawking ( ) B. load carrying ( ) C. bus conductor (
) D. water fetching ( ) E. Mechanics and vulcanisers ( )
16. Who does child labour really affect A. parents ( ) B. Child ( )C. Economic( ) D. urban
growth( )
17. Types of child labour in the environment A. young Bus Conductors ( ) B. Child Begging ( )
C. child hawking
SECTION C: URBANIZATION AND CHILD LABOUR
18. Causes of urbanization? A. migration B. natural growth C. policy change “governments’
reclassification”
19. What is the main negative impact of migration A. Low level quality of life ( ) B.
Overpopulation ( ) C. Social problems ( ) D. Slump area( ) E. Unemployment ( )
20. Major causes of unemployment in the area A. overpopulation ( ) B. increasing
industrialization ( ) C. political and socio cultural disadvantage ( )

78
21. Let say low level quality of life is the main negative impact of migration, what effect dost
this give the most? A. Low in level of health ( ) B. Shortage of facilities ( ) C. Increasing in
crimes ( ) D. Population problems ( ) E. Pollutions problems ( )
22. Rate the impact of government on policies formation and enforcement A. uncoordinated ( )
B. not well implemented ( ) C. largely un enforced ( ) D. No direct child labour policy ( )
23. Effect of urbanization on child labour A. Abuse and violence B. Poverty C. developmental
damage d. others specify_____________
24. Government should set laws street trading? A. yes B. no
25. How to save children from all forms of child labour A. child protection B. family support c.
urbanization programming D. child at the centre of urban planning

79